Self Discrepancy Theory

8/22/2019 Self Discrepancy Theory

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Se l f-Discrepancy: A Th eory Re la t ing Se l f and A f fec t

E . Tory HigginsN e w Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y

This artic le presents a th eory o f how different typ es of discrepancies between self-state representa-

tions are related to different kinds o f emotion al vulnerabilities. One dom ain o f the self (actual;

ideal; ought) and one s tandpo int on the se lf (own; s ignificant other) constitute each type o f self-s tate

representation. It is pr oposed tha t different types o f self-discrepancies represent different typ es ofnegative psychological s ituations that a re associated w ith different kin ds of discomfort. Discrepan-

cies between the act ual/ ow n self-state (i.e., the self-concept) and ide al self-states (i.e., repr esent ation s

of an ind iv idua l ' sbeliefs about his or her own or a s itmifieant other's hopes, wishes, or aspirations for

the individual) signify the absence o f positive outcomes, w hich is associated w ith dejection-related

em otio ns (e.g., disa ppo intm ent, dissatisfaction, sadness). In contrast, d iscrepancies between the ac-

tual/ow n self-s tate and ought self-s tates (i .e. , representation s of an individ ual 's beliefs about his orher own o r a s ignificant other's beliefs about the individ ual 's dutie s, responsibilities, o r obligations)

signify the presence of negative outcomes, w hich is associated with agita tion -relat edemo tions (e .g.,fear, threat, restlessness). Differences in both the relative magnitu de an d the accessibility o f individ u-

als ' available types of self-discrepancies are predicte d to be related to differences in the k inds o fdiscom fort people are likely to experience. C orrelation al and e xperim ental evidence suppo rts thepredictions of the model. D ifferences between self-discrepancy theory and (a) other theories o f in-

com pati ble self-beliefs and (b) act ual se lf negativity (e.g., low self-esteem) are discussed.

T h e n o t i o n t h a t p e o p l e w h o h o l d c o n f l i c t in g o r i n c o m p a t i b l e

b e l i e fs a r e l i k e l y o e x p e r i e n c e d i s c o m f o r t h a s h a d a l o n g h i s t o r y

i n p s y c ho l o g y . I n s o c i a l p sy c h o l o gy , fo r e x a m p l e , v a r i o u s e a r l y

t h e o r i e s p r o p o s e d a r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n d i s c o m f o r t a n d s p e c i f i c

k i n d s o f " i n c o n s i s t e n c y " a m o n g a p e r s o n ' s b e l ie f s ( e .g . , A b e l s o n

& R o s e n b e rg , 1 9 5 8 ; F e s t in g e r , 1 9 5 7 ; H e id e r , 1 9 5 8 ; Mc G u i re ,

1 9 68 ; N e w c o m b , 1 9 68 ; O s g o o d & T a n n e n b a u m , 1 9 55 ) . A n d

v a r i o u s c l a s s i c th e o r i e s r e l a t i n g s e l f a n d a f f ec t p r o p o s e d t h a t

s e l f- c o n f li c t s o r s e l f - in c o n s i s te n c i e s p r o d u c e e m o t i o n a l p r o b -

l e m s (e . g . , A d le r , 1 9 6 4 ; A l lp o r t , 1 9 5 5 ; C o o le y , 1 9 0 2 /1 9 6 4 ;

F re u d , 1 9 2 3 /1 9 6 1 ; H o m e y , 1 9 3 9 , 1 9 4 6 ; J a m e s , 1 8 9 0 /1 9 4 8 ;

L e c k y , 1 9 6 1 ; Me a d , 1 9 3 4 ; R o g e r s , 1 9 6 1 ). T h e th e o ry to b e p re -

s e n te d h e re , s e l f -d i s c re p a n c y th e o ry , h a s c lo s e t i e s t o th i s h i s to r -

i c a l t r a d i t i o n . B u t i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n w a s g u i d e d b y a d i s t i n c t s e t

o f a i m s : ( a ) t o d i s t i n g u i sh a m o n g d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f d i s c o m f o r t

t h a t p e o p l e h o l d i n g i n c o m p a t i b l e b e l i e fs m a y e x p e r i e n c e , ( b ) t o

r e l a t e d i f f e re n t k i n d s o f e m o t i o n a l v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s s y s t e m a t i -

c a l l y t o d i f f e r en t t y p e s o f d i s c r e p a n c i e s t h a t p e o p l e m a y p o s s e ss

a m o n g t h e i r s e l f -b e l ie f s , a n d ( c ) t o c o n s i d e r t h e r o l e o f b o t h t h e

This research was supported by Gran t MH 39429 from the Na t iona l

Institute of Mental Health. I am grateful for financial suppo rt provided

by the John D. and Ca ther ine T . MacArthur Founda t ion and by theAlfred P. Sloan Foun dation.

I would like to thank Dian e Ruble, Yaacov Trope, Rob in W ells, andHen ri Zu kier for their helpful comm ents and suggestions on earlier ver-

s ions o f this artic le. The final revis ion o f this artic le was prepared whileI was a Fellow at the Center fo r Advanced S tudy in the Behavioral Sci-ences.

Correspondence concerning th is artic le should be addressed to E.Tory Higgins, Dep artm ent o f Psychology,New Y ork University, 6 W ash-

ington Place, 7th F loor, New York, New York 100 03.

a v a i l a b i l i t y a n d t h e a c c e s s i b il i t y o f d i f f e r e n t d i s c r e p a n c i e s p e o -

p l e m a y p o s s e s s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e k i n d o f d i s c o m f o r t t h e y a r e

m o s t l i k e ly to s uf fe r.

A l t h o u g h m a n y d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f b e l i e f i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y h av e

b e e n d e s c r i b e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e - - f o r e x a m p l e , d i s s o n a n c e ( e .g . ,

A r o n s o n , 1 9 6 9 ; F e s t in g e r , 1 95 7 ) , im b a l a n c e ( e .g . , H e id e r , 1 9 5 8 ;

N e w c o m b , 1 9 68 ) , i n c o n g r u i t y (e .g . , O s g o o d & T a n n e n b a u m ,

1 9 5 5 ), a n d s e l f - in c o n s i s t e n c y ( e . g. , E p s te in , 1 9 8 0 ; L e c k y ,

1 9 6 1 ) - - t h e e m o t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s h a v e t y p i c a l l y b e e n d e -

s c r i b e d o n l y i n v e r y g e n e r a l t e r m s , s u c h a s t e n s io n , u n p l e a s a n t -

n e s s , p re s s u re , c o n f l i c t , s tr e s s , o r d i s c o m fo r t . A n d y e t i t i s c l e a r

f r o m t h e g e n e r a l p s y c h o lo g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e t h a t d i s t i n c t e m o t i o n a l

c l u s t e rs o r s y n d r o m e s e x i s t. F r o m f a c t o r a n a l ys i s , c l u s t e r a n a l y -

s is , a n d c i r c u l a r s c a l in g , r e s e a r c h e r s h av e r e p o r t e d t h a t d i s s a t i s-

f a c t io n , f e e l in g d i s c o u ra g e d , f e e l in g p i t i fu l , f e e l in g s a d , f e e l in g

g lo o m y , a n d f e e l in g m is e ra b l e t e n d to c lu s t e r ( e .g . , C a t t e l l , 1 9 7 3 ;

D e R i v e r a , 1 9 7 7 ; E w e r t , 1 9 7 0 ; K e m p e r , 1 9 7 8 ; Z u c k e r m a n &

L u b in , 1 9 6 5 ), w h e re a s g u i l t , a n x ie ty , w o r ry , f e a r, f e e l in g t e n s e ,

f e e l in g a l a r m e d , a n d f e e li n g t h r e a t e n e d f o r m a n o t h e r c l u s t e r

(A u s u b e l , 1 9 5 5 ; B ib r in g , 1 9 5 3 ; C a t t e l l , 1 9 7 3 ; D e R iv e ra , 1 9 7 7 ;E w e r t , 1 9 7 0 ; K e m p e r , 1 9 7 8 ; R u s s e l l , 1 9 8 0 ; Z u c k e rm a n &

L u b i n , 1 9 65 ) . T h i s b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n d e j e c t i o n - r e l a t e d

e m o t i o n s a n d a g i t a ti o n - r e l at e d e m o t i o n s h a s a l so b e e n m a d e

f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e c l i n i c a l l i t e r a tu r e , n o t o n l y t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e -

t w e e n d e p r e s s i o n a n d a n x i e t y b u t a l s o t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n

d i f f e re n t k in d s o f d e p re s s i o n ( s e e, e . g ., B e c k , 1 9 6 7 , 1 9 8 3 ; C a m -

e ro n , 1 9 6 3 ; W h i t e ; 1 9 6 4 ).

T h u s p r e v i o u s t h e or i e s o f b e l i e f i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y a re l i m i t e d

i n t h a t t h e y d o n o t c o n s i d e r t h a t d i s t i n c t k in d s o f d i s c o m f o r t

m a y b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b e l i e f i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y . T h e s e t h e o r i e s ,

t h e n , c a n n o t p r e d i c t which k i n d o f d i s c o m f o r t o r e m o t i o n a l

p r o b l e m w i l l b e i n d u c e d b y a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e o f b e l ie f i n c o m -

3 2 0 E . T O R Y H I G G I N S

pa t ib i li ty . I n a d d i t i on , t he po s s i b i li t y doe s n o t a r i s e t ha t c h r on i c

i nd i v i dua l d i f f e re nc e s i n t ype o f be l i e f i nc om pa t i b i l i t y m a y be

r e l a t e d t o i nd i v i dua l d i f f e r e nc e s i n e m o t i ona l vu l ne r a b i l it y . I n -

de e d , a m ong t he o r i e s c onc e r ne d w i t h s e l f - e va l ua t i on , t he o r i e s

o f vu l ne r a b i l i t y t o ge ne r a l l y pos it i ve o r ne ga t i ve e m ot i o ns a r e

r e la t iv e ly c o m m o n , s u c h a s t h e o r i e s o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n

( e.g. , A t k i ns on , 1964 ; Mc C l e l l a nd , 1961) , bu t t he o r i e s o f vu l -

ne r a b i l i t y t o different kinds of negative emotions are r a r e . A nd

t h o s e t h a t h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d t e n d t o d e s c r ib e e m o t i o n a l v u l -

ne r a b i l i t y in t e r m s o f p r ob l e m a r e a s , s uc h a s i n t e r pe r s ona l de -

pe nd e nc y p r o b l e m s ve r s us a c h i e ve m e n t o r s e l f- e ff i ca c y p r ob -

l e m s , r a t he r t ha n t o r e l a t e e m ot i ona l vu l ne r a b i l i t y t o s pe c i f i c

typ es of inco mp at ib le b e l ie f s (e .g . , Beck, 1 983; Bla t t, D 'A ff i i t t i ,

& Q u i n l a n , 1 9 76 ). A p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f se l f -d i s c re p a n c y th e -

o r y , t he n , i s t o p r e d i c t w h i c h t yp e s o f i nc om pa t i b l e be l ie f s w i l l

i n d u c e w h i c h k i n d s o f n e ga t iv e e m o t i o n s .

A no t he r pu r pos e i s t o c ons i de r w he t he r t he a va i l a b i l i t y a nd

a c c e s s i b il i ty o f d i f f e r e n t type s o f i nc om pa t i b l e be l i ef s i nduc e

d i f f e re n t k i nds o f d i s c om f or t . I n c om pa t i b l e be l i e f s a r e c ogn i t i ve

c ons t r uc t s , a nd a s s uc h t he y c a n va r y i n bo t h t he i r a va i l a b i l i t y

and the i r accessibil ity . Co ns t ruc t availability r e f e r s t o t he p a r -t i c u l a r k i nds o f c ons t r uc t s t h a t a r e a c t ua l l y p r e s e n t ( i. e. , a va i l -

a b l e) i n m e m o r y t o b e u s e d t o p r o c e s s n e w i n f o r m a t i o n ,

w h e r e a s c o n s t r u c t accessibility r e f e r s t o t he r e a d i ne s s w i t h

w h i c h e a c h s t o r e d c o n s t r u c t i s u s e d i n i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g

( s e e H i gg i ns & B a r gh , 1987 ; H i gg i ns , K i ng , & Ma v i n , 1982 ;

Tu l v i ng & Pe a r l s t one , 1966) . I nd i v i dua l d i f fe r e nc e s c a n a r i s e

e i t he r be c a us e p e op l e ha ve d i f f e r e n t t ype s o f c ons t r uc t s a va i l-

a b l e o r be c a us e t he y ha v e t he s a m e t ype s a va i l a b le bu t t he i r r e l a -

t ive acces sibi l i t ies differ.

