Post on 09-Dec-2020
THEELASTICITYOFVERBMEANINGREVISITEDBethLevin
StanfordUniversity
SALT27,2017
ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKon
• HowtoaccountfortherichandvariedsetofsyntacKcenvironmentsthatagivenverbcanbefoundin?
ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKon
Anexampleofwhatisatstake:
• Terrywiped.(acKvity)• Terrywipedthetable.(acKvity)• Terrywipedthetable.(telicevent)• Terrywipedcrumbsoffthetable.(removing)
• Terrywipedcrumbsintothesink.(puZng)
• Terrywipedtheslateclean.(changeofstate)• Terrywipedthecrumbsintoapile.(creaKon)
ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKon
Anotherexampleofwhatisatstake:
• Thefactoryhornssirenedthroughouttheraid.• Thefactoryhornssirenedmidday…
• ThepolicecarsirenedthePorschetoastop.• Thepolicecarsireneduptotheaccidentsite.• Thepolicecarsirenedthedaylightoutofme.
(Borer2003,p.40,(13);fromClark&Clark1979:803,(32)-(36))
BasicassumpKonsaboutverbmeaning
• Averb’srootmustbedisKnguishedfromtheeventstructuresitcanbefoundin;these,inturn,determineitsargumentrealizaKonopKons• Inmuchrecentwork,eventstructuresaresyntacKcallyinstanKatedas‘construc/ons’,soargumentrealizaKonfallstogetherwithconstrucKonaldistribuKon
(ThisbiparKtenesscanbegivenlexical/projecKonistorconstrucKonaltreatments;setthisasidehere)
ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKon
• Whatistheroleoftheverb’sroot—theverb’sidiosyncraKcconceptualcontent—intheanswertothebigquesKon?
• Thesiren/wipedatamightsuggestthattherootdoesn’thavetoolargeaparttoplay
• However,therearerestricKonsonaroot’sdistribuKonwhichmightsuggestotherwise
ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKonSomeakributesuchrestricKonstoworldknowledge—presumably,partoftheidiosyncraKcconceptualcontentoftheroot:
#MaryguilloKned.(#onthereading:‘MarybecameguilloKned’.)
‘WeclaimthatitispartofourworldknowledgethatonecannotbecomeguilloKnedwithouttheintervenKonofanagenKvecauser’
(Mateu&Acedo-Matellán2012:215)
ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKon
OtherssuggestrootshavegrammaKcallyprivilegedcontent.,e.g.,agrammaKcallyrelevantontologicaltype(RH&L1998)
• Why?Verbswithsimilarmeaningsshowa‘distribuKonalsignature’:acharacterisKcsetofargumentrealizaKonopKons
• Evidence:Fillmore(1971)onhitvs.break
ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKon
• Aresomefacetsoftheconceptualcontentofarootprivileged?
• Thatis,aretheregeneralizaKonsaboutthedistribuKonofrootsacrossconstrucKonsthatreferenceproperKescharacterisKcofcertainclassesofrootsratherthancontentidiosyncraKctoaparKcularroot?
Roadmap
• Revisittheempiricalpakerns
• Expandtheempiricallandscape
• Showasymmetriesinroot/construcKondistribuKonthatsuggestacomposiKonalprocessatwork
• Sketchtherelevantingredients
Theempiricallandscape:Fromhitandbreaktomannerandresult
DistribuKonalsignatures:hit/break• Theboybroke/hitthewindowwithaball.
• CausaKvealternaKon:• Theboybrokethewindow./Thewindowbroke.• Theboyhitthewindow./*Thewindowhit.
• ConaKveconstrucKon:• *Theboybrokeatthewindow.• Theboyhitatthewindow.
DistribuKonalsignatures
• ThesepakernsarefoundacrosssemanKcallycoherentsetsofverbs:
Hitverbs:slap,strike,bump,stroke,…
!surfacecontactverbs
Breakverbs:bend,fold,shaker,crack,…!changeofstateverbs
(Fillmore1971)
DistribuKonalsignatures
• Juxtaposinghitandbreakiscompelling
• Certaineventscanbedescribedbyeither,thougheachdescribesadifferentfacetoftheevents:
Scenario:Avandalthrowsarockatastorewindowanditbreaks.• Thevandalhitthewindowwitharock.
