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215 Journal of Petroleum Geology, Vol. 32(3), July 2009, pp 215-234
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE UPPER PERMIAN
ZECHSTEIN MAIN DOLOMITE CARBONATES
IN WESTERN POLAND: A NEW APPROACH
M. Slowakiewicz1* and Z. Mikolajewski2
The Upper Permian Main Dolomite in the Zechstein 2 cyclothem in the Gorzów Block (part of the Zechstein Basin in western Poland) contains both hydrocarbon source and reservoir rocks, and issealed both above and below by evaporites. In this paper we propose a new sequence stratigraphic model for the development of potential reservoir rocks in toe-of-slope locations. Data came fromdetailed analyses of 35 cores from wells in and at the margins of the Wielkopolska platform, apalaeogeographic element composed of Main Dolomite carbonates.
In basinal areas, the Main Dolomite carbonates begin with a transgressive interval overlain by laminated dolomudstones interpreted as transgressive facies. The TST begins in the upper part of the underlying A1g anhydrites. The dolostones are underlain by a ravinement surface on theplatform, and by a maximum regressive surface in toe-of-slope and basinal locations. In well Gorzów Wielkopolski-2, a hardground marks the maximum flooding surface. Overlying the TST deposits are thick intervals of intraclast-oolitic grainstones and floatstones which are interpreted as highstand deposits and indicate “highstand shedding”. Toe-of-slope facies are composed of alternating laminated dolomudstones, intraclast-oolitic grainstones, packstones and floatstoneswhich make up submarine fans (prisms) interpreted as falling stage facies which are capped by dolomudstones. A subaerial unconformity was recognized on the platform, and a slope onlapsurface on the slope and toe-of-slope, respectively.
In platform areas, the Main Dolomite begins with thin intervals containing microbial complexesdeposited during the early HST, which pass into thick oolitic grainstones (HST to late HST) and
terminate as microbial-to-oolitic wackestone and mudstone complexes interpreted as falling stagefacies. Thrombolitic bioherms constitute a reference horizon which can be correlated betweenwells in the study area. The beginning of the LST occurs in the upper part of the Main Dolomite.The boundary between lowstand and transgressive deposits was identified in the lower part of theBasal Anhydrite and is marked by sabkha and salina facies, respectively, where an erosional ravinement surface and maximum regressive surface were identified. Thus, the upper part of theunderlying Upper Anhydrite and the upper part of the Main Dolomite deposits form a second depositional sequence in the study area.
The depositional environment of the Main Dolomite platform carbonates was variable, and was influenced by the topography of the pre-existing evaporitic platform. The newly proposed sequence stratigraphic model emphasises the role of forced regressive submarine fans as potential
hydrocarbon accumulations and traps in the toe-of-slope area.
1 Polish Geological Institute, ul. Rakowiecka 4, 00-975
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216 Upper Permian Zechstein Main Dolomite carbonates in Western Poland
INTRODUCTION
The NE part of the Fore-Sudetic Monocline in Western
Poland is a major oil and gas province. The most
important reservoir rocks occur in the Upper PermianMain Dolomite and Zechstein Limestone. Significant
hydrocarbon accumulations are present in the Main
Dolomite on the Gorzów Block, located between the
Szczecin Trough to the north and the Fore-Sudetic
Monocline to the south (Narkiewicz and Dadlez,
2008) (Fig. 1). This area was of little interest from an
exploration point of view until a minor oil
accumulation was discovered in the 1970s in a toe-
of-slope location next to the Sulecin Platform
(Depowski and Peryt, 1985; Karnkowski, 1999;
Jaworowski and Mikolajewski, 2007). In 2002, themuch larger Lubiatów accumulation was discovered
at the western margin of the Grotów Peninsula, a
northerly extension of the regional-scale
Wielkopoloska Platform (Fig.1c). This discovery
confirmed the prospectivity of the Main Dolomite
reservoir and encouraged further exploration. Further
discoveries were made in the area in 2003 including
the Miedzychód gasfield (with a reservoir in barrier
facies), the Sowia Góra oilfield (toe-of-slope facies)
and the Grotów oilfield (inner platform facies). The
Lubiatów and Sowia Góra fields together comprise
the second-largest oilfield complex in Poland (after
Barnówko-Mostno-Buszewo: Górski et al., 1999) and
have recoverable reserves of 46.31 MM brl oil and
0.21 TCF gas (Dyjaczynski et al ., 2006; Górecki et
al ., 2008).
The Main Dolomite (abbreviated here as Ca2,
following Wagner, 1994) reservoir rocks comprise
alternating medium- and coarse-grained carbonates
with different thicknesses within a carbonate mud
succession in the Polish part of the Zechstein Basin,
whose stratigraphic scheme was established by
Wagner (1994, Fig.2). These rocks have beeninterpreted as redeposited material resulting from
progradation of the carbonate platform margin
(Jaworowski and Mikolajewski, 2007). An alternative
interpretation is that they are lowstand deposits
composed mostly of autochthonous material
(Zdanowski, 2003a,b, 2004a,b). Mikolajewski and
Slowakiewicz (2008) showed that, in the study area,
diagenetic modification of the dolomite and the
development of porosity occurred during both
eodiagenesis and mesodiagenesis (Fig.3). Secondary
porosity (locally up to 35%) formed due to the partialor complete dissolution of carbonate grains, most
probably due to aggressive CO -bearing fluids
Grotów Peninsula and Krobielewko microplatform
area. The model is based on sedimentological data
presented by Slowakiewicz and Mikolajewski (2008).
The sequence stratigraphy of the European Zechstein
Basin has been interpreted in various ways (e.g.Tucker, 1991; Strohmenger et al ., 1996a,b; Wagner
and Peryt, 1997; Leyrer et al ., 1999; Kaiser, 2001;
Kaiser et al ., 2003; Zdanowski, 2003a,b, 2004a,b;
Becker and Bechstädt, 2006; Warren, 2006;
Jaworowski and Mikolajewski, 2007; Slowakiewicz
and Mikolajewski, 2008). Sequence stratigraphy is
more difficult to apply in evaporite basins than in
open-marine settings because accommodation space
is controlled by rapid subsidence and by fluctuations
in brine levels which depend on evaporation rates and
rates of brine inflow-outflow (Peryt, 1992; Becker andBechstädt, 2006). Our studies emphasise the
application of sequence stratigraphy in mapping
potential hydrocarbon traps in toe-of-slope locations
in falling-stage deposits.