C o m m o n t o t h e o r ie s o f b e l i e f i n c o m p a t i b i l i ty i s th e a s s u m p -

t i on t ha t t he i nc om pa t i b i l i t y r e f le c t s a pa r t i c u l a r t ype o f p s y -

c ho l og i c a l s i t ua t i on t ha t i n f l ue nc e s i t s pos s e s s o r ' s r e s pons e s .

T h u s , t h e s e t h e o r ie s c o m p a r e p e r s o n s w h o d o o r d o n o t p o s se s st he pa r t i c u l a r be l i e f i nc om pa t i b i l i t y ( e .g ., c o gn i t i ve d i s s ona nc e ,

i m b a l a n c e ) a n d t h u s a r e o r a r e n o t l i ke l y t o r e s p o n d i n t e r m s o f

t he p s yc ho l og i c a l s it ua t i on a s s oc i a t e d w i t h i t . The s e t he o r i e s ,

t he n , c om pa r e on l y w he t he r a pa r t i c u l a r ( ne ga ti ve ) p s yc ho l og i -

c a l s i tua t i on i s o r i s no t a va i l a b le a nd t hus a r e l i m i t e d by c on s i d -

e r i n g o n l y th e a b s e n c e o r p r e s e n c e o f o n e b a s i c t y p e o f p s y c h o -

logica l s i tua t ion.

I n c o n t r a s t , K e l l y ' s (1 9 5 5 ) t h e o r y o f p e r so n a l c o n s t r u c t s p r o -

p o s e d t h a t i n d iv i d u a ls v a r y w i d e l y i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r t y p e s o f p s y -

c ho l og i c a l si t ua t i ons a va i l a b le t o t he m ; t ha t i s, t he r e i s a w i de

v a r i e ty o f p e rs o n a l v i e w p o i n t s o r w a y s o f c o n s t r u i n g t h e w o r l d

( s ee a l s o Le w i n , 1935) . B u t K e l l y d i d n o t r e l a t e d i f f e r e n t type s

o f a v a il a bl e c o n s t r u c t s t o d i ff e r en t t y p e s o f e m o t i o n a l v u l n e r a -b il it y. A n d n e i t h e r K e l l y ' s n o r a n y o t h e r t h e o r y o f b e l i e f i n c o m -

pa t i b i l i t y d i s t i ngu i s he d be t w e e n i nd i v i dua l d i f f e r e nc e s i n c on -

s t r uc t a va i l a b i li t y a nd i nd i v i dua l d i f fe r e nc e s i n c ons t r uc t a c c e s -

s ib i li ty . F ol lowing Kel ly , individ ual d i f ferences in pe rsona l

c o n s t r u c t s h a v e b e e n c o m m o n l y c o n c e i v e d a s d if f er e n c es i n t h e

n a t u r e a n d c o n t e n t o f p e o p l e ' s c o n s t r u c ts , i n t h e v i e w p o i n t p e o -

p l e ha ve o f s oc i al ob j e c t s a nd e ve n t s ( e .g ., M a r kus , 1977 ; Sa r b i n ,

Taf t , & Bailey, 1960; Tagiu r i , 1969) . Su ch di f ferences cons t i tu te

d i f fe r e nc e s i n t he a va i l a b il i ty o f s oc i a l c ons t r uc t s . H i gg i ns e t a l .

( 1982) p r op os e d t h a t t he a c c e s s i b i li t y o f s oc i a l c ons t r uc t s c a n

a l s o d if fe r, m om e n t a r i l y o r c h r on i c a l l y .

C ons i de r a b l e e v i de nc e i nd i c a t e s t ha t va r i ous c on t e x t ua l f a c -

t o r s , s uc h a s p r i o r e xpos u r e t o c ons t r uc t - r e l a t e d s t i m u l i ( i . e . ,

p r i m i n g ) , c a n p r o d u c e t e m p o r a r y i n d iv i d u a l d i ff e re n c e s in t h e

a c c e s s i b i li t y o f ge ne r a l l y a va i la b l e s oc i a l c on s t r uc t s ( e. g. , c o m -

m o n t r a i t c o n s tr u c t s , s u c h a s " s t u b b o r n " o r " h o s t il e " ) a n d t h a t

t he s e d i ff e r e nc e s i n t u r n c a n p r od uc e d i f fe r e nc e s i n s ubs e que n t

r e s pons e s t o s oc i a l s t im u l i ( f o r r e v i e w s , s e e H i gg i ns, B a r gh , &

Lo m ba r d i , 1985 ; H i gg i ns & K i ng , 1981 ; W ye r & Sr u ll , 1981) .

The r e i s a l s o e v i de nc e t ha t c h r on i c i nd i v i dua l d i f f e r e nc e s i n

c ons t r uc t a c c e s s i b i l i t y c a n i n f l ue nc e s oc i a l i n f o r m a t i on p r o -

c e s s i ng ( e. g. , B a r gh & The i n , 1985 ; G o t l i b & Mc C a n n , 1984 ;

H i gg i ns e t a l. , 1982) . A n o t he r i m p or t a n t pu r pos e o f s el f- di s-

c r e p a nc y the o r y , t he n , i s t o i n t r o du c e c o ns t r uc t a c c e s s ib i l it y a s

a p r e d i c t o r o f w b e n a v a il a bl e t y p e s o f i n c o m p a t i b l e b e li e fs ( a n d

w h i c h o f t he a va i l a b l e type s ) w i l l i nduc e d i s c om f or t .

S e l f - D is c r e p a n c y T h e o r y

O ve r t he ye a r s m a ny d i f f e r e n t f a c e ts o f t he s e l f o r s e lf - im a ge s

ha ve be e n i de n t if i e d . O n e f i nds de s c r i p ti ons o f t w o " a c t ua l "

s e l ve s - - t he k i nd o f pe r s on a n i nd i v i dua l be l ie ve s he o r s he a c t u -

a l l y i s a nd t he k i nd o f pe r s on a n i nd i v i dua l be l ie ve s t ha t o t he r st h i nk he o r s he a c t ua l l y is . Th e " o t he r s " c a n be s i gn i f ic a n t o t h -

e r s o r t he ge ne r a l i z e d o t he r ( s e e Er i k s on , 1950 / 1963 ; Le c ky ,

1961 ; Me a d , 1934 ; Wyl i e , 1979) . I n a dd i t i on t o t he s e a c t ua l

se lves , a var ie ty o f d i f ferent pote nt ia l se lves have bee n ident i f i ed

( e.g. , Ma r k us & N ur i u s , 1987) .

J a m e s ( 1 8 9 0 / 1 9 4 8 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , d i s ti n g u i sh e d b e t w e e n t h e

" s p i r i t ua l " s e lf , w h i c h i nc l ude d on e ' s ow n m o r a l s e ns ib i l it y a nd

c ons c i e nc e , a nd t he " s o c i a l " s e lf , w h i c h i nc l ud e d t he s e l f t ha t i s

w o r t h y o f b e i n g a p p r o v e d b y t h e h i g h e s t s o c ia l j u d g e . R o g e r s

( 1961) d i s t i ngu i s he d be t w e e n w ha t o t he r s be l i e ve a pe r s on

s hou l d o r ough t t o be ( i. e. , t he no r m a t i ve s t a nda r d ) a nd a pe r -

s o n ' s o w n b e l i e f a b o u t w h a t h e o r s h e w o u l d " i d e a l ly " l i k e to

b e . E l a b o r a ti n g o n F r e u d ' s ( 1 9 2 3 / 1 9 6 l ) b as i c " s u p e r e g o ' / " e g oi de a l " c o nc e p t i ons , Sc ha f e r ( 1967) a nd P i e r s a nd S i nge r ( 197 l )

d i s ti n g u is h e d b e t w e e n t h e s u p e r e g o r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e m o r a l c o n -

s c i e nc e a nd t he i de a l s e l f r e p r e s e n t i ng hope s a nd goa l s (s e e a l so

C a m e r on , 1963) . C oo l e y ( 1902 / 1964 ) a l s o de s c r i be d a s oc i a l

" i d e a l s e lf " b u i l t u p b y i m a g i n i n g h o w a " b e t t e r I " o f a s p ir a t io n

w o u l d a p p e a r i n t h e m i n d s o f p e r s o n s w e lo o k u p t o . I n h i s

p r o g r a m m a b l e t h e o r y o f c o g n i ti o n a n d a f fe c t, C o l b y ( 1 9 6 8 ) d is -

t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n " w i s h - b e l i e f s ; ' s u c h a s " I w a n t t o m a r r y

T o m , " a n d " v a l ue - b e li e fs , " s u c h a s " I o u g h t t o h e l p m y f a th e r ? '

A l t ho ugh a va r i e t y o f a s pe c t s o f t he s e l f ha ve be e n d i s t i n -

gu i s he d a c r os s d i f f e r e n t t he o r i e s ( s e e G r e e nw a l d & Pr a t ka n i s ,

1984) , t he r e ha s be e n no s ys t e m a t i c f r a m e w or k f o r r e ve a l ing t he

i n t e r r e l a t i ons a m ong t he d i f f e r e n t se lf -s ta te s. I n a n a t t e m pt t odo s o , s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y pos t u l a t e s t w o c ogn i t i ve d i m e n-

s i ons unde r l y i ng t he va r i ous s e l f - st a te r e p r e s e n t a t i ons : d om a i ns

o f t he s e l f a nd s t a ndp o i n t s on t he s el f.

D o m a i n s o f t h e S e l f

The r e a r e t h r e e ba s i c dom a i ns o f t he s e lf i ( a ) t he actual self,

w h i c h i s y o u r r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f th e a t t r ib u t e s t h a t s o m e o n e

( your s e l f o r a no t he r ) be l i eve s yo u a c t ua l l y pos s e s s ; ( b ) t he ideals el f, w h i c h i s you r r e p r e s e n t a t i on o f t he a t t r i bu t e s t ha t s om e one

(yo urse l f or ano ther ) wo uld l ike you , idea lly , to possess ( i .e . , a

r e p r e s e n t a t i on o f s om e o ne ' s hope s , a s p i r a t ions , o r w is he s fo r

SELF-DISCREPANCY THEORY 321

you) ; a nd ( c ) t he ought s el f, w h i c h i s you r r e p r e s e n t a t i on o f t he

a t t r i bu t e s t ha t s om e one ( yo u r s e l f o r a no t he r ) be l i e ve s you

s hou l d o r oug h t t o pos s e s s ( i. e. , a r e p r e s e n t a t i on o f s om e one ' s

s e ns e o f you r du t y , ob l i ga t ions , o r r e s pons ib i l it i es ) .

T h e d i s t in c t i o n p r o p o s e d h e r e b e t w e e n t h e i d e a l s e lf a n d t h e

oug h t s e l f i s r e f l e c te d i n va r i ous d i s t i nc t i ons s ugge s t e d i n t he

l i t e ra ture (e .g. , Colby, 1968; Jam es , 189 0/19 48; Piers & Singer ,

1971; Rogers , 1961 ; Schafer , 1967). In an ex tens ive di scuss io n

o f t he d i f fe r e nc e be t w e e n m o r a l c ons c i e nc e a nd pe r s ona l i dea ls ,

S e h a f e r (1 9 6 7 ) c o g e n t ly a r g u e d t h a t " i d e a l s a n d s u p e r e g o m o -

r a l it y h a v e b e e n c o n f i n e d t o g e th e r w h e n e a c h s h o u l d l o n g a g o

ha ve ha d a p l a c e o f it s ow n " ( p . 131 ) . A c l a s s i c li t e r a r y e xa m pl e

o f t he d i f f e r e nc e be t w e e n t h e i de a l s e l f a nd t he o ugh t s e l f i s t he

c on f l i c t be t w e e n a he r o ' s " pe r s ona l w i s he s " a nd h i s o r he r

" s e ns e o f du t y . " A c u r r e n t r e a l - w or l d e xa m pl e i s t he c on f l i c t

s o m e w o m e n h a v e b e t w e e n t h e ir o w n w i s h e s t o b e s u c c e ss f u l

p r o f e s s i ona l s a nd s om e o t he r pe r s ons ' be l i e fs t ha t t he y oug h t t o

be hous e w i ve s a nd m o t he r s .

f r om t he v i e w po i n t o f s i gn i f ic a n t o t he r s ( u s ua l ly a c h i l d ' s

m o t he r a nd f a the r ) . Me a d , how e ver , d i d no t m a ke c l e a r t o w ha t

e x t e n t t he d i f f e r e n t s ta ndp o i n t s on s e l f r e m a i n d i s t inc t , a nd , i n

f a c t , s ugge s t e d t ha t i n l a t e r de ve l opm e n t a pe r s o n ' s s e l f - c onc e p t

b e c o m e s b a s e d o n t h e v i e w p o i n t o f " g e n e ra l iz e d o t h e r s " r a t h e r

t h a n p a r t i c u l a r o t h e rs .

