Some APES Review

Earth

Age of Earth

Approximately 4.6 billion years

Plate Tectonics

3 types of plate boundaries: divergent—two plates spread apart.convergent—two plates move together.transform faults—two plates slide along one another.

Mineral deposits are most abundant at convergent plate boundaries.Volcanoes and earthquakes occur at plate boundaries.The U.S. is on the North American plate

Most Abundant elements in Earth’s crust

1) Oxygen2) Silicon3) Aluminum4) Iron5) Calcium6) Sodium7) Potassium

Coal FormationPete Love Betty Always

PeatLigniteBituminousAnthracite

Population and Demographics

Current World Population

About 7 billion peopleGrowth rate= 1.2%

Current US Population = 309 million

Click for current world and US Population

Demographics

80% of the world’s population is in the developing world, 20% in the developed.

Rule of 7070 % growth rate = Doubling time (years)

You will need to use this on the exam!

Thomas Malthus

Theorized that human population cannot continue to increase without leading to war, famine & disease

Most Populous Nations

1) China2) India3) U.S.4) Indonesia5) Brazil6) Russia7) Pakistan

Most Populous Regions of the World

1) Asia2) Europe3) Africa4) Latin America5) North America6) Oceania

Replacement level fertility

The number of children a couple must have to replace themselves.

Demographic Transition Model

Fig. 7-11, p. 137

Stage 1Preindustrial

Stage 2Transitional

Stage 3Industrial

Stage 4Postindustrial

Low Increasing Very high Decreasing Low Zero Negative

Birth rate

Total population

Death rate

Growth rate over time

Low

High

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Demographic Transition Model

Preindustrial stage Transitional stage Industrial stage Postindustrial stage

World’s Largest Oil Reserves (2013 self-reporting estimates)

1 Saudi Arabia 265,405 (OPEC)2 Venezuela 211,169 (OPEC)3 Canada 173,6254 Iran 151,167 (OPEC)5 Iraq 115,350 (OPEC)6 Kuwait 103,998 (OPEC)7 United Arab Emirates 97,800 (OPEC)8 Russia 60,0039 Libya 47,102 (OPEC)10 Kazakhstan 30,00211 Nigeria 37,200 (OPEC)12 Qatar 25,382 (OPEC)13 United States 20,682

Biggest lifestyle risk factors

1) Poverty2) Smoking3) Overweight4) Driving5) Air Pollution6) Alcohol7) Drug Abuse

Miller, 2006

Deadliest infectious diseases

1) Pneumonia and flu2) HIV3) Malaria4) Diarrheal diseases5) TB6) Hep B7) Measels

Places

Love Canal, NY

1976-77chemicals buried in old canal, school and homes built over it led to birth defects and cancers.

Minamata, Japan

1950sMental impairments, birth defects, and deaths caused by mercury dumped in Minamata Bay by factory. Mercury entered humans in diet (fish).

Bhopal, India

December 2,1984Methyl isocyanate released accidentally by Union Carbide pesticide plant kills over 5,000.

Three-Mile Island, Pennsylvania

March 29, 1979Nuclear power plant loses cooling water 50% of core melts, radioactive materials escape into atmosphere, near meltdown.

Chernobyl, Ukraine

April 26, 1986Unauthorized safety test leads to fire and explosion at nuclear power plant—millions exposed to unsafe levels of radiation.

Valdez, Alaska

March 24, 1989The oil tanker Exxon Valdez hits submerged rocks in Prince William Sound—worst oil spill in US waters.

Fukushima, Japan

March 11, 2011A series of equipment failures, nuclear meltdowns and releases of radioactive materials at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, following the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

Yucca Mountain, NevadaControversial, proposed site for the permanent storage of high-level nuclear waste, 70-miles northwest of Las Vegas, near volcano and earthquake faults.

UPDATE (April 12, 2011) Despite House GOP push, Harry Reid declares ‘Yucca is dead’- Click for link to article

Ogallala Aquifer

World’s largest aquifer.Holds enough water to cover the U.S. with 1.5 feet of water.Under parts of Wyoming, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas (the Midwest).Being depleted for agricultural and urban use.

BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

2010, 87 DaysLargest accidental spill ever4.9 million barrels

Laws

Endangered Species Act

Identifies threatened and endangered species in the U.S., and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations.1973

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and

Liability Act (1980)Requires the cleanup of sites contaminated

with toxic waste. This law is commonly refered to as "Superfund."

In 1986 major amendments were made in order to clarify the level of cleanup required and degrees of liability. CERCLA is retroactive, which means it can be used to hold liable those responsible for disposal of hazardous wastes before the law was enacted in 1980.

Lacey Act of 1900

Prohibits interstate transport of wild animals dead or alive without federal permit.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

Also known a: “CITES”Lists species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products.1973

Healthy Forests Initiative (2003)

Reduces fuel for forest fires.Controversial because it allows for tree harvesting.

Clean Water Act

Set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways. Aim: to make surface waters swimmable and fishable.1972

Safe Drinking Water ActSet maximum contaminant levels for pollutants that may have adverse effects on human health.1974

Clean Air Act

Set emission standards for cars, and limits for release of air pollutants.1970

Surface Mining Control & Reclamation Act

Requires coal strip mines and others to reclaim the land following mining operations.1977

Kyoto Protocol

Controversial attempt to control global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries. Not ratified by the U.S.1997

Montreal Protocol

International treaty to phase out the use of ozone depleting substances (esp CFCs-first ID’ed as a problem by Roland and Molina).1987

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976)RCRA Seeks to prevent the creation of toxic waste dumps by setting standards for the management of hazardous waste from cradle to grave

Physical Laws/Rules•Math-esp. conversions•Chemistry: i.e. a)Organic Compounds contain at least 2 or more C atoms combined with each other & atoms of 1 or more other elements + CH4.

b)Laws of Thermodynamics: 1-Energy changes form, 2-Efficiency not 100%

Ecology

Biomagnification

Increased levels of toxins in higher trophic levels.

Bioaccumulation

Accumulation of toxins in fatty tissues of an organism.

Reproductive Strategies

K-strategistsOrganisms reproduce late in lifeBear few offspringCare for and protect offspringLarge bodiedExamples: humans, elephants

r-strategists Organisms reproduce early in lifeBear many offspringDo not care for and protect offspringSmall bodiedExamples insects, mice

Primary Productivity

•Largest in Tropical rain forest, Swamp/marsh, Estuary

Cellular Respiration

Oxygen consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds & convert C back into CO2

C6H12O6 + O2 = CO2 + H2O

Photosynthesis

Plants convert CO2 (atmospheric C) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6)

CO2 + H2O = C6H12O6 + O2

Gaseous Nitrogen (N2)in AtmosphereNitrogen

Fixationby industry

for agricultureFood Webs

on Land

Fertilizersuptake byautotrophs

excretion, death,decomposition

uptake byautotrophs

Nitrogenous Wastes,Remains in Soil

NO3–

in Soil

NO2–

in Soilloss by

leaching

1. Nitrificationbacteria convert NH4

+

to nitrite (NO2–)

2. Nitrificationbacteria convert NO2

–

to nitrate (NO3–)

Ammonificationbacteria, fungi convert the

residues to NH3; thisdissolves to form NH4

+

NH3, NH4+

in Soil

loss byleaching

Nitrogen Fixationbacteria convert N2 toammonia (NH3); this

dissolves to formammonium (NH4

+)

Denitrificationby bacteria

Fig. 3-27, p. 58

The Nitrogen Cycle

Carrying capacity

The number of individuals that can be sustained in an area.r-strategists reach it more quickly than K-strategists

Resource partitioning

Leads to formation of nichesCan lead to speciation

Keystone species

Species whose role in an ecosystem is more important than others.

Indicator species

Species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged

Environment

Ocean Zones

Esturine, Benthic, CoastalEuphotic Bathyal/TwilightAbyssal

Critters:Plankton-live @ surfaceNekton-swimmers, pelagic

Lake Types

Ogliotrophic-low nutrientsEutrophic-high nutrients

Climate ControlsLAPTOP:LatitudeAltitudeProximity to waterTopographyOcean currentsPrevailing winds (ie rain shadow on leeward mtn sides)

Atmosphere

The Sky Makes ThunderTroposphere (smog, bad ozone, weather)

Stratosphere (good ozone, planes)MesosphereThermosphereExosphere

El Niño

East trade winds off S. America weaken, east current slows.