GEOLOGICAL SETTINGAND REGIONAL PALAEOGEOGRAPHY
The study area is located in the western part of the
Polish Zechstein Basin (Wagner, 1994), in the east of
the European Southern Permian Basin. In
palaeogeographic terms (Fig.1c), the area lies at the
embayed northern margin of the regional-scale
Wielkopolska Platform which is composed of Main
Dolomite carbonates. A northerly extension of the
platform is known as the Grotów Peninsula, to the
west of which is the Krobielewko microplatform
(Fig.1c).
The palaeogeographic setting of the Main
Dolomite is related to the palaeotopography of the
Lower Rotliegend volcanics and underlying folded
and eroded Carboniferous rocks (Kotarba and Wagner,
2006). In Rotliegend time, this formed a palaeohighknown as the Lubusko High (Dadlez, 2006) (Fig. 4)
which was composed of volcaniclastics and Upper
Rotliegend sedimentary rocks (Maliszewska et al .,
2003). Geissler et al . (2008) suggested that both the
pre-volcan ic re li ef and synvolcanic tecton is m
influenced the Southern Permian Basin at the cessation
of Lower Rotliegend volcanism (their Fig. 7). Late
Carboniferous - Early Permian volcanic rocks reach
thicknesses of around 400 m in well Santok-1 and
rest unconformably on eroded Carboniferous rocks
(Lorenc et al ., 1995). The entire area was submergedduring the Zechstein transgression and was flooded
by a shallow epicontinental sea
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217 M. Slowakiewicz and Z. Mikolajewski
p o f P o
l a n d w i t h t h e s t u d y a r e a .
a l s u b d
i v i s i o n o f N W P o l a n d a t t h e s u b - C
e n o z o i c p a l a e o s u r f a c e ( a f t e r N a r k i e w i c z a n d D a d l e z , 2 0 0 8 ) ;
o g r a p h i c m a p o f t h e M a i n D o l o m i t e o n t h e G o r z ó w P l a t f o r m a n d o n t h e n
o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e W i e l k o p o l s k a
P l a t f o r m ( a f t e r K o t a r b a & W a g n e r , 2 0 0 7 ,
o r e h o l e
s f r o m t h e s t u d y a r e a : 1 . G o r z ó w W
l k p - 2 ; 2 . K r o b i e l e w k o - 2 ; 3 . K r o b i e l e
w k o - 5 ; 4 . L e s z c z y n y - 1 ; 5 . L e s z c z y n y - 1 K ; 6 . M i e d z y c h ó d - 2 ; 7 . M o k r z e c - 1 ; 8 . L u b i a t ó w -
w - 1 ; 1 0 . L u b i a t ó w - 4 ; 1 1 . S o w i a G ó r a - 1 ; 1 2 . S o w i a G ó r a - 2 K ; 1 3 . S o w i a G ó r a - 4 ; 1 4
. M i e d z y c h ó d - 6 ; 1 5 . M i e d z y c h ó d - 4 ; 1 6 . M i e d z y c h ó d - 5 ; 1 7 . G r o t ó w - 1 ;
2 ; 1 9 . G r
o t ó w - 6 ; 2 0 . G r o t ó w - 5 ; 2 1 . S i e r a k ó w - 4 ; 2 2 . S i e r a k ó w - 1 ; 2 3 . C h r z y p s k o - 3 ; 2 4 . G n u s z y n - 1 ; 2 5 . K a c z l i n - 1 . B o r e h
o l e s o n t h e G o r z ó w P l a t f o r m : A .
M a r w i c e - 3 ;
1 ; C . S t a
n o w i c e - 2 ; D . S t a n o w i c e - 3 ; E . R a c l a w
- 1 K ; F . B a c z y n a - 1 ; G . B a c z y n a - 2 ; H
. C i e c i e r z y c e - 1 ; I . D z i e r z ó w - 1 K ; J . S a n t o k - 1 .
1
G E M A N
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B a s i n p l a i n
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d e e p p a r t
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a r g i n
b o r e h o l e
s
p l a t f o r m s
l o p e
o n c o l i t e - o o l i t e s h o a l s
h i g h - e n e r g y z o n e
s t u d y a r e a
G E M A N
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M I C R O P L A T F O R M
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M I C R O P L A T F O R M
C H A R T Ó W - G Ó R Z Y C A
M I C R O P L A T F O R M
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218 Upper Permian Zechstein Main Dolomite carbonates in Western Poland
300 m (Kotarba and Wagner, 2006). Small salt basins
formed locally. In neighbouring depressions, sulphates
and salts were deposited with thicknesses of < 200 m.The Main Dolomite rocks were deposited directly on
the PZ1 sulphate platform successions (Peryt and
Dyjaczynski, 1991; Kotarba and Wagner, 2006, 2007).
A depositional model for the Main Dolomite in the
eastern part of the Gorzów Block during sea-level
highstand is shown in Fig.5. The morphology of the
Main Dolomite carbonate platform and adjoining slope
was controlled by that of the precursor sulphate
platform. The model differs from that of Jaworowski
and Mikolajewski (2007) especially in terms of the
development and interpretation of toe-of-slope depositswhich form the reservoir at the Lubiatów oilfield.
Dolomite from 25 representative wells in the study
area and ten wells from the eastern part of the Gorzów
Platform (a total of approximately 2000 m of core)(Fig. 1c). All cores were cut perpendicular to bedding
planes using a water-cooled saw and were logged in
detail at a macro scale using polished slabs at the
Borehole Core Storage of the Polish Oil and Gas
Company in Pila, where digital photographs of cores
were taken. Samples (every 50 cm) from all the cores
for thin sections were then collected. Petrographic
observations were carried out under a Zeiss Axioskop
microscope coupled with a Nikon Coolpix 990 digital
camera at the Petrographic Laboratory of the Polish
Oil and Gas Company in Pila.As previously noted by Jaworowski and
Mikolajewski (2007) and confirmed in the present
GLOBAL TIME SCALE
251.0
255.0
258.0or
260.4
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
Baltic Fm.