I n c o n t r a s t t o t he r e l a t i ve ly r a r e u s e o f t he d i s t i nc t ion be t w e e n

" o w n" ve r s us " o t h e r " s t a ndp o i n t s i n c l a s s if y i ng d i f f e r e n t t ype s

o f s el f -s t a te r e p r e s e n t a t i ons , t he d i s t i nc t i on be t w e e n " ow n" ve r -

s us " o t he r " ha s f r e que n t l y be e n us e d a s a c r i ti c a l f e a t u r e i n va r i -

ous s ys t e m s f o r c l a s s if y i ng e m ot i ons ( e .g ., D a h l , 1979 ; D e R i v -

e r a , 1977 ; F r e ud , 1915 / 19 57 ; K e m pe r , 1978 ; R os e m a n , 1984)

a nd d i s t i ngu i s h i ng a m on g m ot i va t i on s (e .g ., B r e c k l e r & G r e e n -

wald , 1986; Buss , 198 0; Sche ier & Carver , 1983; Snyder , 1979) .

B y in c o r p o r a t i n g t h e d is t i n c ti o n b e t w e e n " o w n " a n d " o t h e r " a s

a f e a t u r e f o r c l as s i f y ing s e lf - st a te r e p r e s e n t a t i ons , w e c a n r e l a t e

d i f f e r e n t e m ot i ona l / m o t i va t i ona l c ond i t i ons t o d i f f e r e n t s e l f -

s ta te con di t ion s (as desc r ibed la ter ).

S t a n d p o i n t s o n t h e S e l f

I t is n o t e n o u g h t o d i s ti n g u is h a m o n g d i f fe r e n t d o m a i n s o f

s e l f i f one w i s he s s ys t e m a t i c a l ly t o r e l a t e s e l f a nd a f fe c t . O ne

m u s t a l s o d i s c ri m i n a t e a m o n g s e lf -s ta te r e p r e s e n t a t io n s b y c o n -

s i de r ing w h os e pe r s pe c t ive on t he s e l f i s i nvo l ve d . Th e r e a r e t w o

ba s i c s t a ndpo i n t s on t he s el f, w he r e a s t a ndp o i n t on t he s e l f i s

d e f in e d a s a p o i n t o f v i e w f r o m w h i c h y o u c a n b e j u d g e d t h a t

ref lec t s a se t of a t t i tudes or va lues ( see Turner , 1956): (a ) yo ur

ow n p e r s o n a l s ta n d p o i n t , a n d ( b ) t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f s o m e s i g-

n i f i c a n t other (e .g . , mother , fa ther , s ib l i r~ spouse , c loses t

f r ie nd ) . A pe r s on c a n ha ve s e lf - s ta t e r e p r e s e n t a t i ons f o r e a c h o f

a nu m be r o f s ign i f i c a n t o t he r s .

Exc e p t f o r t he o r i e s f oc us i ng s o l e l y on t he a c t u a l s e lf , p r e v i ous

t he o r i e s o f t he s e l f ha ve n o t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c ons i de r e d t hed i f f e r e n t dom a i ns o f s e l f i n t e r m s o f t he d i f f e r e n t s t a ndpo i n t s

on t ho s e dom a i ns ( e .g ., y ou r be l i ef s c on c e r n i ng t he a t t r i bu t e s

yo u w o u l d p e r s ona l l y l ike i de a l ly t o pos s e s s ve r s us you r be l ie f s

c onc e r n i ng t he a t t r i bu t e s t ha t s om e s i gn i f i c a n t o t he r pe r s on ,

s uc h a s y ou r m o t he r , w o u l d l i ke you i de a l l y t o pos s es s) . I n f a c t ,

t h i s f a il u r e t o be e xp l i c it a bou t w h i c h s t a ndp o i n t on t he s e l f i s

i nvo l ve d i n a pa r t i c u l a r s e l f - c onc e p t ha s l e d t o c on f us i on s in t he

l i te r a t u r e . F o r e xa m pl e , a l t houg h m os t m e a s u r e s o f " l ow s e lf -

e s t e e m " h a v e i n v o l v e d c o m p a r i n g a p e r s o n ' s a c t u a l s e l f a n d h i s

o r h e r ow n i d e al s elf , s o m e m e a s u r e s h a v e i n v o l v e d c o m p a r i n g

a pe r s o n ' s a c t ua l s e l f a nd h i s o r he r be l i ef s a bou t others" de a l s

f o r h i m o r he r ( o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s t he " s oc i a l i de a l s e l f " i n t he

l it e ra t u re ) , a n d o t h e r m e a s u r e s h a v e b e e n a m b i g u o u s c o n c e r n -i ng w hos e i de a l s t a nd po i n t i s i nvo l ve d ( s e e Wyl i e, 1979).

I n a d d i t i o n t o T u r n e r ' s ( 1 9 5 6 ) w o r k , th e c o n c e p t o f s t a n d -

p o i n t i s f o u n d i n s o m e w r i t in g s o n t h e i m p a c t o f r e f e re n c e

g r o u p s o n s e l f -j u d g m e n t , w h e r e a " n o r m a t i v e r e f e re n c e g r o u p "

i s de s c r i be d a s a s ou r c e o f a p e r s on ' s va l ue s o r pe r s pe c t i ve s (s e e

K e ll ey , 1952) . I n d i s c us s i ng " l e ve l o f a s p i r a t i on , " L e w i n ( 1935)

d i s t i ngu i s he d be t w e e n t he e xpe c t a t i ons o f a du l t a u t ho r i t y f i g-

u r e s t h a t c a n r a i s e a c h i l d ' s l e vel o f a s p i r a ti on ( i. e. , " o t he r "

s t a ndpo i n t s ) a nd a c h i l d ' s ow n hope s a nd pe r s ona l goa l s ( i . e . ,

" o w n " s t a n d p o in t ) . T h e n o t i o n o f s t a n d p o i n t i s a l s o im p l i c i t in

M e a d ' s ( 1 9 3 4 ) d i s c u s si o n o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t b e s elf , w h e r e a

pe r s on ' s ow n r e c o gn i t i on o f s e l f a s d i s t inc t f r o m o t he r s de ve l ops

S e l f - S t a te R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a n d Th e i r M o t i v a t io n a l

S ign i f i cance

C o m b i n i n g e a c h o f t h e d o m a i n s o f t h e s e l f w i t h e a c h o f t h e

s t a ndp o i n t s on t he s e l f y i e l d s s ix ba s i c t ype s o f s el f -s t a te r e p r e -

s e n t a t i ons : a c t ua l / ow n , a c t ua l / o t he r , i de a l / ow n , i de a l / o t he r ,

oug h t / ow n , a nd ough t / o t he r . Th e f ir st t w o s e l f- s ta t e r e p r e s e n t a -

t i ons ( pa r t i c u l a r l y a c t ua l / ow n) c ons t i t u t e w ha t i s t yp i c a l l y

m e a n t b y a p e r s o n ' s self-concept (see Wylie, 1979). Th e fou r re-

m a i n i ng s e l f- s ta t e r e p r e s e n t a t i ons a r e s e l f -d i r e ct i ve s t a nda r ds o r

a c q u i r e d g u i d e s f o r b e i n g - - i n b r ie f , self-guides (se e H i gg i ns ,

S t r a u m a n , & K l e i n , 1986 , f o r a r e v i e w o f d i f f e r e n t k i nds o f s t a n -

da r ds ) . Se l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y p r opos e s t ha t pe op l e d i f f e r a s

t o w h i c h s e l f - gu i de t he y a r e e s pe c i a l l y m o t i va t e d t o m e e t . N o t

e v e r y o n e i s e x p e c te d t o p o s s e s s a ll o f t h e s e l f - g u i d e s - - s o m e m a ypos s e s s on l y ough t s e lf - gu ide s , w he r e a s o t he r s m a y pos s e s s on l y

ideal se l f -guides .

S e l f -d i s c re p a n c y t h e o r y p o s t u l a t e s t h a t w e a r e m o t i v a t e d t o

r e a c h a c o n d i t io n w h e r e o u r s e l f -c o n c e p t m a t c h e s o u r p e r s o n -

a l l y r e l e va n t s e lf - gu ide s . The n o t i on t ha t s t a nda r ds , pa r t i c u l a r l y

i de a l a nd oug h t s t a nda r ds , a r e m o t i va t i ng ha s a l ong h i s to r y .

J a m e s ( 1 8 9 0 / 1 9 4 8 ) p o i n t e d o u t t h a t s t a n d a r d s b o t h d i r e c t l y

p r om pt a c t i on a nd , t h r ough t he i r u s e i n s e l f - e va l ua t i on , a r ous e

e m o t i o n s t h a t a r e t h e m s e l v e s m o t i v a ti n g . T h e o r i e s o f le v e l o f

a s p i r a t i on , a l t hou gh f oc us i ng on t he r e l a t i on be t w e e n pe r f o r -

m a nc e a nd s t a nda r d s e t t ing (s e e Fe st inger , 1942 ; Le w i n , 1935 ;

R o t t e r , 1942), ha ve t r a d i t iona l l y a s s u m e d t h a t pe op l e ne e d h i gh

" i de a l " goa l s o r a s p i r a t i on l e ve l s i n o r de r t o m o t i va t e pe r f o r -m a nc e . C on t r o l t he o r y o r c ybe r ne t i c s ( s e e Mi l l e r , G a l a n t e r , &

Pr i b r a m , 1960 ; Wi e ne r , 1948) a s s um e s t ha t pe op l e se l f -r e gu l a te

t h r o u g h a d i s c r e p a n c y - r e d u c i n g n e g a t i v e f e e d b a c k p r o c e s s

w h o s e f u n c t i o n i s t o m i n i m i z e d i f f e re n c e s b e tw e e n o n e s e n s ed

va l ue ( w h i c h c o u l d be a s e l f - c onc e p t ) a nd s om e o t he r r e f e r e nc e

v a l u e o r s t a n d a r d o f c o m p a r i s o n ( w h i c h c o u l d b e a s e lf -g u id e ).

D u v a l a n d W i c k l u n d ' s ( 1 9 7 2 ) t h e o r y o f o b je c t iv e s e l f- a w a re n e ss

a r gue s t ha t i nc r e a s i ng s e l f - f oc us e d a t t e n t i on i nc r e a s e s ou r

a w a r e ne s s o f d i s c r e pa nc i e s be t w e e n ou r r e a l s e l f a nd pe r s ona l

s t a n d a r d s o f c o r r e c tn e s s , s u b s e q u e n t l y i n d u c i n g a m o t i v a t i o n t o

r e du c e t he d i s c r e p a nc y ( s e e a l s o Wi c k l und & G o l l w i t ze r , 1982).

A n d C a r v e r a n d S c h e i e r ' s c o n t r o l - t h e o r y a p p r o a c h t o b e h a v -

322 E. TO R Y H I G G I N S

iora l se l f - regula t ion (e .g . , Carv er & Scheier , 1981; Scheier &

C a r ve r , 1982), w h i c h i n t e g r a t e s bo t h o f t he s e l a t t e r t w o pe r s pe c -

f ive s, e m p ha s i z e s t he m o t i va t i ona l s i gn i f i c a nc e o f m a t c h i ng t o

s t a nda r ds .