• Thevandalbrokethewindowwitharock.
BeyondhiZngandbreaking:Manner/result
Manner Result
Damaging hit break
PuZng—2-dim smear cover
PuZng—3-dim pour fill
Removal shovel empty
Combining shake combine
Killing stab kill
Hitandbreakrepresentlargerclassesofroots:
BeyondhiZngandbreaking:Manner/result
Hitandbreakrepresentlargerclassesofroots(orverbs):
• Resultroots:specifyastate,osenresulKngfromanacKon
• Mannerroots:specifymanneror‘acKonpakern’associatedwithanacKon
BeyondhiZngandbreaking:Manner/result
Resultverbs:• #Ibrokethevasewithahammer,butthevasestayedintact.
• IbrokethevasebyhiZngitwithahammer/droppingitonthefloor/throwingitatthewall.
Mannerverbs:• Ihitthevasewithahammer,butnothinghappenedtoit.
• #Ihitthevasebydroppingitonthefloor/throwingitatthewall.
BeyondhiZngandbreaking:Manner/result
• MannerandresultverbshavetheirowndistribuKonalsignatures
• Resultverbs:Requirethattheargumenttheresultispredicatedofisexpressed—andnecessarilyasanobject
• Mannerverbs:NosuchrestricKons
Theempiricallandscape:Challengesinvolvingmannerandresult
Mannerandresultroots:Challenges
• ‘Manner’rootin‘result’configuraKon:• Kimrantothestore.
• Muchofthewipeparadigm
• ‘Result’rootin‘manner’configuraKon:• breakthebagopen• breakthebranchoff• breakhiswayouttosafety(M&AM2012)
• breakthewalnutsintothebowl(RH&L1998)
‘Manner’rootsin‘result’configuraKons
• FoundwhenaresultXPcanbecomposiKonallyaddedoutsideofthe‘verb’• cf.TemplateAugmentaKon(RH&L1998)
• Usedtoexplainthewipeparadigm
• UsedtoexplainvariablebehaviorwithrespecttounaccusaKvity
‘Result’rootsin‘manner’configuraKons
• ThisphenomenondeservesfurtherscruKny
• Citedexamples:• arepresupposedtobe‘manner’configuraKons
• havespecialcharacterisKcs
• arenottrulyparalleltocomparableexampleswithmannerroots(focushere)
‘Result’rootsin‘manner’configuraKons
Kellywipedthecrumbsoffthetable.• Means‘Kellyremovedthecrumbsfromthetablebywipingthetable’…leadstoexpectaKonthat:*Kellybrokethedishesoffthetable.• Shouldexpress‘Kellyremovedthedishesfromthetablebybreakingthetable’• Contrarytofact
‘Result’rootsin‘manner’configuraKons
Kellyshovedthedishesoffthetable.Means‘Kellyshovedthedishesandasaresulttheywentoffthetable’…leadstoexpectaKonthat:*Kellybrokethedishesoffthetable.• Shouldexpress‘Kellybrokethedishesandasaresulttheywentoffthetable’• Contrarytofact
‘Result’rootsin‘manner’configuraKons
ResultrootsareoccasionallyfoundinthewayconstrucKon—a‘manner’configuraKonwithanonselectedobject:breakhiswayouttosafety(M&AM2012)
‘Result’rootsin‘manner’configuraKons
…butresultrootsunlikemannerrootsarenotfoundinnonselectedobjectresultaKvesingeneral:
• ThechildrubbedtheKrednessoutofhiseyes.• *Thechildbrokethebeautyoutofthevase.
• Cinderellascrubbedherknucklesraw.• *Theclumsychildbrokeherknucklesraw.
FurtherdistribuKonalasymmetries
• ManyobjectalternaKonsarefoundwithmanner,butnotresultroots(Levin2006)
• LocaKvealternaKon:• Samsprayedthewallwithpaint.
• Samsprayedpaintonthewall.
• Shannonput/*filledgroceriesintothebag.• Shannonfilled/*putthebagwithgroceries.