Rewal Fm.PZ4ePZ4d
PZ4cPZ4b
PZ4a
TopTerrigenous
Series(PZt)
P O L I S H Z E C H S T E I N B A S I N
P
E
R
M
I A
N
L O P I N G I A
N
G U A D A -
L U P I A N
P 3
P 2
A
g e [ M a ]
S Y S
T E M
S E
R I E S
T R I A S S I C
E A R L Y
I N D U A N
S T
A G E
C A P I T -
A N I A N
W U C H I A P I N G I A N
C H A N G H S
I N G I A N
R O T L I E G E N D
U
p
p
e
r
Z
E
C
H
S
T
E
I N
B U N T -
S A N D S T E I N
Z e c h s t e i n 4
P Z 4
L o w e r
T p 1
Z e c h s t e i n 3
P Z 3
Z e c h s t e i n 2
P Z 2
Z
e c h s t e i n 1
P Z 1
Notec Subgroup
Upper Anhydrite A1g
Lower Anhydrite A1dOldest Halite Na1
Zechstein Limestone Ca1
Kupferschiefer T1
Grey Pelite T3
Platy Dolomite Ca3
Main Anhydrite A3
Younger Halite/Younger Potash Na3/K3
Main Dolomite Ca2Basal Anhydrite A2
Older Halite Na2Older Potash K2
Screening Older Halite Na2r Screening Anhydrite A2r
Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphy of the Polish Zechstein Basin modified after Wagner (1994, 2001). Global Time Scale
after Ogg et al. (2008). Age boundaries of the Zechstein after Slowakiewicz et al. (2009); dashed line (at 260.4
Ma), and solid line (lower Zechstein boundary at 258 Ma) after Wagner (2008).
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219 M. Slowakiewicz and Z. Mikolajewski
Basin. Sedimentary structures which appeared to
indicate a tidal influence such as fine-scale lamination probably record storm- or wave-induced changes in
water level especially in arid and semi-arid areas
than “‘intertidal”. Similarly, “sublittoral” and
“supralittoral” are used instead of “subtidal” and“supratidal”.
Sedimentological descriptions in this paper in
Fig. 3. a (above left). Photomicrograph showing porosity in the Main Dolomite after dissolution of ooids and
peloids; well Lubiatów-1, depth 3243.10 m; porosity: 30 %, permeability: 0.01 mD. (b) Oomouldic and
interparticle porosity, well Miedzychód-4, depth 3096.6 m; porosity: 25 %, permeability: 1.65 mD. Toe-of-slopeand barrier facies, respectively. Scale bars are 1 mm. Well locations in Figs 1 and 4.
Fig. 4. Palaeogeography of the Gorzów Block during latest Rotliegend sedimentation (after Kiersnowski, 2004,
updated from Kiersnowski, 2009; tectonics partly after Dadlez, 2006). VDF: extent of Variscan Deformation
Front. 1. Lower Rotliegend volcanic rocks directly under Zechstein deposits. 2. Proved or interpreted areas
built of Lower Rotliegend sedimentary rocks directly underlying Zechstein rocks. 3. Carboniferous
sedimentary rocks. 4. Supposed chain of palaeovolcanoes interpreted by Kiersnowski (2004). 5. Alluvial
deposits. 6. Aeolian deposits. 7. Playa deposits. 8. Supposed faults and dislocations originating in Early Permian
time. 9. Extent of the Main Dolomite carbonate platform after Kotarba and Wagner (2007).
Debno
V D F
N I E
F A U L T
W Y
W O
S Z T Y N
H I G
L
H
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D ÓDY H -M Ê Z C 2I
M ZY CIE R AD E Z-1Z
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CH-3
M-4MIEDZYCHÓD-3
M-6
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LUBIATÓW-1
SG-1
L-2
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LUBUSKOHIGH
BRUK ELAS
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POZNANBASIN
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1
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5
6
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0 10 20 km
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Z -1E NI LI Z-2
P A P R O C
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220 Upper Permian Zechstein Main Dolomite carbonates in Western Poland
t o e - o
f - s l o p
e
o
u t e r b
a r r i e
r
i n n
e r b a r r i e r
b a s i n f l o
o r
p l a t f o r m
s l o
p e
b a s i n
l a g o o nl a g o o n
direction of shallow-water bottom currents
Miêdzychód gasfield Grotów oilfield Lubiatów oilfield
Fig. 5. Depositional model of the Main Dolomite facies in the Grotów Peninsula area during relative sea-levelhighstand (after Jaworowski and Mikolajewski 2007, modified). Not to scale.
(2005), Embry et al . (2007), Catuneanu (2007) and
Catuneanu et al . (2009).
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
Stratigraphic units of the Polish Zechstein Basin were
discussed in detail by Wagner (1994, Fig. 2) who
correlated them with their counterparts in the German
Zechstein Basin. The fill of the Polish Zechstein Basin
has been divided into four Zechstein Sequences (PZ1-
4) comprising third-order sequences with associated
systems tracts (Wagner and Peryt, 1997). The Main
Dolomite (Ca2) comprises the HST of the second
Zechstein sequence; however, the Ca2 slope facies can
be treated as the beginning of the LST of the third
Zechstein sequence (Wagner and Peryt, 1997).
Alternatively, according to Zdanowski (2003a,b,
2004a,b), the upper parts of the Ca2 toe-of-slope
deposits in the Grotów Peninsula area are
autochthonous and are of shallow platform origin
related to a sea-level lowstand; they pass upward intoextremely shallow-water sabkha facies of the Basal
Anhydrite (A2). However, this interpretation was
challenged by Jaworowski and Mikolajewski (2007)
who proposed that there is no evidence for the
emergence of the Main Dolomite platform, which is
necessary for the formation of lowstand deposits.
Instead they suggested that the toe-of-slope deposits
represent highstand and forced regressive deposits of
the preceding sequence. Slowakiewicz and
Mikolajewski (2008) agreed with this general scheme
but improved the Ca2 depositional model in theGrotów Peninsula area. Thus they distinguished
transgressive deposits in the upper part of the Upper
TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT
Transgressive deposits are not well developed on the
Upper Anhydrite platform. However, in slope and toe-
of-slope locations, there occur 60-cm to several-metre
thick successions of deposits reworked during a
transgression, but originating from a lowstand wedge.
Such a succession is observed in the eastern slope of
the Krobielewko platform in well Leszczyny-1K (Fig.