Se l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y d i f f e r s f r om t he s e o t he r t he o r i e s i n

p r o p o s i n g t h a t d i ff e re n t t y p e s o f c h r o n i c d i s c re p a n c i e s b e t w e e n

t he s e l f - c onc e p t a nd d i f f e r e n t s e l f - gu i de s , a s w e l l a s be t w e e n

di f ferent se l f-guides , a re associa ted wi th d i f feren t mo t iva t io nal

p r e d i s pos i t ions . I t i s no t pos s i b l e i n t h i s a r t i c l e t o c on s i de r a l l

o f t he pos s i b le t ype s o f s e l f - d is c r e pa nc i e s ( e. g. , i de a l / ow n vs .

ough t / o t he r ) . t A n e s pe c i a ll y i m po r t a n t s e t o f s e l f -d i s c r e pa nc i e s

i s t he s e t t ha t r e f le c t s a d i s c r e pa nc y b e t w e e n a n i nd i v i dua l ' s s e lf -

c on c e p t a nd h i s o r he r s e lf -gu ide s. Th i s s e t o f s e l f- d i s c r e pa nc ie s

ha s a l s o r e c e i ve d t he m os t e m pi r i c a l a t t e n t i on . I n t h i s a r t i c l e ,

t he r e f o r e , w e f oc us o n t he f o l l ow i ng f ou r t ype s o f d i s c r e pa nc i e s :

a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o w n , a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o t h e r , a c t u a l / o w n :

o u g h t / o w n , a n d a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o t h e r .

Ty p e s o f S el f -D i s c r e pa n c i e s a n d Q u a l i t y o f D i s c o m f o r t

A l t hough s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc i e s m i gh t be c ons i de r e d t o c ons t i -

t u t e a f o r m o f b e l i e f i n c o n si s te n c y , t h e s o u r c e o f d i s c re p a n c y -

i n d u c e d d i s c o m f o r t i s n o t a s s u m e d t o b e s i m p l y a f a i l u r e t o

a c h i e ve i n t e r na l c ons i s t e nc y o r a " good G e s t a l t f i t . " I nde e d , i f

t h i s w a s a s s u m e d t o b e t h e o n l y s o u r c e o f t h e d i s c o m f o r t , t h e n

s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y , l i ke p r e v i ous i nc ons i s t e nc y t he o r i e s ,

w o u l d n o t p r e d i c t t h a t d i ff e re n t t y p e s o f d i sc r e p a n c i es i n d u c e

d i f f e r e n t k i nds o f d i s c om f or t . B u t a s A be l s on ( 19 83) ha s

p o i n t e d o u t w i t h r e s p e c t t o H e i d e r 's ( 1 9 5 8 ) b a l a n c e t h e o r y a n d

Fe s t i nge r 's ( 1957) c ogn i t ive d i s s ona n c e t he o r y , i nc on s i s t e nc i e s

a m o n g c o g n i t i o n s r e f l e c t p e r s o n a l c o s t s a n d p r o b l e m s - - n o t

s i m p l y c ogn i t i ve e xpe r i e nc e s . Se l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y s ha r e s

t h i s pe r s pe c t ive ( se e a l s o H o l t , 1976 ; K e m pe r , 1978 ; P l u t c h i k ,1962 ; Sc h l e nke r, 1985) by a s s um i n g t ha t e a c h t ype o f d i s c r e p -

a nc y r e f le c t s a pa r t i c u l a r t ype o f ne ga t i ve p s yc ho l og i c a l s i t ua -

t i on t ha t i s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h s pe c i f i c e m ot i ona l / m o t i va t i ona l

p r o b l e m s .

W he n pe op l e be l ie ve t ha t t he y ha ve l o s t o r w i l l ne ve r ob t a i n

s om e de s i r e d goa l , t he y f ee l s a d o r d i s a ppo i n t e d . W he n pe op l e

be l ie ve t ha t s om e t h i ng t e r r i b l e i s go i ng t o ha p pe n t he y f e el a p -

p r e he ns i ve o r t h r e a t e ne d . Mor e ge ne r a l l y , t he r e a r e t w o ba s i c

k i nds o f ne ga ti ve p s yc ho l og i c a l s i t ua t i ons t ha t a r e a s s oc i a t e d

w i t h d i f f e re n t k i nds o f e m ot i ona l s t a t e s (s e e, f o r e xa m pl e , J a -

c obs , 1971 ; La z a r us , 1968 ; Mow r e r , 1960 ; R os e m a n , 1984 ;

Ste in & Jewet t , 1982): (a ) the absence o f positive outcomes (ac-

t ua l o r e xpe c t e d ) , w h i c h i s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h de j e c t i on - r e l a t e de m ot i ons ( e .g ., d i s s a t is f a c ti on , d i s a ppo i n t m e n t , s a dne s s ); a nd

( b ) t he presence of negative outcomes ( a c t ua l o r e xpe c t e d ) ,

w h i c h i s a s soc i a t e d w i t h a g i t a t i on - r e l a t e d e m ot i on s ( e .g ., f ea r,

t h r e a t , e dg i ne s s ) . I t ha s be e n unde r s t ood f o r m a ny ye a r s t ha t

p s y c h o lo g i c a l s i tu a t i o n s a r e a f u n c t i o n o f b o t h t h e n a t u r e o f

e x t e r na l e ve n t s a nd p e op l e ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i ons o f t hos e e ve n t s ( se e ,

f o r e xa m pl e , A s c h , 1952 ; Le w i n , 1951 ; M e r t on , 1957) , a nd t ha t

t he r e a r e i nd i v i dua l d i f fe r e nc e s i n how e x t e r na l e ve n t s a r e i n t e r -

pre te d ( see , for exam ple , Kel ly , 1955; G. S. Kle in , 1970; Mur -

r a y , 1938 ; s e e a l s o C oyne & La z a r us , 1980) . Se l f - d i s c r e pa nc y

t he o r y p r opos e s t ha t i nd i v i dua l d i f fe r e nc e s i n t ype s o f s e lf -d is -

c r e pa nc i e s a r e a s s oc i a t e d w i t h d i f f er e nc e s i n t he s pe c i f i c t ype s

o f ne ga t i ve p s yc ho l og i c a l s it ua t i ons t he i r pos s e s s o r s a r e l ike l y t o

e xpe r i e nc e .

J u s t a s y o u r e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e t o y o u r p e r f o r m a n c e is n o t

d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e p r o p e r t ie s o f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e p e r s e , b u t

by i t s s i gn i f i c a nc e o r m e a n i ng t o you , s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y

a s s u m e s t h a t t h e m o t i v a t io n a l o r e m o t i o n a l e f fe c ts o f y o u r a c -

t ua l / o w n a t t r ibu t e s , o r s e lf - c onc e p t , a r e de t e r m i ne d by t he s ig -

n i f i c a nc e t o yo u o f pos se s s i ng s uc h a t t r i bu t e s . A n d t he s ign if i-

c a n c e i s a s s u m e d t o d e p e n d o n t h e relation between the se l f -

c on c e p t a n d y ou r s e l f- gu ide s , w i t h d i f fe r e n t t ype s o f r e l a t ions

r e p r e s e n t i ng d i f f e r e n t type s o f ne ga t i ve p s yc ho l og i c a l s i tua t i ons ,

a s de s c r i be d ne x t :

1 . A c t ua l / o w n ve r s us i de a l / ow n : I f a pe r s on pos s e s s es t h is

d i s c r e pa nc y , t he c u r r e n t s t a t e o f h i s o r he r a c t ua l a t t r i bu t e s ,

f r o m t h e p e r s o n ' s o w n s t a n d p o i n t , d o e s n o t m a t c h t h e i d e a l

s t a t e t ha t he o r s he pe r s ona l l y hope s o r w i s he s t o a t t a i n . Th i s

d i s c r e p a nc y t he n r e p r e s e n t s t he ge ne r a l p s yc ho l og i c a l s i t ua t i on

o f h e a b s e n c e o f p o si ti v e o u t c o m e s (i .e ., n o n o b t a i n m e n t o f o w n

hope s a nd de s i r e s ) , a nd t hus t he pe r s on i s p r e d i c t e d t o be vu l -

ne r a b l e t o dejection-related emotions.

M or e s pec if ic a ll y, t he pe r s on i s p r e d i c t e d t o be vu l ne r a b l e t odisappointment and dissatisfaction b e c a u s e t h e s e e m o t i o n s a r e

a s s oc i a t e d w i t h pe op l e be l i e v i ng t ha t t he i r pe r s ona l hope s o r

w i s he s ha ve be e n un f u l f i l l e d . Mos t p s yc ho l og i c a l a na l ys e s o f

t he s e e m ot i o ns ha ve de s c r i be d t he m a s be ing a s s oc i a t e d w i t h (a )

t he i nd i v i dua l ' s ow n s t a ndp o i n t o r a ge nc y (e .g ., J a m e s , 1890 /

1948 ; K e m pe r , 1978 ; R os e m a n , 1984 ; Wi e r z b i c ka , 1972) a nd

( b ) a d i s c r e p a nc y f r om h i s o r he r ho pe s , de s ir e s , o r i de a l s (e .g .,

A b e l s o n , 1 9 8 3 ; C a r v e r & G a n e U e n , 1 9 8 3; D u r k h e i m , 1 9 5 1 ; D u -

v a l & W i c k l u n d , 1 9 7 2 ; H o m e y , 1 9 5 0 ; J a m e s , 1 8 9 0 / 1 9 4 8 ;

K e m pe r , 1978 ; R oge r s , 1961 ; W i e r z b i c ka , 1972). The m o t i va -

t i ona l na t u r e o f t h is d i s c r e pa nc y a l s o s ugge st s t ha t i t m i g h t be

a s s oc i a t e d with rustration f r om un f u l f i ll e d de s i r e s.

2 . A c t ua l / ow n ve r s us i de a l / o t he r : I f a pe r s on pos s e s s e s t h i sd i s c r e pa nc y , t he c u r r e n t s t a te o f h i s o r he r a c t ua l a t t ri bu t e s ,

f r o m t h e p e r s o n ' s o w n s t a n d p o i n t , d o e s n o t m a t c h t h e i d e a l

s t a t e t ha t t he pe r s on be l i e ve s s om e s i gn i f i c a n t o t he r pe r s on

hope s o r w i s he s t ha t he o r s he w ou l d a t t a i n . T h i s d i s c r e pa nc y ,

t he n , a g a i n r e p r e s e n t s t he ge ne r a l p s yc ho l og i c a l s i t ua t i on o f t he

a bs e nc e o f pos i t i ve ou t c om e s ( i. e. , no nob t a i nm e n t o f a s ign if i-

c a n t o t h e r ' s hope s o r w i she s ) , a nd t hus t he p e r s on i s a ga i n p r e -

d i c t e d t o b e v u l n e r a b l e t o dejection-related emotions.M or e s pec if ic a ll y, be c a u s e pe op l e w ho be l ie ve t ha t t he y ha ve

f a i l e d t o ob t a i n s om e s i gn i f i c a n t o t he r ' s hope s o r w i s he s a r e

l i ke l y t o be l i e ve t ha t t he s i gn i f i c a n t o t he r i s d i s a ppo i n t e d a nd

d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t he m , s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y p r e d i c t s t ha t

t he y w i l l be vu l ne r a b l e t o shame, embarrassment, o r feelingdowncast, b e c a u s e t h e s e e m o t i o n s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p e o p l e

be l i e v i ng t ha t t h e y ha ve l o s t s ta nd i ng o r e s t e e m i n t he op i n i on

o f o t h er s . M o s t p s y c h o l o g i ca l a n a l ys e s o f " s h a m e " a n d r e la t e d

e m o t i o n s h a v e d e s c r ib e d t h e m a s b e i n g a s so c i a te d w i t h ( a ) t h e

s t a n d p o in t o r a g e n c y o f o n e o r m o r e other peo ple (e .g . , Ausubel ,

1955 ; C oo l e y , 190 2 / 1964 ; D e R i ve r a , 1977 ; Le w i s , 1979 ; P i e rs

& S inger , 1971 ; Wi e r z b i c ka , 1972) a nd ( b ) a d i s c r e pa nc y f r om

a c h i e ve m e n t o r s t a t u s s t a nda r ds ( e . g . , C oo l e y , 1902 / 1964 ; D e -

~The Self-Discrepancies and Self-Concept Negativity section in-

cludes a brie f description of the kind of discomfort that is associatedwith a discrepancy between two self-guides.