• With/againstalternaKon;possessorraising
Interimconclusion
• ResultrootsshowmorelimiteddistribuKonoverallthanmannerroots
• ThesedistribuKonalasymmetriessuggestthatthenoKons‘manner’and‘result’makertoargumentrealizaKon
• Ifrootshaveanontologicaltype,predictthatthistypecouldberelevanttotheirdistribuKon
Nextsteps
• Havefocusedon‘coarse-grained’distribuKonalasymmetriesKedto‘manner’and‘result’
• Next:showdistribuKonaldifferencesariseamongverbswithmannerroots:Theseare‘medium-grained’distribuKonalasymmetries
• Casestudy:surfacecontactverbs,hitvs.wipe
Theempiricallandscape:Surfacecontactverbs:HiZngvs.wiping
Surfacecontactverbs:IntroducKon
HitandwipeshowsharedproperKescharacterisKcofmannerverbsthatsetthembothapartfrombreak
…buttheyalsoshowproperKesthatdifferenKatethem,akributabletospecificsoftheirmannerroots
Surfacecontactverbs:SimilariKes
• SimilarsemanKcsubclasses
Hi9ngverbs Wipingverbs
Bodypart Kick,punch,slap Lick
Instrument Club,lash,stab Sponge,towel
Soundoncontact Clink,thud,whack ??
Othermanner Beat,hit,swat Rub,sweep,wipe
Surfacecontactverbs:SimilariKes
• UnspecifiedobjectconstrucKon:Kimhitandhit./Thebirdpecked.Cinderellaswept/wiped/scrubbed.
• NonselectedobjectresultaKves:Kimdrummedherfingersraw.Cinderellascrubbedherfingersraw.
• ConaKveconstrucKon: Kimhitatthemosquito.Cinderellascrubbedatthestainedfloor.
Surfacecontactverbs:SimilariKes
• With/againstalternaKon:KimhitthefencewithasKck.
KimhitthesKckagainstthefence.
Samwipedthetablewithadampcloth
Samwipedadampclothoverthetable.
Surfacecontactverbs:SimilariKes
• HiZngverbsneednotrealizeaspecificargumentasdirectobject
• Objectcanbe:• thesurface:hitthetable
• theinstrument:hitthesKckagainstthefence
• anon-argument:drumone’sfingersraw
Surfacecontactverbs:SimilariKes
• Wipingverbsneednotrealizeaspecificargumentasdirectobject
• Objectcanbe:• thesurface:wipethetable
• theinstrument:wipetheclothoverthetable
• thematerialonthesurface:wipethecrumbsoff
• anon-argument:scrubone’sfingersraw
Surfacecontactverbs:Differences
• Wipingverbs:Surfaceargumentmay,butneednotbeunderstoodasincrementaltheme• Samwipedthetableinoneminuteflat.
• Samwipedthetableforanhour.
• Thatis,theseverbsarepotenKalor‘latent’incrementalthemeverbs(Tenny1992:20).
• HiZngverbs:Surfaceargumentisneveranincrementaltheme• Kimpoundedthemetalfor/*in5minutes.
Surfacecontactverbs:Differences
Wipingverbs:surfaceis‘normal'directobject
…buttheymaytakeanargumentdenoKngmaterialfoundonsurface(L&RH1991)• Kerryisscrubbingthebathtub.
• Kerryisscrubbingthestains(offthebathtub).
HiZngverbs:cannottakeamaterialargument
Surfacecontactverbs:Differences
• Expressionofthematerial:• typicallyasanobject• occasionallyinanofphrasewithsurfaceasobject
Wefinishedthecreamycustard,scrapingthecupofitsthick,bi@ersweetchocolatesauce…(D.Pergamaent,BestTrakoriainRome?,TravelSect.,NYT,3/22/09,p.11)
Surfacecontactverbs:Differences
• GivesrisetolocaKvealternaKonforwipingverbs:
Wescrapedthesaucefromthecup.
Wescrapedthecup(ofsauce).
• Materialosenco-occurswithsurface• suggestsitmaybelicensedviaalocaKverelaKonwiththesurface(RH&L1998)
Surfacecontactverbs:Differences
• PossessorraisingisfoundwithhiZngverbs,butdisallowedwithwipingverbs
• Kellyhitmyarm.