7a). Transgressive deposits in the slope and toe-of-
slope are mostly composed of angular fragments (up
to 30 cm long) of nodular anhydrites forming a
matrix-to clast-supported breccia, deposited in a
sabkha setting during a lowstand of relative sea level
and subaerial exposure of the A1 sulphate platform
(Fig. 7a). Anhydrite breccias occur in the Ca2
dolomudstones and are derived from the Upper
Anhydrite anhydrites. Basinal facies, by contrast,
consist of thinly laminated anhydrites which pass into
dark laminated dolostones (Fig. 7b), indicating
continuous sedimentation in the basin and a well-developed maximum regressive surface ( sensu
Helland-Hansen and Martinsen, 1996) which passes
towards the shoreline into a subaerial unconformity.
The timing of the maximum regressive surface (MRS)
corresponds to the end of base-level fall at the
shoreline. According to Embry (2001b), the MRS
should replace the correlative conformity because it
has low diachroneity, it is widespread throughout the
conformable succession and it joins the basinward
termination of the unconformity. This is the sense in
which the term MRS is used here.The transition between lowstand and transgressive
platform facies of the Upper Anhydrite and Main
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221 M. Slowakiewicz and Z. Mikolajewski
PLATFORM SLOPE TOE-OF-SLOPE
A1g
Ca2
A1g LST
TSTMRS
SU/TRS
MRS
SU
TRS
PLATFORM SLOPE TOE-OF-SLOPE
A1g
S.L.
MFS
SU
TRS
MRS
MFS
MFSSU/TRS
MRS
PLATFORM SLOPE TOE-OF-SLOPE
S.L.
low-densityturbidites
SU
SU/TRS
SU
TRS
SOS
SOS
MFSMRSMRSMRS
MFS
MFS
?
Fig.6. Schematic models showing development of systems tracts for the Main Dolomite in the eastern part of
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222 Upper Permian Zechstein Main Dolomite carbonates in Western Poland
A
g
C
a
C
a
A
d e p o s
i t s o r i g i n a t e d f r o m s
e a - l e v e l l o w s
t a n d ( L S T )
r e w o r k e d d u r i n g t r a n s g r e s s i o n ( T S
T )
A 1 g
C
a 2 H S T
B
n s g r e s s i v e d e p o s i t s ( a b r a s i v e p l a t f o r m ) f r
o m w
e l l L e s z c z y n y - 1 K ,
d e p t h i n t e r
v a l 3 4 8 9 - 3 5 0 7 m ( l o
w e r p a r t o f t h
e e a s t e r n s l o p e o f t h e K r o b i e l e w k o
r m ) ; B .
E x a m p l e o f t r a n s i t i o n z o n e b e t w e e n l a m i n a t e d a n h y d r i t e s o f t h e U
p p e r A n h y d r i t e ( A 1 g ) a n d l a m i n a
t e d d o l o s t o n e s o f t h e M a i n D o l o m
i t e ( C a 2 )
M o k r z e c - 1 ,
d e p t h i n t e r v a l 3 3 1 2 - 3 3 1 5 m ( b
a y / b a s i n a l f a c i e s ) . A r r o w p o i n t s t o
t r a n s i t i o n s u r f a c e ( m a x i m u m r
e g
r e s s i v e s u r f a c e ) .
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223 M. Slowakiewicz and Z. Mikolajewski
rise to large-scale stratigraphic hiatuses (Helland-
Hansen and Martinsen, 1996; Catuneanu, 2007). In
the study area, the subaerial unconformity is replaced
by a transgressive ravinement surface (e.g. well
Leszczyny-1: Fig.8a) which is evidence for the MainDolomite transgression. As mentioned above, the
subaerial unconformity may or may not be replaced
by a transgressive ravinement surface (TRS) which
separates regressive strata below from transgressive
strata above (Embry 1993, 1995), and which is
characterized by a distinctive lithological change, in
this case from anhydrites to dolostones. The TRS in
the study area may be slightly diachronous because
the transgression reached areas of high sediment
supply (the carbonate platform interior) somewhat
later. However, according to Embry (1995), thisdiachroneity is likely to be minor in relation to the
duration of the cycle of base level rise and fall.
The transgressive deposits represent an
accretionary-type of transgression, which implies that
accommodation of sediment took place behind a
retreating shoreline and that the transgressing
shoreline climbed upward and landward (Helland-
Hansen, 1995; Helland-Hansen and Martinsen, 1996).
Relatively thick anhydrite breccias (up to tens of
metres in diameter; e.g. well Leszczyny-1K ) at the foot
of the platform suggest subaerial erosion of the A1
sulphate platform during the sea-level lowstand and
subsequent rapid transgression which began in the
upper part of the Upper Anhydrite interval but in this
case flooded the platform slope in Main Dolomite
time.
HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT
During the sea-level highstand, the Main Dolomite
platform prograded and aggraded due to high sediment
supply. Highstand facies are marked by erosional
contacts on the platform and platform slope (Fig. 8a,b)and were the dominant facies throughout Main
Dolomite deposition. The Upper Anhydrite platform
became gradually flooded during the sea- level
highstand in Main Dolomite time. The maximum
flooding surface marks the end of shoreline
transgression and separates transgressive
(retrograding) strata below from highstand
(prograding) strata above. It was identified as a
hardground in well Gorzów Wielkopolski-2 (Fig. 8c)
to the west of the Krobielewko Platform (Jaworowski
and Mikolajewski, 2007).Highstand facies are mainly composed of cross-
stratified oolitic dolograinstones (Fig 8d) At the end
toe-of-slope locations. During the early HST,
aggrading sublittoral oolitic grainstones built up a bar
or oolitic barrier complex. Platform (lagoonal) facies
begin with thin intervals of microbial complexes
passing into thick oolitic grainstones (HST to lateHST/FSST) forming grainstone/oolite shoals formed
as winnowed lag deposits on palaeohighs.
FALLING STAGE SYSTEMS TRACT
The platform facies terminate as microbial-to-oolitic
dolowackestone and dolomudstone complexes
deposited during base-level fall. They were probably
initiated during the late phase of sea-level highstand.
Microbial unlaminated and clotted thrombolitic
bioherms and mounds (biogenic boundstones) providea good correlative horizon, e.g. at wells Grotów-1,-2,
-5, -6 , and Sieraków-4 (Fig. 8e). In the toe-of-slope
facies, alternating laminated dolomudstones,
floatstones (Fig. 8f), oolitic grainstones and
packstones which build submarine fans represent a
falling stage systems tract (FSST). They are observed
to aggrade but do not prograde towards the basin.