R i ve r a , 1977 ; Er i k s on , 1950 / 196 3 ; K e m pe r , 1978 ; P i e r s &

Singer , 1971) . Som e a na l ys e s de s c r ibe s h a m e a s be i ng a s s oc i a t e d

w i t h d i s c r e p a n c y f r o m b o t h m o r a l a n d n o n m o r a l s t a n d a r d s

( e.g. , A us ube l , 1955 ; Le w i s , 1979) . The m o t i va t i on a l na t u r e o f

t h i s d i s c r e pa nc y s ugge s t s t ha t i t m i gh t a l s o be a s s oc i a t e d w i t h

c on c e r n o ve r lo s i ng the a f f e c t i on o r e s t e e m o f o t he r s .

3 . A c t u a l / ow n ve r s us oug h t / o t he r : I f a pe r s on pos s e s s e s t h i s

d i s c r e pa nc y , t he c u r r e n t s t a t e o f h i s o r he r a c t ua l a t t r ibu t e s ,f r o m t h e p e r s o n ' s o w n s t a n d p o i n t , d o e s n o t m a t c h t h e s t a te t h a t

t he pe r s on be l i e ve s s om e s i gn i f i c a n t o t he r pe r s on c ons i de r s t o

be h i s o r he r du t y o r ob l i ga t i on t o a t ta i n . B e c a us e v i o l a t i on o f

p r e s c r i be d du t i e s a nd ob l i ga t i ons i s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h s a nc t i ons

( e.g. , pun i s hm e n t ) , t h i s d i s c r e pa nc y r e p r e s e n t s t he ge ne r a l p s y -

c ho l og i c a l s it ua t i on o f t he p r e s e nc e o f ne ga t ive ou t c om e s ( i. e. ,

e x p e c t a t i o n o f p u n i s h m e n t ) , a n d t h u s t h e p e r s o n i s p re d i c t e d t o

b e v u l n e r a b l e t o agitation-related emotions.

M or e s pe c if ic a ll y, t he pe r s o n i s p r e d i c t e d t o be vu l n e r a b l e t o

fea r and feel ing threatened, b e c a u s e t h e se e m o t i o n s o c c u r w h e n

d a n g e r o r h a r m i s a n t i c ip a t e d o r i m p e n d i n g . M o s t p s y c h o lo g i c a l

a n a ly s e s o f t h es e e m o t i o n s h a v e d e s c r i b e d t h e m a s a s s o c ia t e d

w i t h ( a ) e x t e r na l a ge n t s , i n pa r t i c u l a r t he s t a ndpo i n t o r a ge nc yo f o n e o r m o r e other peop le (e .g . , Ab elson , 1983 ; Ausub el , 195 5;

D e R i ve r a , 1977 ; F r e ud , 1923 / 1961 ; K e m pe r , 1978 ; P i e r s &

Singer , 1971 ; Su l li va n , 1953), a n d ( b ) a d i s c r e p a nc y f r o m n o r m s

or moral s tandards (e .g . , Ausubel , 1955; Dala i , 1979; Freud,

1923/1961; Kemper , 1978; Piers & Singer , 1971; Sul l ivan,

1953) . The m o t i va t i ona l na t u r e o f t h i s d i s c r e pa nc y s ugge s t s

t ha t i t m i g h t a l s o be a s s oc i a t e d w i t h f e e l ings of resentment (i.e.,

r e s e n t m e n t o f t he a n t i c i pa t e d pa i n t o b e i n f li c t e d by o the r s ) .

4 . A c t u a l / ow n ve r s us oug h t / ow n : I f a pe r s on pos s e s s e s t h i s

d i s c r e pa nc y , t he c u r r e n t s t a t e o f h is o r he r a tt r i bu t e s , f r om t he

p e r s o n ' s o w n s t a n d p o i n t , d o e s n o t m a t c h t h e s t at e t h a t t h e p e r -

s on be l i e ve s i t i s h i s o r he r du t y o r ob l i ga t i on t o a t t a i n . Th i s

d i s c r e pa nc y , t he n , a ga i n r e p r e s e n t s t he ge ne r a l p s yc ho l og i c a ls i t ua t i on o f t he p r e s e n c e o f ne ga t i ve ou t c om e s ( i. e. , a r e a d i ne s s

f o r s e l f - pun i s hm e n t ) , a n d t hus s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y p r e d i c t s

t ha t t he p e r s on i s vu l ne r a b l e t o agitation-related emotions.M or e s pe c if ic a ll y, t he pe r s on i s p r e d i c t e d t o be vu l ne r a b l e t o

guilt, self-contempt, and uneasiness, be c a u s e t he s e f e e l i ngs oc -

c u r w he n pe op l e be l ie ve t he y ha ve t ra ns g r e s s e d a pe r s ona l l y a c -

c e p t e d ( i . e . , l e g i t i m a t e ) m or a l s t a nda r d . Mos t p s yc ho l og i c a l

a na l ys e s o f gu i l t ha ve de s c r i be d i t a s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h ( a ) a pe r -

s o n ' s ow n s t a ndp o i n t o r a ge nc y ( e. g. , A us ube l , 1955 ; Er i k s on ,

1 9 5 0 / 1 9 6 3 ; F r e u d , 1 9 2 3 / 1 9 6 1 ; J a m e s , 1 8 9 0 / 1 9 4 8 ; K e m p e r ,

1978 ; Le w i s , 1979 ; P i e rs & S i nge r, 1971) a nd ( b ) a d i s c r e p a nc y

f r om h i s o r he r s e ns e o f m or a l i t y o r j u s t ic e ( e. g. , A us ube l , 1955 ;

E r i k s o n , 1 9 5 0 / 1 9 6 3 ; F r e u d , 1 9 2 3 / 1 9 6 1 ; H o m e y , 1 9 3 9 ; J a m e s ,189 0/19 48; Kem per , 1978; Lew is , 1979; Piers & Singer, 1971) .

T h e m o t i v a t i o n a l n a t u r e o f t h is d i s c r e p a n c y s u g g e st s th a t i t m a y

be a s s oc i a t e d w i t h f e e l i ngs o f m or a l w or t h l e s s ne s s o r w e a kne s s .

The d i s t i nc t i on be t w e e n s ha m e a nd gu i l t s ugge s t e d he r e i s

t h a t s h a m e i n v o lv e s f e el in g t h a t o n e h a s b e e n l o w e r ed i n t h e

e s t e e m o f o t h e r s b e c a u s e o n e h a s d i s a p p o i n t e d t h e m b y f a il in g

t o a c c om pl i s h t he i r hope s a nd w i s he s f o r one , w he r e a s gu i l t i n -

v o l v e s f e el in g t h a t o n e h a s b r o k e n o n e ' s o w n r u l e s c o n c e r n i n g

how on e ough t t o c ond uc t on e ' s li fe . Th i s d i s t i nc t i on i s c ons i s-

t e n t w i t h p r e v i ous d i s c us s i ons o f t he d i f f e r e nc e be t w e e n s ha m e

a nd gu i l t ( e. g. , E r i k s on , 1950 / 19 63 ; J a m e s , 1890 / 1948) . I t i s

a l so e v i d e n t f r o m t h e p r e c e d i n g d e s c r ip t i o n s o f p s y c h o lo g i c a l

a n a l y se s o f t h e se t w o e m o t i o n s t h a t m o s t t h e o r i es c o n s i d e r

s h a m e t o i n v o l v e t h e " o t h e r " s t a n d p o i n t a n d g u i l t t o i n v o l v e

t h e " o w n " s t a n d p o i n t , a n d t h a t m o s t th e o r i e s c o n s i d e r s h a m e

t o i n v o l v e t h e " i d e a l " d o m a i n a n d g u i l t t o i n v o l v e t h e " o u g h t "

dom a i n . N e ve r t he l e s s , t he r e a r e s om e t he o r i e s t ha t c ons i de r

gu i l t t o i nvo l ve t he " o t he r " s t a ndpo i n t a s w e l l ( e . g . , H om e y ,

1939 ; P i e r s & S inger , 197 l ) a nd s ha m e t o i nvo l ve t he " o ug h t "

do m ain as wel l (e .g . , Ausubel , 195 5; Lew is , 1979). Thes e theo-

r i es , t he n , w ou l d p r e d i c t t ha t d i s c r e pa nc i e s i n a dd i t i on t o t hos e

p o s t u l a t e d b y s e l f- d i s cr e p a n c y t h e o r y c a n i n d u c e s h a m e a n d

gu i l t. B u t a l l o f t he t he o r i e s w ou l d a g r e e t ha t t he d i s c r e pa nc i e s

p o s t u l a t e d b y s e l f- d i sc r e p a n c y t h e o r y t o i n d u c e s h a m e a n d g u i l t

s h o u l d d o s o .

Th e d i s t i nc t i on be t w e e n f e a r a nd gu i l t sugge s t e d he r e is tha t

f e a r invo l ve s a n t i c i pa t i ng s a nc t i ons f r om o t he r s f o r ha v i ng v i o -

l a t e d t he i r r u l e s, w he r e a s gu i l t i nvo l ve s c ha s t i si ng one s e l f f o r

h a v i n g b r o k e n o n e ' s o w n r u l e s o f c o n d u c t . T h i s d i s t in c t i o n b e -

t w e e n f e a r a nd gu i l t is c ons i s t e n t w i t h t hos e p r e v i ous l y m a de i n

t he p s yc ho l og i c a l l it e r a t u r e o n e m ot i on s ( e. g. , A us ube l , 1955 ;

Fr e ud , 1923 / 1961 ; K e m pe r , 1978) .

A s I m e n t i one d e a rl ie r, s e l f - d i s c re pa nc y t he o r y do e s no t a s -s u m e t h a t p e o p l e p o ss e s s o n l y o n e o r t h e o t h e r o f t he s e t y p e s

o f s e lf - d i sc r e pa nc i e s. P a r t i c u l a r i nd i v i dua l s c a n pos s e s s non e o f

t h e m , a l l o f t h e m , o r a n y c o m b i n a t io n o f th e m . T h u s , o n e c a n

ha ve no e m ot i ona l vu l ne r a b i l i ty , on l y on e ( i. e. , a pu r e c a s e ) , o r

a n u m b e r o f d i ff e r en t k i n d s o f e m o t i o n a l v u l n e r ab i li ti e s. M o r e -

over , e ve n i f a p e r s on pos s e s s e s m or e t ha n one t ype o f s e lf -d is -

c r e p a n c y , a n d t h u s m o r e t h a n o n e k i n d o f e m o t i o n a l v u l n e r ab i l -

i t y , t he d i s c r e pa nc i e s a r e no t ne c e s s a r i l y e qua l l y a c t i ve a nd

e q u a l l y l i k e l y t o i n d u c e d i s c o m f o r t . I n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e

w h i c h t y p e s o f d i sc r e p a n c i e s a p e r s o n p o s s e ss e s a n d w h i c h a r e

l i ke l y t o be a c t i ve a nd i nduc e t he i r a s s oc i a t e d e m ot i ons a t a ny

p o i n t , w e m u s t c o n s i d e r th e n e x t f e a t u re o f s e l f- d i s cr e p a n c y th e -

o r y : d i s t i ngu i s h i ng be t w e e n t he a va i l a b il i ty a n d t he a c c e s s i b i li t yo f s e l f- d i s c re pa nc i e s .

A v a i l a b i l i t y a n d A c c e s s i b i l it y o f S e l f- D i s c r e p a n c i e s

T h e availability o f a n y p a r t i c u l a r t y p e o f s e l f -d i s c re p a n c y i s

a s s u m e d t o d e p e n d o n t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e a t t r i b u te s o f t h e

t w o c on f l i c t i ng s e l f- s ta t e r e p r e s e n t a t i ons d i ve r ge f o r t he pe r s on

i n que s t i on . Ea c h a t t r i bu t e i n one o f t he s e l f -s t a te r e p r e s e n t a -

t i ons ( e . g . , a c t ua l / ow n) i s c om pa r e d t o e a c h a t t r i bu t e i n t he

o t he r s e l f - st a te r e p r e s e n t a t i on ( e. g. , i de a l /ow n) . Ea c h pa i r o f a t -

t r i bu t e s i s c od e d a s e i t he r a m a t c h ( i .e ., s y no ny m o us a t t r i bu t e s

o f t h e s a m e o r s i m i l a r d e g re e ) o r a m i s m a t c h ( i. e. , a n t o n y m o u s

a t t r i bu t e s , s uc h a s a c t ua l / ow n : " una t t r a c t i ve " v s . i de a l / ow n :" a t t r a c t i v e " a n d s y n o n y m o u s a t tr i b u t e s o f v e r y d i ff e re n t d e -

g r e e s , s uc h a s a c t ua l / ow n : " s l i gh t l y a t t r a c t i ve " v s . i de a l / ow n :

" e x t r e m e l y a t t r a c t i ve " ) .