• Kellyhitmeonthearm.
• Kellywipedmyarm.
• *Kellywipedmeonthearm.
Surfacecontactverbs:ImplicaKons
• Evenamongmannerverbs,therearesubclasseswhosemembersshowsystemaKcdifferencesindistribuKon
• SuggestsprivilegedfacetsoftherelevantrootsarebehindthedisKnctdistribuKonalsignatures
AccounKngforthedistribuKonalasymmetriesThebasicingredients
Ingredients:Eventstructures/construcKons
• State(includinglocaKonalstates)• AcKvity• Eventsofscalarchange• NoncausaKve(‘become’)
• CausaKve
(CouldbesyntacKcized)
Ingredients:Roots
• GrammaKcallyrelevantontologicaltypesofroots:• Result(orstate)roots• Specifysomekeypropertyofascalarchange
• Thisincludesspecifyingelementsdefiningapath
• Mannerroots• InstanKatean‘acKonpakern’(Jackendoff1990)
• RootsareinsertedintoeventstructureposiKonscompaKblewiththeirtype(cf.RH&L’s1998CanonicalRealizaKonRules)
Ingredients:Roots
Requirementsonmannervs.resultroots:
• AresultrootmustbeinaconstrucKonwhere:• theargumentitispredicatedofisexpressed
• anditisexpressedasanobject
• Amannerrootdoesnothavesucharequirement
Scalarchanges
• Typesofscalarchange(HK&L1999):• Propertyscale:scalarvaluedpropertyofanenKty• Pathscale:pathanenKtymovesalong• maybeinstanKatedinvarioussemanKcfields(Jackendoff1983):posiKonal,possessional,idenKficaKonal,…
• UnderliediversityofconstrucKonsthatcertainverbrootsarefoundin
Scalarchanges
• Licensingascalarchange:• ViathelexicalizaKonofaresultrootintheverb• Terrybrokethevase.• SamexitedthestaKon.
• ViaresultXP(TemplateAugmentaKon;RH&L1998)(ResultXPscanintroduceacompletescaleorfilloutascaleparKallylexicalizedintheroot)
• Kimhittheballintothegarden.
• Samwipedthetableclean.
• Terrybrokethevasetosmithereens.
Scalarchanges
• TherecanbeonlyonescalarchangeinaconstrucKon(cf.Goldberg1995,Tenny1987)
• Anargumentwithascalarchangepredicatedofitmustbeexpressedandonlyasanobject
AccounKngforthedistribuKonalasymmetriesChangeofstateverbs
Changeofstateverbs
• Duetotheirresult(state)root,theyarepairedwitheventsofscalarchange
• Requireanobjectwhichthechangeispredicatedof
• Consequence:cannottakeunspecifiedobjectsornonselectedobjects,nortakeanythingbuttheirthemeasobject.AlsocannotbefoundinobjectalternaKons.
AccounKngforthedistribuKonalasymmetriesSurfacecontactverbs
Surfacecontactverbs:AcharacterizaKon
• Hi9ngroots—andevents—involveimpactata‘point’onthesurface,usuallycarriedoutwiththeintentofcausingdamage(althoughdamageisnotlexicalizedbytheverb).
• Wipingroots—andevents—involveacontactoveranextendedpartofthesurface,usuallycarriedoutwiththeintentofremovingstufffromit(althoughremovalisnotlexicalizedbytheverb).
Surfacecontactverbs:BasicproperKes
• Theconceptualcontentoftheirrootbringsinanargument,thesurface(Levin1999)• Sincethesurfaceofasurfacecontactverbdoesnothavearesultnecessarilypredicatedofit,therearenoconstraintsonitsrealizaKon.