The submarine fans (prisms) are interpreted to be
derived from storm action or as a result of submarine
earthquakes which may periodically have shaken the
platform margin (Peryt, 1992; Slowakiewicz and
Mikolajewski, 2008). Grammer et al . (2001)
suggested that such sediments may be swept off the
top of a shallow carbonate bank by winds, as in the
case of the Great Bahama Bank. The oolitic
dolograinstones, packstones and floatstones
interbedded with dolomudstones which are interpreted
as grainflow depositss i.e. turbidites, grainflows (sensu
stricto) and debris flows (Lowe, 1976; Mullins and
Buren, 1979; Smith, 1985) constituted prisms at the
toe of the platform slope with high porosities (up to
35%). These prisms are thickest around the Lubiatów
oilfield. Similar carbonate deposits have beendescribed from the Permian of the Delaware Basin
(Newell et al ., 1953), the Dutch Zechstein Basin
(Clark, 1980), the English Zechstein Basin (Smith,
1980), the Polish Zechstein Basin (Depowski and
Peryt, 1985) and the German Zechstein Basin (Meier,
1975; Mausfeld and Zankl, 1987). These regressive
deposits are classified as detached forced regressive
deposits sensu Posamentier and Morris (2000).
The prisms may also have developed as a result of
bot tom currents flowing parallel to bathymetric
contours (Faugère and Stow, 1993), which can rework sediments shed from the platform top (see Stanley,
1993 his Fig 8a) The palaeoflow direction of currents
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224 Upper Permian Zechstein Main Dolomite carbonates in Western Poland
According to Faugère and Stow (1993), these bottom-
current-deposited fans should not be termed
contourites (Stow and Lovell, 1979; Stow et al ., 1996)
which are deposited at depths of more than 500 m,
because the Zechstein Basin was only about 250 to300 m deep (Smith, 1979).
Jaworowski and Mikolajewski (2007) noted (and
as confirmed by the present authors’ studies) that the
debris-flow deposits and grainflows build
accretionary-type slopes with low-angle gradients of
2-3o (James and Mountjoy, 1983). As with the
Bahamian margins, the shallow Ca2 platform edge in
the Grotów Peninsula is separated from the main slope
by a marginal escarpment at a depth of around 50 m
(see Kotarba and Wagner 2006; Fig. 9). The
accretionary slope developed below this depth, as inthe present-day northern and western Great Bahama
Bank (Mullins et al ., 1984; Grammer et al ., 1993),
and also in the German Zechstein Basin and Messinian
evaporites (Schlager and Bolz, 1977). The
resedimented material was transported down the slope
through gullies on the upper slope, and was deposited
at the toe-of-slope in the form of submarine fans. The
accretionary slope began to develop during the sea-
level highstand and continued during the forced
regression. Similar processes have been observed in
the Tongue of the Ocean, Exuma Sound and Little
Bahama Bank (Schlager and Chermak, 1979; Crevello
and Schlager, 1980; Harwood and Towers, 1988), and
in the Sierra Diablo Mountains, West Texas (Playton
and Kerans, 2002, 2006).
The forced regressive deposits were first
recognized by Jaworowski and Mikolajewski (2007),
whose interpretations were not consistent with those
of Zdanowski (2003a,b, 2004a,b) who proposed a
lowstand sea-level setting for the toe-of-slope deposits.
According to Jaworowski and Mikolajewski (2007),
there is no evidence of emergence of the Main
Dolomite platform. However, recent data from wellsGrotów-5, -6 and Sieraków-4 indicates that the Grotów
Peninsula was affected by fluctuations of sea-level
which in some places caused subaerial exposure. The
sea-level fluctuations were not only due to falls and
rises of relative sea-level but also to vertical
movements of the Ca2 carbonate platform of tectonic
origin (see discussion).
Our studies have confirmed that the toe-of-slope
facies are composed of material redeposited by
turbidity currents, grainflows and debris flows swept
off the slope by shallow-water (regressive) processes.The thin beds of matrix- to clast-supported brecciated
anhydrites which lie beneath the redeposited toe-of-
developed. A slope onlap surface (SOS: Embry, 1995,
2001a, 2008) has been recognized in the Ca2 deposits
on the platform top and in the marine portion of the
basin (slope and toe-of-slope). The SOS developed
when the Ca2 carbonate slope was exposed and theslope was starved of marine regressive-derived
sediments. High- and low-density turbidites onlap the
lower portion of the slope (toe-of-slope facies) and
are composed of platform-derived deposits. The SOS
continued to develop during the subsequent sea-level
lowstand.
Forced regressive strata were deposited as
detached forced-regressive deposits, but the basinal
parts of the Main Dolomite did not receive sediments
from the nearby slopes at toe-of-slope locations.
Therefore, the typical facies can be characterized asdark, organic-rich laminated dolomudstones,
interpreted by Kotarba and Wagner (2007) as source
rocks for hydrocarbons. Basinal facies during the
forced regression continued to be deposited as they
were during the sea-level highstand. Moreover, due
to the limited circulation and high salinity of seawater,
evaporites were laid down on the basin floor and
alternate with dololaminites (well Gnuszyn-1: Fig. 8h).
In some cases, evaporite crystal moulds are observed
in cores, and originate from minerals which
precipitated from interstitial waters on bedding planes.
Similar facies have been described from the Permian
Delaware Basin of West Texas (Ward et al ., 1986;
Tinker, 1998), and from restricted basins (Kendall,
1988; Becker and Bechstädt, 2006). Characteristic of
the FSST are shallow-marine deposits with prograding
and offlaping stacking patterns (Hunt and Tucker,
1992; Plint and Nummedal, 2000), as well as
megabreccias such as those described from the
Cambrian of North Greenland (Ineson and Surlyk,
2000). The toe-of-slope deposits do not record
progradation, but the offlaping pattern of the Ca2
platform during the forced regression and its age-equivalent basinal submarine fans were recognized.
In combination, these observations indicate that the
toe-of-slope deposits mainly developed during a
forced regression of the Ca2 sea.
LOWSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT
As the forced regression continued, the Ca2 platform
top became subaerially exposed. During the relative
sea-level lowstand, the carbonates underwent
weathering processes and dissolution because thecarbonate factory was shut down following subaerial
exposure Aggressive waters containing H CO which
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225 M. Slowakiewicz and Z. Mikolajewski
C a2
A g
A
1 cm
1cm C
1cm
D
E
1 cm
1cm
G
Ca2
A2
1
cm
F
1 cm
H
Ca2
A2
MRS ?