T h e g r e a t e r t h e d i ff e r en c e b e tw e e n t h e n u m b e r o f m i s m a t c h e s

a nd t he nu m b e r o f m a t c h e s ( i. e. , t he g r e a t e r the d i ve r ge nc e o f

a t t r i bu t e s be t w e e n t he t w o s e l f - s t a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i ons ) , t he

g r e a t e r i s t he m a gn i t u de o f t ha t t yp e o f s e l f - d is c r e pa nc y a va i l-

a b l e t o t h e s u b j e ct . A n d t h e g r e a t e r th e m a g n i t u d e o f a p a r t i c u -

l a r t ype o f d is c r e pa nc y , t he g r e a t e r w i l l be t he in tensi ty o f t h e

k i n d o f d i s c o m f o r t a s s o c i a te d w i t h t h e d i s c r e p a n c y w h e n i t is

a c t i va te d . T he l i ke l i hood t ha t a n a va i l ab l e s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y w il l

be ac t iva ted in tu rn dep end s on i t s access ibi li ty .

3 2 4 E . T O R Y H I G G I N S

T h e accessibility of a n a va i l a b l e s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y is a s s um e d

t o de pe nd on t he s a m e f a c t o r s t ha t de t e r m i ne t he a c c e s s i b i l i t y

o f a ny s t o r e d c o ns t r uc t ( f o r r e v ie w s , s e e H i gg i ns & K i ng , 1981 ;

H i gg i ns , B a r gh , & Lom ba r d i , 1985 ; W ye r & Sr u l l , 1981). O ne

f a c t o r is how r e c e n t l y t he c ons t r u c t ha s be e n a c t i va t e d . Fo r e x -

a m p l e , i t h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t e x p o s u r e t o t r a i t l a b el s i n

a p r i o r " u n r e l a t e d " t a s k (a priming m a ni pu l a t i on ) i nc r e a s e s t he

l i ke l ihood t h a t s ub j e c t s w i l l s ubs e que n t l y i n t e r p r e t a t a r ge t pe r -

s o n ' s a m b i g u o u s b e h a v i o r s in t e r m s o f th e p a r t i c u l a r c o n s t r u c t s

a c t i va t e d by t he l a be l s ( e . g . , H i gg i ns , R ho l e s , & J one s , 1977 ;

Sr u l l & Wye r, 1979 ; s e e a ls o B a r gh & P i e t r om ona c o , 1982) . A s

A b e l s o n ( 1 9 5 9 ) p o i n t e d o u t , t h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s i n c o n s i s t e n -

c i es i n a n y o n e ' s b e l ie f s y s t e m t h a t m a y l ie d o r m a n t , a n d i t is

p l a us i b l e t o a s s um e t ha t p r e s s u r e ope r a t e s on l y w he n t he i s s ue

i s sa l i e n t (e .g ., w he n t he s e l f - d i sc r e pa nc y ha s be e n c on t e x t u a l l y

p r i m e d ) .

I t h a s a ls o b e e n s h o w n t h a t t h e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y a c o n s t r u c t

i s a c t i va te d , t he m o r e l i ke l y it w i ll be u s e d s ubs e qu e n t l y t o i n t e r -

p r e t s oc i a l e ve n t s ( e . g . , H i gg i ns , B a r gh , & Lom ba r d i , 1985 ;

Sr u l l & Wye r, 1979 , 1980) . The i n f l ue nc e o f f r e que nc y o f a c t iva -

t i on i s a ls o r e f l e c t e d i n t he e f f e ct s o f c h r o n i c i nd i v i dua l d i ff e r -e nc e s i n c ons t r uc t a c c e s s i b i l i t y on s oc i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i on a nd

m e m or y ( e .g ., B a r gh & The i n , 1985 ; H i gg i ns e t al ., 1982) .

Th e a c c e ss ib il it y, o r l i ke l i hood o f a c ti va t i on , o f a s t o r e d c on -

s t r u c t a ls o d e p e n d s o n t h e r e l a t io n b e t w e e n i t s " m e a n i n g " a n d

t he p r ope r t i e s o f t he s t im u l us e ve n t . A s t o r e d c o ns t r u c t w i ll no t

be u s e d t o i n t e r p r e t a n e ve n t un l e s s i t i s a pp l i c a b l e t o t he e v e n t

( s e e H i gg i ns & B a r gh , 1987 ; H i gg i ns e t a l. , 1977). T hu s t he ne g -

a t i ve p s yc ho l og i c a l s i t ua t i on r e p r e s e n t e d i n a s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y

( i. e. , t he " m e a n i ng " o f t he d i s c r e pa nc y ) w i ll no t be a c t i va t e d by

a n u n a m b i g u o u s l y p o s i t iv e e v e n t. A n d a s e l f- d i s cr e p a n c y n e e d

no t ha ve h i gh p r i o r a c c e s s i b i l it y i n o r de r t o be u s e d t o i n t e r p r e t

a ne ga t i ve e ve n t i f t he e ve n t i n s t a n t i a t e s t he d i s c r e pa nc y ' s

" m e a n i ng " c l e a r l y e nou gh . I n s u m , t he a c c e s s i b i l i ty o f a s e lf -d i s c r e p a n c y i s d e t e r m i n e d b y i t s recency of activation, its fre-quen cy of activation, and its applicability t o t he s t i m u l us e ve n t .

I s h o u l d n o t e t h a t s e l f- d i sc r e p a n c y t h e o r y d o e s n o t a s s u m e

t ha t pe op l e a r e a w a r e o f e it he r t he a va i l a b i l it y o r t he a c c e s s ib i l -

i ty of the i r se l f -d i screpancies . I t i s c lear tha t the a vai labi l i ty and

a c c e s s ib i l it y o f s t o r e d s oc i a l c ons t r u c t s c a n i n f l ue nc e s oc i a l i n -

f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s in g a u t o m a t i c a l l y a n d w i t h o u t a w a r e n es s ( s e e

B a r gh , 1984 ; B a r gh , B on d , Lom ba r d i , & To t a , 1986 ; B a r gh &

Pi e t r om ona c o , 1982 ; H i gg i ns & B a r gh , 1987 ; H i gg i ns & K i ng ,

1981 ; K el ly , 1955 ) . Thu s , s e l f - d i sc r e pa nc y t he o r y a s s u m e s t ha t

t he a va i l a b l e a nd a c c e s s i b l e ne ga t i ve p s yc ho l og i c a l s i t ua t i ons

e m b o d i e d i n o n e ' s s e l f - d i s c r e p a n c i e s c a n b e u s e d t o a s s i g n

m e a n i n g t o e v e n t s w i t h o u t o n e ' s b e i n g a w a r e o f e it h e r th e d i s -c r e p a n c i e s o r t h e ir i m p a c t o n p r o c es s in g . T h e m e a s u r e o f s elf -

d i s c r e pa nc i e s r e qu i r e s on l y t ha t one be a b l e t o r e t r i e ve a t t r i -

bu t e s o f s pe c i fi c se l f -s t a te r e p r e s e n t a t i ons w h e n a s ke d t o d o s o .

I t doe s not r e q u i r e t h a t o n e b e a w a r e o f t h e r e l a ti o n s a m o n g

t he s e a t t r i bu t e s o r o f t he i r s i gn if i c anc e .

General Hypothesis o f Se l f -Discrepancy T heory

A n u m b e r o f im p l i c a t io n s f o l lo w f r o m t h e s e t o f a s s u m p t i o n s

a bove :

1 . I nd i v i dua l d i f f e r e nc e s i n w h i c h t yp e s o f s e l f - d is c r e pa nc i e s

a r e a va i l a b l e w i l l be a s s oc i a t e d w i t h i nd i v i dua l d i f f e r e nc e s i n

t he k i nds o f d i s c om f or t t ha t pe op l e w i l l su f f e r ( i. e. , i nd i v i dua l

d i f f e re nc e s i n e m ot i on a l vu l ne r a b i l it y ) .

2 . Th e g r e a t e r t he m a g n i t ude o f a pa r t i c u l a r t ype o f s el f- di s-

c r e pa nc y , t he m or e i n t e ns e l y i ts pos s e s s o r w i ll s u f fe r the k i nd o f

d i s c o m f o r t a s s o c ia t e d w i t h t h a t t y p e o f d is c r e p an c y .

3 . I f a pe r s on pos s e s s e s m or e t ha n one t ype o f s e l f -d i s c r ep -

a nc y ( i. e. , ha s m or e t h a n one t yp e o f s e l f - d i s c re pa nc y a va i la b l e ),

he o r s he i s l i kel y t o s u f fe r m os t i n t e ns e l y t he k i nd o f d i s c om f or t

a s s o c i at e d w i t h w h i c h e v e r t y p e o f d i s c r e p a n c y h a s t h e g r e a t e st

m a g n i t u d e .

4 . I nd i v i dua l d i ff e r e nc e s i n w h i c h t ype o f s e l f - d i sc r e pa nc y i s

t e m p o r a r i l y m o s t a c c e s si b le w i ll b e a s s o c i a te d w i t h m o m e n t a r y

i nd i v i dua l d i f f e r e nc e s i n t he k i nd s o f d i s c om f or t t ha t pe op l e w i l l

suf fer ( i.e ., in dividu al d i f ferences in emo t ion al epi sodes) .

5 . T he g r e a t e r t he a c c e s s i b i l it y o f a pa r t i c u l a r t ype o f se lf -

d i s c r e pa nc y , t he g r e a t e r t he l i ke l i hood t ha t i t s pos s e s s o r w i l l

s u f fe r th e k i n d o f d i s c o m f o r t a s s o c i a te d w i t h t h a t t y p e o f d is -

c r e p a n c y .

6 . I f a pe r s on pos s e s se s m or e t ha n one t ype o f s e l f- d i s cr e p -

a nc y , he o r s he is m os t l i ke l y t o s u f f e r m o m e n t a r i l y t he k i nd o f

d i s c o m f o r t a s so c i a te d w i t h w h i c h e v e r t y p e o f d i s c r e p a n c y h a sthe grea tes t t emporary access ibi l i ty .

T h e s e i m p l i c a ti o n s o f s e lf - d is c r e p an c y t h e o r y a r e c a p t u r e d i n

t he f o l l ow i ng ge ne r a l hypo t he s i s : The g r e a t e r t he m a gn i t ud e a nd

a c c e s s i b i li t y o f a pa r t i c u l a r t y pe o f s e lf - d i s c r e pa nc y pos s e s s e d

by a n i nd i v i dua l , t h e m o r e t he i nd i v i dua l w i l l s u f f er t he k i nd o f

d i s c o m f o r t a s soc i a t e d w i t h t ha t t ype o f s e l f- d i s cr e pa nc y .

E v i d e n c e f o r S e l f - D i sc r e p a n c y T h e o r y

I n t h i s s e c t i on I w i l l r e v i e w e v i de nc e f o r t he p r e c e d i ng hy -

po t he s i s o f s e l f -d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y . F i r s t I w i ll d i s c us s obs e r va -

t i o n a l a n d c o r r e l a ti o n a l e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t i n g t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d

d i s t i nc t a s s oc i a t i ons be t w e e n pa r t i c u l a r t ype s o f s e l f -d i s c r e pa n -c i e s a nd pa r t i c u l a r k i nds o f d i s c om f or t . N e x t I w il l p r e s e n t e x -

p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e f o r th e c a u s a l a s s u m p t i o n s i n t h e t h e o ry .

Th e n I w il l de s c r i be s om e a dd i t i ona l e v i de nc e o f t he r e l a t ions

be t w e e n s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc i e s a nd m or e ge ne r a l e m o t i ona l p r ob -

l e m s ( i . e . , de j e c t e d de p r e s s i on vs . a g i t a t e d de p r e s s i on o r

a nx i e t y ) .