No upwelling at S. America = no ocean nutrients.

Rain when west wind hits Andes and rises, dry in Pacific nations.

Global Air Convection Cells

6 around globeRain where air rises, coolsDrier where air falls, warms

Biomes

Precipitation determines:Dry = DesertMedium = GrasslandWet = Forest

Temperature determines type.

Human Activities

Humanity-centric Vocabulary

Anthropogenic = human-caused

• Non-anthropogenic = NOT human caused• Other vocab:• Phyto- plant• Photo- light• Chemo- chemical• Anthro- human

Beginning of Human Agriculture

• Approximately 10,000 years ago

Eutrophication

• “Bloom” caused by excess nutrients (esp. N,P) in a water system.

• Hypoxia (lack of oxygen, DO)

Economic Depletion

• When about 80% of a resource is gone.

Ecological Footprint

• Our present global footprint is about 20% greater than global resource capacity (Miller, 2006)

Tragedy of the Commons

• “If I do not use this resource, someone else will.”

• Degradation of free-access resources.

LD50

• “Lethal Dose 50”• The amount of a substance that

kills 50% of the subjects in a test population

Oxygen Sag Curve

Clean ZoneDecomposition

Zone

Septic ZoneRecovery

Zone

Clean Zone

Normal clean water organisms(trout, perch, bass,

mayfly, stonefly)

Trash fish(carp, gar,leeches)

Fish absent, fungi,sludge worms,bacteria

(anaerobic)

Trash fish(carp, gar,leeches)

Normal clean water organisms(trout, perch, bass,

mayfly, stonefly)

8 ppmDissolved oxygen (ppm)

Biological oxygendemand

8 ppmTypes of

organisms

Fig. 11-24, p. 256

Major Air Pollutants, NAAQS*

• CO• NO2• SO2• Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)• Ozone• Lead

*Nat. Ambient Air Qual. Stds. (EPA)

Reducing Air Pollution

Scrubbers: Sulfur Oxides: (SOx)

Electrostatic Precipitators: Particulates

Major Greenhouse Gases from human activities

• CO2• CH4• N2O• CFCs (also an Ozone-depleting gas)

Municipal solid waste

• The trash you and I throw away.• In the U.S., it is mostly paper and

mostly put into landfills.

MRF

• Materials Recycling Facility• Where wastes are sorted and

recovered with machines and people for recycling

Wastewater Treatment

• Mechanical (Primary)• Biological (Secondary)- Solids will

be flocculated-aggregation of solids

• Chemical (Tertiary)

Storage of Radioactive Wastes

• As a rule, radioactive wastes should be stored for 10 half-lives before they are considered safe

• Plutonium-239 half life = 24,000 yearsstorage time = 240,000 years

Power & Energy

• A Watt is a measurement of power

• 1,000 watts = 1 kilowatt• 1,000 kilowatts = 1 Megawatt (MW)• 1,000 Megawatts = 1 Gigawatt (GW)

• The amount of electrical energy used is is given in units of kilowatt-hours (kWh)

Alternate sources of Energy

• Solar– Passive– Active

• Wind• Fuel cells• Geothermal• Ocean waves/tides• Biomass

Summary and Sustainability

Statistics• 98% of waste is from industry, most from mining and

gas explor.• 75% of world’s commercial fish stocks are overfished• 40% (approx) of world’s topsoil eroding faster than it

can form• 25% of global CO2 produced by US (w/ under 5% of wrld

pop)• <1% of the water on earth is available for drinking

I=PAT•Impact is a factor of population size, affluence (or consumption), and the type of technology being used (which can increase or decrease the impact)

Mass Extinctions

• There have been 5—most recent 65 mya

• Are we entering the 6th?

Extinction

– 1.4+ million species known, 3-100 million exist– background extinction 1-5/yr– present rate .1% = 300 to 10,000 lost/year = at least

about 1 a day

CHIPPO/HIPPCO• Climate change•Habitat loss• Invasive species• Population growth• Pollution•Overuse of resources

Causes of biodiversity loss

BioSPoRNThe keys to sustainability:BiodiversitySolar PowerPopulationRecycling Nutrients

Biomimicry!