Ca2
A g
B
1 cm
Fig. 8. A. Erosional contact (arrow indicates subaerial unconformity replaced by a transgressive ravinement
surface) between A1g and Ca2 at the platform slope zone in well Leszczyny-1 at a depth of 3244.80 m.
A1g: Upper Anhydrite, Ca2: Main Dolomite.
B. Erosional contact (arrow indicates subaerial unconformity/transgressive ravinement surface) of the barrier
facies in well Sieraków-1 at a depth of 3223.35 m.
C. Hardground marking the maximum flooding surface in the bay facies in well Gorzów Wielkopolski-2 at a
depth of 3168 m.
D. Cross-stratified oolitic grainstones deposited during sea-level highstand. Barrier facies. Well Miedzychód-5,depth 3168 m.
E. Fragment of clotted thrombolitic bioherms, well Grotów-5, depth 3286.10 m.
F. Forced regressive breccias deposited at the toe of the platform slope, well Lubiatów-4, depth 3217 m.
G. Erosional surface (arrow marks subaerial unconformity/transgressive ravinement surface) separating the
Main Dolomite (Ca2) toe-of-slope dolomitic turbidites and dololaminites originating from forced regression/
sea-level lowstand from transgressive sabkha facies of the Basal Anhydrite (A2) sulphates. Well Sowia Góra-2K ,
depth 3309.60 m.
H. Transition zone (possible occurrence of maximum regressive surface MRS within the Ca2 carbonates)
between the Main Dolomite (Ca2) dololaminites and laminated anhydrites of the Basal Anhydrite (A2) basinal
facies. Dololaminites pass into anhydrites (chemical transition). Note small nodules of replacive anhydrite.
Well Gnuszyn-1, depth 3484.60 m.
The subaerial unconformity surface was partlyremoved by the transgressive ravinement surface
during the subsequent Basal Anhydrite transgression.
transgressive deposits is marked by changes inevaporite texture from sabkha-like to salina-like
anhydrites. This suggests that the next evaporite
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226 Upper Permian Zechstein Main Dolomite carbonates in Western Poland
platform. The slope was further onlapped by salina-
like anhydrites during the early part of the
transgression. Thus, the boundary between the second
and third sequences of the Polish Zechstein is between
the Main Dolomite and the Basal Anhydrite. BasalAnhydrite facies on the platform are nodular and partly
reworked anhydrites (due to the transgression),
whereas sedimentation was continuous in the basin
(Fig. 8h). The dark dololaminites are overlain by
laminated anhydrites, a sedimentary style which was
initiated during the FSST. Relative sea-level did not
fall below the forced regressive toe-of-slope fans as
evidenced by the lack of a subaerial exposure surface
however in their uppermost parts (e.g. wells Sowa
Góra-2K, Lubiatów-2: Figs.6 and 8g). Subaerial
exposure of the platform top and slope of the Ca2carbonate platform continued during subsequent
normal lowstand regression, which is why the falling-
stage to lowstand interval may be studied as a single
stage (Catuneanu, 2007). This principle can only be
applied to rimmed platforms (MacNeil and Jones,
2006), such as the Main Dolomite.
Cores from wells Grotów-5 and Grotów-6 show
that the Main Dolomite sea expanded and contracted
several times (Peryt and Dyjaczynski, 1991) in the
Grotów Peninsula area. In our material, however, this
is confirmed by the occurrence of only one recorded
beach facies in te rval containing charac teri st ic
blackened lithoclasts and black pebbles of unknown
origin which were later flooded by oolitic
dolograinstone facies. In general, black pebbles and
blackened lithoclasts are associated with subaerial
exposure surfaces (Strasser, 1984; Shinn and Lidz,
1988), and are evidence of small-scale regressive-
transgressive fluctuations in sea level. Correlation of
wells Grotów-1 and -6 (Fig. 10) confirms this
interpretation, and shows that sedimentation in well
Grotów-6 took place in platform depressions whereas
sedimentation in well Grotów-1 was on a local high.Hence, well Grotów-1 does not contain the lower part
of the Grotów-6 profile.
PETROLEUM POTENTIAL IN THEGROTÓW PENINSULA
Dololaminites with high organic matter contents,
preserved due to restricted marine circulation and
anoxic and reducing conditions on the basin floor, may
have source rock potential (Kotarba and Wagner,
2007; Wagner et al ., 2008).The detached forced regressive system described
above and the associated submarine fans at the foot
Zdanowski, 2004a; Jaworowski and Mikolajewski,
2007), and has been described from different locations
(e.g. Ziegler, 1989; Ainsworth et al ., 2000). Detached
forced regressive deposits composed mainly of grainy
sediments can have high porosities and may be sealed by evaporites. The submarine fans did not prograde
towards the basin, and it is therefore important to
determine potential trapping configurations using
sequence stratigraphic modelling. Future hydrocarbon
exploration in the northern part of the Fore-Sudetic
Monocline and the southern part of the Górzow Block
should therefore focus on mapping forced regressive
fans at the foot of the Main Dolomite carbonate
platform.
In addition to toe-of-slope traps, the platform
interior in the Grotów Peninsula area may also haveexploration potential. Potential reservoir rocks here
are characterized by intervals (35-80 m thick) of oolitic
dolograinstones deposited in high-energy conditions
which represent platform flat (lagoonal-to-oolite
shoal) facies. These facies form reservoirs at the
Miedzychód gasfield, Grotów oilfield and Chrzypsko
oilfield, with significant oil shows in the Sieraków
area. This suggests that hydrocarbon generation
occurred not only in basinal (slope) conditions but
also in the platform interior, suggesting two petroleum
systems (Kotarba and Wagner, 2006, 2007).
According to Kotarba and Wagner (2007),
microbial-algal source rocks in the Main Dolomite
began to generate hydrocarbons in the Late Triassic
to Early Jurassic. Later generation of condensates and
high-temperature gas began in the Late Triassic and
continued to the end of the Late Jurassic or perhaps
Late Cretaceous. Hydrocarbon generation followed
two stages: (i) a single-stage process, in which full
generation of hydrocarbons occurred in the Late
Triassic; and (ii) a two-stage process, in which 80-
90% of hydrocarbons (by mass) were generated by
the end of the Jurassic, with generation completed inthe post-Cretaceous. Consequently, oil accumulated
in traps at the end of the Triassic and Jurassic, and
gas saturation of oil acumulations took place by the
Late Jurassic, with final gas generation in the
Palaeogene and Neogene (Kotarba and Wagner,
2007).