E v ide nc e o f D i s t i nc t Se l f - D i sc re panc y - Di sc omfor t

Assoc iat ions

A l t ho ugh t he p r e v i o us l i te r a t u r e r e l a t i ng s e l f a nd a f f e ct doe s

no t c on t a i n s t ud i e s t ha t d i r e c t l y t e s te d s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y the o r y ,

t he r e i s s om e e v i de nc e o f d i s ti nc t r e l a t i ons be t w e e n p a r t i c u l a rt ype s o f d i s c r e pa n t s el f- be li ef s a nd pa r t i c u l a r k i nds o f d i s c om -

f o r t t ha t i s r e l e va n t t o , a nd ge ne r a l l y s uppor t s , t he p r opos e d

hypo t he s i s .

J a m e s ( 1 8 9 0 / 1 9 4 8 ) s t a te d t h a t w h e n s u c c e ss d o es n o t m a t c h

o u r p r e t e n s i o n s o r a s p i r a t i o n s ( a n a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o w n d i s -

c r e pa nc y ) , w e w i l l f e e l d i s a ppo i n t e d . D uva l a nd Wi c k l und

( 1 9 7 2 ) a ls o r e p o r t e d t h a t w h e n w e f o c u s o n o u r o w n " r e a l s elf :

i de a l s e l f " d i s c r e pa nc y , a s a c ons e q ue nc e o f be i ng ob j e c t ive l y

s e l f - a w a r e , w e be c om e i nc r e a s i ng l y d i s s a t i s f i e d a nd d i s a p -

po i n t e d . V a r i ous o t he r r e s e a r c he r s ha ve obs e r ve d t ha t a f e l t d i s -

c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n w h a t o n e a c t u a l l y is a n d w h a t o n e w a n t s o r

hope s t o be , onc e a ga i n r e f l e c ti ng a n a c t u a l / ow n : i de a l / ow n d i s -

SELF-D I SCR EPA N C Y TH EO R Y 32 5

c r e pa nc y , l e a ds t o d i s a ppo i n t m e n t a nd d i s s a t i s f a c t i on ( e . g . ,

D u r khe i m , 1951 ; Fe n i c he l, 1945 ; J a c ob s on , 1946 ; R oge r s ,

1961).

C oo l e y ( 1902 / 196 4) s t a t e d t h a t i f pe op l e ha ve a s e ns e o f t he

d i f f e re nc e be t w e e n t he i r c u r r e n t s e l f a nd t he i r s oc i a l i de a l se l f

( a n a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y ), t h e y a r e p l u n g e d i n t o

f e e li ngs o f s ha m e o r unw or t h i ne s s . S i m i l ar l y , J a m e s ( 18 90 /

1948) s a i d t ha t w he n s e l f - e s t i m a t i on doe s no t m a t c h t he s oc i a li de a l se lf , a pe r s on e xpe r i e nc e s s h a m e . P i e r s a nd S i nge r ( 1971)

o b s e r v e d t h a t w h e n p e o p l e fa il t o r e a c h t h e g o a l s a n d h o p e s f o r

t he m t ha t a r e a s s oc i a t e d w i t h t he i r pa r e n t s ( i . e . , t he i r i de a l /

o t he r ) , t he y f e el s ha m e , w h i c h c a n i nc l ud e a n e x pe c t a t i on o f lo s s

o f love. A s d i s c us s e d e a r li er , a n a c t ua l / ow n : i de a l / o t h e r d i s c r e p -

a nc y r e f le c t s ou r be l i e f t ha t w e ha ve f a i l e d t o ob t a i n s om e s ig -

n i f i c a n t o t he r ' s goa l s f o r u s , w h i c h i s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h be l i e v i ng

t ha t t he s i gn i f i c an t o t he r i s d i s a ppo i n t e d i n o r d i s sa t is f ie d w i t h

us . I t ha s f r e que n t l y be e n no t e d t ha t s h a m e a s s oc i a t e d w i t h f a il -

u r e t o m e e t a s i gn i f i c a n t o t he r ' s goa l s o r w is he s i nvo l ve s l o s s o f

f a c e a n d p r e s u m e d e x p o s u r e t o t h e d i s s a ti s fa c t io n o f o t h e r s

(e .g . , Ausub el , 1955; M ead, 1934; To mp kins , 1984).

A d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n o n e ' s a c tu a l b e h a v i o r a n d t h e b e h a v -i o r p r e s c r i b e d b y s i g ni f ic a n t o t h e rs ( a n a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o t h e r

d i s c r e p a n c y ) h a s o f t e n b e e n s a i d t o c r e a t e f e a r a n d a n x i e t y b e -

c a us e o f a pp r e he n s i on ove r a n t i c i pa t e d s a nc t i ons o r ne ga t i ve r e -

s pons e s by o t he r s ( e . g . , F r e ud , 1923 / 1961 ; Sc he i e r & C a r ve r ,

1977 ; Su ll i van , 1953) . I n c on t r a s t , t r a ns g r e s s i on o f on e ' s ow n

i n t e rn a l i z ed m o r a l a n d r e li g io u s s t a n d a r d s ( a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t /

ow n d i s c r e pa nc y ) ha s be e n a s s oc i a t e d w i t h gu i l t a nd s e l f - c r i t i -

c i sm (e .g . , Ausub el , 1955; Bibr ing~ 1953; Freud, 192 3/19 61;

J a m e s , 1890 / 19 48 ; P i e r s & S inger , 1971 ; Tom pk i ns , 1984) .

W e in er , R u s s e ll , a n d L e r m a n ( 1 9 7 9 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t w h e n p e o p l e

a t t r i bu t e t he i r f a i l u r e s t o a l a c k o f s u ff i c ie n t e f f o r t on t he i r pa r t

( i. e. , no t t r y i ng a s ha r d a s t he y kn ow t he y s hou l d ha ve ) , w h i c h

p e r h a p s r e f l e c t s a n a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y , t h e yfeel guil ty.

The r e i s a l s o s om e e v i de nc e o f d i s t i nc t r e l a t i ons d i s c e r n i b l e

i n p r e v i ous s e l f -c on f l ic t t he o r i e s o f de p r e s s ion . A r e v i e w o f t he s e

t he o r i e s r e ve a l s a ba s i c s i m i l a r it y : Ea c h t he o r y p r opo s e s t ha t t he

e m o t i o n s a s s o c i at e d w i t h d e p r e s s io n a r is e f r o m a d i s c r e p a n c y

b e t w e e n a p e r s o n ' s p e rc e i v e d s e l f a n d s o m e s t a n d a r d . I t h a s n o t

be e n no t e d , how e ve r , t ha t t he r e a r e t w o d i f f e r e n t s e l f - c on f l i c t

t h e o r ie s o f d e p r e s s io n a s a f u n c t i o n o f th e t y p e o f s t a n d a r d t h a t

i s e m p h a s i z e d . O n e s e t o f t h e o ri e s , w h i c h c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d

a s t h e " a c t u a l : o u g h t " t h e o r ie s , e m p h a s i z e s t h e o u g h t s t a n d a r d .

T h e s e t h e o r i e s p r o p o s e t h a t d e p r e s s i o n i s c a u s e d b y d i s c r e p a n c y

b e t w e e n a p e r s o n ' s a c t u a l s e lf a n d h i s o r h e r s u p e r e g o o r m o r a l

c ons c i e n c e ( e. g. , C a m e r on , 1963 ; Fe n i c he l , 1945 ; F r e ud , 1917 /1959 , 1923 / 196 1 ; R a d o , 1 927 / 1956) . F r e ud , f o r e xa m pl e , s ug -

ge s t e d tha t d e p r e s s i on r e s u l t s f r om a f e l t d i s pa r i t y be t w e e n t he

e g o a s o b j e c t a n d t h e s u p e r e g o o r c o n s c i e n c e . A n o t h e r s e t o f

t he o r i e s , w h i c h c ou l d be de s c r i be d a s t he " a c t ua l : i de a l " t he o -

r ie s , e m pha s i z e s t he i de a l s ta nda r d . The s e t he o r i e s p r opo s e t ha t

d e p r e s si o n i s c a u s e d b y a d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n a p e r s o n ' s a c t u a l

s e l f a nd h i s o r he r goa l s , a s p i r a ti ons , o r i de a l s e l f ( e . g . , B i b r i ng ,

1953 ; J a c ob s on , 1946 ; Sa nd i e r & J o ff e , 1965). B i b r ing , f o r e x -

a m p l e , s ugge s t e d t ha t de p r e s s i on r e s u l t s f r om a n i nne r - s ys t e m i c

c onf l i c t i nvo l v i ng a d i s c r e pa nc y be t w e e n a pe r s on ' s a c t ua l s e l f

a nd h i s o r he r goa l s a nd a s p i r a t ions .

A c c o r d i ng t o s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y , t he s e t w o d i f f e r e n t

t ype s o f se l f -c on f l ic t s o r d i s c r e pa nc i e s s hou l d i nd uc e d i f f e re n t

k i n d s o f d e p r e s s i o n - - a n a c t u a l : o u g h t d i s c r e p a n c y s h o u l d i n -

duc e a g i t a t e d de p r e s s i on , w he r e a s a n a c t ua l : i de a l d i s c r e pa nc y

s hou l d i nduc e de j e c t e d de p r e s s i on . I nde e d , t he de p r e s s i ve

s y m p t o m s e m p h a s i z e d b y t h e " a c t u a l : o u g h t " c o n f li c t t h e o ri s ts

ha ve be e n gu i l t, a pp r e he ns i on , a nx i e t y , a nd f e a r ( i. e. , a g i t a t e d

d e p r e ss i o n ), w h e r e a s t h e d e p r e ss i ve s y m p t o m s e m p h a s i z e d b y

t he " a c t ua l : i de a l " c on f l i c t t he o r i s t s ha ve be e n f e e li ngs o f f a i lu r e ,

d i s a ppo i n t m e n t , de va l ua t i on , a nd s ha m e ( i . e . , de j e c t e d de p r e s -

s i on ). I t i s a l s o i n t e r e s ti ng i n t h i s r e g a r d t ha t pe op l e w ho d e ve l op

i nvo l u t i on a l m e l a nc ho l i a t e nd t o b e h i gh l y m or a l i s t i c (i .e ., h i gh

oug h t s t a nda r d ) , a nd t he i r i ll ne ss u s ua l l y i nvo l ve s a g i ta t e d de -

press ion (Mendels , 1970) .

W i t h r e g a r d t o s t a n d p o i n t , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f d is t in g u i s h in g

b e t w e e n p e r f o r m a n c e : o u g h t / o w n d i s c r e p a n c i e s a n d p e r f o r -

m a n c e : o n g h t / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c ie s i s s u g ge s te d i n t h e m o r a l s o -

c i a l i z a t i on f i nd ings o f H of f m a n ( e. g. , 1971 , 1975). I n one s t ud y

i n v o l v i n g e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l ch i l d re n a n d a d u l t s , H o f f m a n

( 1975) f ou nd t ha t m or a l t r a ns g r e s s i on w a s a s s oc i a te d w i t h gu i l t

f o r fe m a l e s b u t w i t h f e a r a n d a n t i c i p a t i o n o f p u n i s h m e n t f o r

m a l e s ( e s pe c i a ll y f o r t he a du l t s ) . H of f m a n s ugge s t e d t ha t m a l e sm a y r e p r e s e n t m o r a l s t a n d a r d s m o s t l y i n t e r m s o f e x t e rn a l

s a nc t i ons , w he r e a s f e m a l e s m a y i n t e r na l iz e m o r a l s t a nda r ds . I f

s o , t he n t he r e s u l t s o f h i s s t udy a r e c on s i s t e n t w i t h t he d i s t i nc -

t i o n b e t w e e n t h e a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y ( f o r f e -

m a l e s ) a n d t h e a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y ( fo r m a l e s)

p r o p o s e d i n t h e m o d e l . M o r e o v er , fe a r a n d a n t i c i p a ti o n o f p u n -

i s hm e n t w e r e unc o r r e l a t e d w i t h e xp r e s s i ons o f gu i lt , c ons i s t e n t

w i t h t h e m o d e l ' s p r o p o s a l t h a t t h e se e m o t i o n s h a v e d i st i n ct u n -

de r l y i ng c a us e s . I n a no t he r s t udy , H of f m a n ( 1971) a l s o f ound

t h a t e m p h a s i s o n a n o u g h t / o t h e r s t a n d a r d ( a s m e a s u r e d b y

i d e n ti f ic a t io n w i t h o n e ' s p a r e n t s ' m o r a l s t a n d a rd s ) w a s n o t a s -

s oc i a t e d w i t h gu i l t o r m or a l c on f e s s i on bu t w a s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h

c o n f o r m i t y t o r u l e s ( p re s u m a b l y b e c a u s e o f a n ti c i p a ti o n o fp u n i s h m e n t ) .