• Consequence:unspecifiedobjects,conaKveconstrucKon,nonselectedandotherobjects
Surfacecontactverbs:BasicproperKes
• Generalconceptualcontent:applicaKonofforcetoasurface
• Thus,unlikemanymannerverbs,thiscontent‘licenses’asecondeventparKcipantinaddiKontotheparKcipantthat‘instanKates’themanner(andisexpressedassubject)• Cf.Levin’s(1999)‘constantparKcipants’
Surfacecontactverbs:Natureofroot
Morespecificconceptualcontentdeterminesthenatureofthe‘second’parKcipant/surface:
• Hi9ngroots:surfaceunderstoodasapoint(i.e.aninherentwhole)
• Wipingroots:surfaceunderstoodasaregionorextendedarea• AkributepotenKalincrementalthemehoodtothis:givesextentnecessaryfor‘measuringout’
Determiningakestedtypesofscalarchange
• Mannerrootsdonotlexicalizeascalarchange,allowingtheminconstrucKonswherearesultXPintroducesascalarchange• Manymannersareperformedtoachieveagoal;resultXPmakesgoalexplicit• AparKcularmannerrootmaybefoundwithseveraltypesofresultXPsbecausethesamemannercouldbeusedtoachieveseveralresults
Determiningakestedtypesofscalarchange
• SomemannersareconvenKonallyassociatedwithparKcularresults:• WipedescribsanacKoninvolvingsurfacecontactandmoKonwhichisosenusedtoremovestufffromasurface
• hitdescribesanacKoninvolvingforcefulcontactwithasurfacewhichisosenusedtodamageorharmthesurface
• Givesrisetotheobservedparadigms
AccounKngfortheparadigms:wipe
• Samwiped.(acKvity)• Noexternalscalarchange;noneedforanobject
• Samwipedthetable.(acKvity)• Noexternalscalarchange;objectlicensedbyroot
• Samwipedthetable.(telicevent)• Objectunderstoodasincrementalthemesincerootintroducesa‘region’surface
AccounKngfortheparadigms:wipe
• Samwipedcrumbsoffthetable.(removing)• IntroducKonoffrompathscalewithsurfaceassource;bringsmaterialargumentwithit
• Samwipedthecrumbsintothesink.(puZng)• IntroducKonoftopathscalewithsurface(=source)lesimplicit;bringsmaterialargumentwithit
• Samwipedthecrumbsintoapile.(creaKon)• IntroducKonofabstractpathscaledetailingtransformaKonofmaterialviamanner
AccounKngfortheparadigms:wipe
• Samwipedtheslateclean.(changeofstate)• IntroducKonofpropertyscale,predicatedofsurface;detailschangeinsurface
• Samscrubbedherhandsraw.(changeofstate)• IntroducKonofpropertyscale,predicatedofnonselectedargument;surfaceisimplicit
AccounKngfortheparadigms:hit
• Thebirdpecked.(acKvity)• Noexternalscalarchange;noneedforanobject
• Kimhitthefence.(acKvity)• Noexternalscalarchange;objectlicensedbyroot
• *Kimhitthefence.(telicevent)• Objectcan’tbeunderstoodasincrementalthemesincerootintroducesa‘point’surface
AccounKngfortheasymmetries:hit
• Kimhittheballintotheplayground.(puZng)• IntroducKonoftopathscale,predicatedofsurface,detailingitstrajectory
• Kimpoundedthemetalintoatray.(creaKon)• IntroducKonofabstractpathscaledetailingtransformaKonofmaterialviamanner
AccounKngfortheasymmetries:hit
• Kimpoundedthemetalflat.(changeofstate)• IntroducKonofpropertyscale,predicatedofsurface;detailschangeinsurface
• Kimdrummedhisfingersraw.(changeofstate)• IntroducKonofpropertyscale,predicatedofnonselectedargument;surfaceisimplicit
Conclusions/ImplicaKons
• ResultrootssystemaKcallyshowamorelimiteddistribuKonthanmannerroots
• MannerrootsalsoshowsystemaKcdistribuKonaldifferences
• Allthesedifferencescanbetracedbacktotheconceptualcontentoftheroots
Conclusion/ImplicaKons
‘Thus,whilethelexiconisnotoriouslythedomainoftheidiosyncraKc,itisbecomingincreasinglyapparentthatitisalsothedomainofprinciplesofgreatgenerality.ThatisparKcularlyevidentintherelaKonshipofsyntaxtolexicalsemanKcs…’
(Haleetal.n.d.(circa1983):8)
Thankyou!