DISCUSSION
Zdanowski (2004a) interpreted lowstand fans as
redeposited material (intervals 1 m thick) overlain bylowstand wedges composed of PZ1 anhydrites and
highstand Ca2 carbonates deposited on the slope and
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227 M. Slowakiewicz and Z. Mikolajewski
i c s e c t i o n a c r o s s t h e L u b i a t ó w o i l f i e l d a t t h e f o o t o f t h e c a r b o n a t e p l a t f o r m
s l o p e a n d M i e d z y c h ó d g a s f i e l d o
n t h e c a r b o n a t e p l a t f o r m ( 3 D s e i s m i c s u r v e y s
z y c h ó d - S i e r a k ó w a r e a , G e o f i z y k a T o r u n 2
0 0 1 - 2 0 0 2 ) . Z 1 ’ - b a s e Z e c h s t e i n c y c l o t h e m 1 ( W e r r a ) , Z 2 – t o p B a s a
l A n h y d r i t e , N a 1 – O l d e s t H a l i t e , N a 2 – O l d e r
– Y o u n g
e r H a l i t e .
N a 1
N a 2
N a 3
L u b i a t ó w - 1
M i e d z y c h ó d - 4
Z 1 ’
Z 2
m a r g i n a l
e s c a r p m e n t
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228 Upper Permian Zechstein Main Dolomite carbonates in Western Poland
e l a t i o n
o f t h e G r o t ó w - 1 a n d G r o t ó w - 6 w e l l s i n t h e G r o t ó w P e n i n s u l a .
k e p l a t f o r m m a r g i n
B a s i n p l a i n
C a r b o n a t e p l a t f o r m
d e e p e r p a r t
s h a l l o w e r p a r t
b a y
l a g o o n
b a r r i e r s
o o l i t e s h o a l s
p l a t f o r m s l o p e 0
5 k m
M I E D Z Y C
H O D - 6
G R O T O W - 6
G R O T O W - 5
S I E R A K O W - 1
S I E R A K O W - 4
O W - 2
O W - 1
C H O D - 4
D Z Y C H O D - 5
D - 3 M
O K R Z E C - 1
K A C Z L I N - 1
C H R Z Y P S K O - 1
C H R Z Y P S K O - 3
C H R Z Y P S K O - 2
f l o a t s t o n e s + r u d s t o n e s
w a c k e s t o n e s
p a c k s t o n e s / g r a i n s t o n e s
S e d i m e n t a r y t e x t u r e s
W a g n e r ( 2 0
0 7 )
b i n d s t o n e s / f r a m e s t o n e s
b i o s t a b i l i z a t i o n
l o s t o n e s
t h o l o g y
h y d r i t e s
0
1 0 0
A P I
D E P T H ( m . )
L i t h o f a c i e s l o g
L i t h o f a c i e s l o g
S T R A T I G R A P H Y
S e d i m e n t a r y
t e x t u r e s
S e d i m e n t a r y
t e x t u r e s
L i t h o l o g y
L i t h o l o g y
G r o t ó w - 1
A 2 M A I N D O L O M I T E
A 1 g
C l a y r a t e
A n h y d
r i t e
D o l o m
i t e
P o r o s i t y
B u l k a n a
l y s i s o f
l i t h o l o g i c a l c
o m p o s i t i o n 0
1
C a l c i t e
G R S
0
1 0 0
A P I
G G
3 2 0 0
3 2 1 0
3 2 2 0
3 2 3 0
N a 2
H H
H
H
0
1 0 0
A P I
D E P T H ( m . )
S T R A T I G R A P H Y
A 2
A 1
g
0
1
G R S
0
1 0 0
A P I
G G
3 3 0 0
3 3 1 0
3 3 2 0
3 3 3 0
3 3 4 0
3 3 5 0
3 3 6 0
3 3 7 0
3 3 8 0
N a
2
H
H H
H
H
H H
G r
o t ó w - 6
S
a
e
p
u
e
o
h
P
s
u
p
e
p
a
o
m
L
S
T
e
y
l
a
e
H
F
L
S
2 - B a s a l A n h y d r i t e
g - U p p e r A n h y d r i t e
a 2 - O l d e r H
a l i t e
M A I N D O L O M I T E
c o r e r e c o v e
r y
G
R O T O W
P E
N I N S U L A
C l a y r a t e
A n h y d r i t e
D o l o m i t e
P o r o s i t y
B u l k a n a l y s i s o f
l i t h o l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n
C a l c i t e
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229 M. Slowakiewicz and Z. Mikolajewski
are overlain by shallow-water grain-rich carbonates.
A Ca2 profile is terminated by low-energy, bioturbated
facies deposited in restricted lagoonal and/or mud-
flat settings. These deposits pass gradually into
shallow-water anhydrites of the Basal Anhydrite (A2)
deposited in a sabkha environment.
However, our studies have shown that this model
differs in terms of sedimentologic lithofacies and
sequence stratigraphic interpretation. Thus, the Ca2
platform on the Gorzów Block was subaeriallyexposed due to fluctuations of relative sea-level due
most probably according to our interpretation to
tectonic movements. However, exposure of the NW
part of the Main Dolomite platform, where caliche,
desiccation cracks and fenestrae fabrics are common
in the upper parts of the Ca2 profiles, was more
significant than in the NE where microkarst and
microbial mounds occur. Therefore, the Gorzów Block
in Main Dolomite time was probably inclined to the
NE which caused the eastern part of the Ca2 carbonate
platform to be partly submerged whereas the western part was exposed.
As interpreted by Zdanowski (2004a,b), lowstand
wedges built of oolitic dolograinstones in fact began
to be deposited during a relative sea-level highstand
and continued during the forced regression. This is
evidenced by the lack of any eroded or subaerial
material within these facies deposited at the foot of
the Grotów Peninsula. Indeed, subaerial exposure has
been recorded in platform interior wells (Grotów-5, -
6 and Sieraków-4), and can be interpreted as being
deposited during relative sea-level lowstand butrelated only to local small-scale fluctuations in sea
level.
lowermost part of sabkha-like Basal Anhydrite
sulphates. This is also evidenced by the sharp and
wavy surface (subaerial unconformity) marking the
boundary between forced regressive and lowstand
deposits on the platform.
The next transgression occurred in the lower part
of the Basal Anhydrite evaporites. It is characterized
by sabkha-like nodular anhydrites and is indicated by
a transgressive ravinement surface or maximum
regressive surface on the top of, and in the basinal parts of, the Ca2 platform. In late Main Dolomite time,
relative-sea levels dropped by at least 100 m with no
glacial mechanism (Zdanowski, 2004a,b) but mostly
as a result of evaporative drawdown (e.g. Maiklem,
1971; Mesolella et al ., 1974; Smith 1980; Warren,
2006), which led to extensive subaerial exposure of
platform tops.
During normal highstand regression, most
accommodation space was filled, leading to shedding
of oolitic dolograinstones down the slope. When the
Main Dolomite sea-level gradually fell, this led to arapid forced regression and the subaerial exposure of
the platform top, which continued during the
subsequent lowstand regression. Thus, the falling-
stage to lowstand interval may be studied by a single
stage (see Catuneanu, 2007 and stage 2 in Fig. 6.49).
This principle can only be applied to escarpment-like
rimmed platforms such as the Ca2 platform (MacNeil
and James, 2006).
Subaerial exposure recognized in the uppermost
part of the Ca2 carbonates marks a second sequence
boundary ( sensu Wagner and Peryt, 1997) whichcorresponds to the lowest position of relative sea-level
(Hunt and Tucker, 1995). Strata deposited during
HST TSTFSST L S T
H S Tsystems tracts
rise risefall
relative
sea-levelcurve
relativesea-level
A B
subaerial exposure A1g
A1d
Na1
Ca2
A2
PZ1
PZ2
LST
LSTTST
TST
HST
PZS3
PZS2
FSST
HH
HH
H
Fig.11. A. Sinusoidal sea-level curve showing systems tracts for the Main Dolomite carbonates.
HST – highstand systems tract, FSST – falling-stage systems tract, LST – lowstand systems tract,
TST – transgressive systems tract.
B. Sequence stratigraphy model of the Main Dolomite carbonates in eastern part of the Gorzów Block.
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230 Upper Permian Zechstein Main Dolomite carbonates in Western Poland
falling-stage systems tract. Kaiser et al . (2003) were
the first to recognize “late” highstand (i.e. forced
regressive) deposits in the Zechstein German Basin.
Their “late” highstand facies correspond to the oolitic
grainstone facies shed down the platform slope anddeposited at the toe of the slope of the Grotów
Peninsula as potential traps for hydrocarbons. Hunt
and Tucker (1995) noted that “early” and “late”
lowstand systems tracts (Posamentier et al ., 1992;
Posamentier and Allen, 1993) are in fact falling-stage
systems tracts and lowstand systems tracts,
respectively. In conclusion, Figs. 11a and 11b illustrate
a new sequence stratigraphy model for the Main
Dolomite deposition.
Peryt and Dyjaczynski (1991) and Kotarba and
Wagner (2006, 2007) proposed that the Ca2 carbonate platform morphology and facies were controlled by
the configuration of the underlying A1sulphate
platforms. However, at the end of the Zechstein first
cyclothem (PZ1 = Werra cyclothem), basinal areas
started to subside along deep-seated master faults
related to the Teisseyre-Tornquist Zone (Znosko,
1981; Krzywiec, 2006a). This extensional subsidence
associated with fault activity in the sub-Zechstein
basement (Krzywiec et al ., 2006) may have been a
trigger mechanism (Peryt, 1992) which produced the
toe-of-slope deposits. Therefore we assume, as was
also suggested by Depowska (2005), that the tectonic
activity which controlled subsequent subsidence
accommodated by major sub-Zechstein faults (see the
model of Withjack and Callaway, 2000, and Krzywiec,
2006b) may have caused instability of the Ca2 carbonate
and A1 evaporite platforms during their deposition.
CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of new sedimentological data, a new
depositional model and sequence stratigraphic
interpretation of the Main Dolomite carbonates in theeastern part of the Notec Bay (Gorzów Block) have
been proposed. A number of sequence stratigraphic
surfaces were identified. Transgressive deposits (TST)
are recognised in the upper part of the Upper
Anhydrite, and mark the boundary between first and
second Polish Zechstein depositional sequences. The
deposits are mostly built of sulphate matrix-to-clast-
supported breccias representing an abrasive platform
environment. Subaerial unconformity, maximum
regressive sruface and transgressive ravinement
surface were recognized within the transgressivedeposits. The subsequent highstand facies are mainly
composed of intraclast-oolitic dolograinstones and
Falling stage systems tract deposits are composed
of carbonate facies initiated during the sea-level
highstand and deposited at the toe-of-slope in the form
of submarine fans which developed mostly during a
forced regression. The submarine fans do not displaya progradational profile. A slope onlap surface (SOS)
which is the basal boundary of the FSST was also
identified.
Lowstand facies were identified in the uppermost
part of the Main Dolomite carbonates. The boundary
between lowstand and forced regressive deposits is
marked by an erosive surface interpreted as a subaerial
unconformity on the platform and its slope, and a
transgressive ravinement surface in the basinal part.
Hence, the boundary between the second and third
Polish Zechstein depositional sequences occurs in theuppermost part of the Main Dolomite carbonates.
Transgressive deposits of the next depositional
sequence were found in the lower part of the Basal
Anhydrite sulphates and are characterized by the
upward transition from sabkha (LST) to salina (TST)
environments.
It is suggested that syndepositional tectonic activity
resulted in instability of the Ca2 carbonate and A1
sulphate platforms, and both resulted in highstand
shedding and controlled relative sea-level rises and
falls. However, evaporative drawdown was the main
factor causing significant sea-level fall in late Main
Dolomite times.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are very much indebted to Ashton Embry for his
valuable comments on an early version of the paper.
Graham Aplin (Task Geoscience) reviewed the
manuscript and is greatly acknowledged for
improvements and useful suggestions. POGC Pila and
Geofizyka Torun are thanked for providing materials.
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7/21/2019 Seq. Stratigraphy of the Upper Permian Zechstein Main Dolomite Carbonates in Western Poland a New Approach …
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