I n a d i r e c t t e s t o f s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y the o r y , I a nd m y c o l l e a gue s

( H i gg i ns , K l e i n , & S t r a u m a n , 1985) ha d un de r g r a d ua t e s f il l ou t

a que s t i onna i r e de s i gne d t o m e a s u r e t he i r s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc i e s

( t he Se l ve s que s t i onn a i r e ) a s w e l l a s a va r i e t y o f que s t i onn a i r e s

t h a t m e a s u r e d d i f f e re n t k i n d s o f c h r o n i c d i s c o m f o r t a n d e m o -

t i o n a l s y m p t o m s . T h e S e l v es q u e s t io n n a i r e a s k e d r e s p o n d e n t s

t o l i st u p t o 1 0 t r a it s o r a t t ri b u t e s f o r e a c h o f a n u m b e r o f

di f ferent se lf -s tates. I t was adm inis te red in two sec t ions , the f i r s t

i n v o l v i n g t h e r e s p o n d e n t ' s o w n s t a n d p o i n t a n d t h e s e c o n d i n -

vo l v i ng the s t a nd po i n t s o f t he r e s p ond e n t ' s f at he r, m o t he r , a nd

c l os e s t f r i end . I n t he b e g i nn i n g o f t he que s t i on na i r e t he a c t ua l ,

idea l , and ought se l f - s ta tes were def ined (as descr ibed ear l i e r ) .E a c h p a g e o f h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n c e r n e d a p a r t i c u la r s e l f- st at e:

f o r e xa m pl e , " P l e a s e l is t t he a t t r i bu t e s o f t he t ype o f pe r s on you

t h i n k y o u actually are" or " P l e a s e l is t the a t t r i bu t e s o f t he t ype

o f p e r so n y o u r Mother be l ie ve s yo u should o r o u g h t t o b e ? ' B y

ha v i ng s ub j e c t s s pon t a n e ous l y l i s t t he a t t r i bu t e s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h

e a c h o f t he i r s e l f- s ta t e s (a s oppos e d t o a c o ns t r a i ne d , c he c k l i s t

p r oc e dur e ) , w e i nc r e a s e d t he l i ke l i hood t ha t t he a t t r i bu t e s ob -

t a i n e d w o u l d b e i m p o r t a n t a n d a c c e s s ib l e to e a c h s u b j e c t.

Th e s ub j e c t s w e r e a l s o i n s t r uc t e d t o r a t e t he ove r a l l e x t e n t t o

w h i c h a pa r t i c u l a r s t a ndp o i n t ( s el f, m o t he r , e t c . ) on a pa r t i c u l a r

dom a i n o f s e l f ( a c t ua l , i de a l, ough t ) w a s r e le va n t o r m e a n i n g f u l

t o t h e m a s a s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n . T h i s w a s d o n e b e c a u s e s elf -

32 6 E . TO R Y H I G G I N S

d i s c r e p a n c y t h e o r y a s s u m e s t h a t o n l y relevant standpoints are

m ot i va t i ona l l y o r e m o t i ona l l y s i gn if i c an t . I nde e d , a s t u dy by R .

K l e i n a n d H i g g i n s ( 1 9 8 4 ) f o u n d p r e l i m i n a r y s u p p o r t f o r t h i s

a s s um pt i on . U nde r g r a dua t e s f i l l e d ou t a que s t i onna i r e c on t a i n -

i n g s o m e q u e s t i o n s t h a t m e a s u r e d t h e r e l e v a n c e o f th e s t a n d -

po i n t o f d i f f e r e n t s ign i f i c a n t o t he r s de s i gna t e d by t he i r r o l e r e l a -

t ionship to the subjec t (e .g . , mother , fa ther , bes t f r i end) wi th

r e s pe c t t o d i f fe r e n t dom a i ns ( e .g ., f o r t he oug h t dom a i n ,

" W h o s e v i e w p o i nt o n t h e t y p e o f p e r s o n y o u s h o u l d o r o u g h t

t o b e m a t t e r s m o s t t o y o u ? " ; " W h o s e v i e w p o i n t m a t t e r s l e a s t

t o you? " ) . A f e w w e e ks la te r, a s pa r t o f a d i f f e r e n t s t udy , the

s ub j e c t s w e r e a s ke d t o i m a g i ne d i f f e r e n t type s o f pe r f o r m a nc e :

gu i de d i s c r e pa nc i e s i nv o l v i ng t he s t a nd po i n t s o f d i f f e re n t s ig -

n i f ic a n t o th e r s, a n d t h e y r e p o r t e d h o w t h e e v e n t w o u l d m a k e

t h e m f ee l. A s e x p e c t ed , t h e m a g n i t u d e o f d i s c o m f o r t r e p o r t e d

w a s s ign i f ic a n t ly g r e a t e r ( p < . 05 ) w he n t he " o t h e r " s t a ndp o i n t

w a s t h e m o s t r e l e v a n t t o t h e d o m a i n t h a n w h e n i t w a s t h e l ea s t

r e l e va n t .

Th i s e f f e c t o f s t a ndpo i n t r e l e va nc e i s c ons i s t e n t w i t h N e w -

c o m b ' s ( 1 9 6 8 ) c o n c l u s i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e d i s c o m f o r t a s s o ci a te d

wi th incompat ib le be l ie f s :

An individual's m ost salient concern, in dealing with such mu ltiplecognitions, is the suitability of he other person as a source of nfor-mation, or support , o r of influence concerning the object cngnizedby each of them. Insofar as the other person is devalued in thiscontext, h e will be indifferent to the latter's cognitions. (p. 50)

N e w c om b ' s r e s e a r c h s ugge s ts t ha t s t a ndp o i n t r e l e va nc e i s c r i t i-

c a l f o r w he t he r s e l f- s ta t e i nc om p a t i b i l i t y w i ll i nduc e d i s c om f or t

( see a l so Rogers , 19 61; Rose nberg , 1979) .

T h u s i n t h e H i g g in s , K l ei n , a n d S t r a u m a n ( 1 9 8 5 ) s tu d y , s u b -

j e c t s ' r a t i ngs o f t he r e l e va nc e o f the d i f f e re n t s i gn i f i c a n t o t he r s

w e r e u s ed t o s e l ec t f o r e a c h d o m a i n t h a t " o t h e r " w h o w a s m o s t

r e l e va n t t o t h e s ub j e c t . F ou r d i f f e r e n t t ype s o f s e lf - d i s c re pa nc i e sw e r e t h e n c a l c u la t e d : a c t u a l /o w n : i d e a l / o w n ; a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l /

o t h e r , a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o t h e r , a n d a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o w n .

F i r s t, f o r e a c h s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he a t t r i bu t e s i n o ne s e l f- s ta t e

w e r e c om pa r e d t o t he a t t r i bu t e s i n t he o t he r s e l f- s ta t e t o de te r -

m i n e w h i c h a t t r i b u te s m a t c h e d ( i .e. , both self-states l isted the

s a m e a t t r i b u te ; s y n o n y m s w e re c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e s a m e a t t r i-

b u t e ) a n d w h i c h a t t r i b u t e s m i s m a t c h e d ( i .e . , an a t t r ibute in one

s e l f- s ta t e w a s a n a n t o ny m o f a n a t t r i bu t e i n t he o t he r s el f- st at e) .

Se c ond , t he s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y s c o r e f o r t he t w o s e l f- s ta t e s w a s c a l -

c u l a t e d b y s u b t ra c t i n g t h e to t a l n u m b e r o f m a t c h e s f r o m t h e

t o t a l n u m b e r o f m i s m a t c h e s .

I n o r d e r t o m e a s u r e c h r o n i c d is c o m f o r t a n d e m o t i o n a l s y m p -

t om s , t he f o l l ow i ng m e a s u r e s w e r e u s e d ( f o r m or e de t a i l s a bou tt he s e m e a s u r e s , s e e H i gg i ns , K l e i n , & S t r a um a n , 1985) : t he

B e c k D e p r e s s io n I n v e n t o r y ( B e c k , W a r d , M e n d e l s o n , M o c k , &

Er ba ugh , 1961) , t he B l a t t D e pr e s s i ve Expe r i e nc e s Q ue s t i on -

na i r e ( B l a tt e t a l ., 1976) , t he H o pk i ns S ym pt o m C he c k l i s t ( D e -

r oga t i s , L i pm a n , R i c ke l s , U h l e nhu t h , & C ov i , 1974) , a nd t he

E m o t i o n s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( H i g g in s , K l e in & S t r a u m a n , 1 98 5 ).

B e c a u s e th e p u b l i s h e d r e s u lt s o f o u r s t u d y d i d n o t c o n s i d e r

a l l f ou r pos s i b l e type s o f a c t ua l / ow n : gu i d e d i s c r e pa nc i e s , t he

d a t a f r o m t h is s t u d y w e r e r e a n a l y z e d to c o m p a r e a l l fo u r t y p e s

o f d i s c r e pa nc ie s . T o t e s t the hypo t he s i s o f s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he -

o r y , pa r t i a l c o r r e l a t i ons be t w e e n e a c h o f t he d i s c r e pa nc i e s a n d

e a c h o f th e i t e m s w e r e c a lc u l a te d , p a r t i a l in g o u t t h e c o n t r i b u -

t i o n t o e a c h c o r r e l a t i o n d e r iv i n g f r o m t h e i r c o m m o n r e l a t io n t o

all the other discrepancies (all s i gn i fi c a n t pa r t i a l c o r r e l a t i ons

a r e r e p o r t e d ) :

1 . A c t ua l / ow n ve r s us i de a l / ow n : We p r e d i c t e d t h i s d i s c r e p -

a n c y w o u l d b e a s s o c ia t e d w i t h f e e li n g s o f d i s a p p o i n t m e n t a n d

d i s s a t i s f a c t i on i n pa r t i c u l a r a nd w i t h de j e c t i on i n ge ne r a l . A s

p r e d i c te d , t h e a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l /o w n d i s c r e p a n c y w a s u n i q u e l y

a s s oc i a t e d ( p < . 05 ) w i t h s ub j e c t s ' fe e l i ng " d i s a p po i n t e d , " " d i s -

s a t i s f i e d" no t f e e l i ng " e f f e c t i ve , " f e e l i ng " b l a m e w or t hy , " a nd

" f e e l i ng no i n t e r e s t i n t h i ngs ? '

T h e a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y w a s a ls o u n i q u e l y a s -

s oc i a t e d ( p < . 05 ) w i t h t he I n t r o j e c t i on s ubs c a l e o f t he B l a t t

D e pr e s s i ve Expe r i e nc e s Q ue s t i onna i r e , w h i c h c ons i s t s m os t l y

o f i t e m s m e a s u r i n g g e n e r a l d i s c re p a n c y w i th s t a n d ar d s , e s p e -

c i a l ly i de a l s t a nda r ds ( e. g. , " I o f t e n f i nd t ha t I don ' t l ive up t o

m y ow n s t a nda r ds o r i de a l s " ) a nd ge ne r a l de j e c t i on ( e . g . ,

" The r e a r e t i m e s w he n I f e e l e m p t y i n s i de " ) . I n ge ne r a l , t he n ,

t he r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t udy s ugge s t t ha t t he a c t ua l / ow n : i de a l / ow n

d i s c r e pa nc y i s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h dejection from perceived lack of

effectiveness or self-fulfillment.

2 . A c t ua l / ow n ve r s us i de a l / o t he r : We p r e d i c t e d t h i s d i sc r e p -a n c y w o u l d b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f e e l i n g s h a m e a n d e m b a r r a s s -

m e n t i n pa r t i c u l a r a n d w i t h de j e c t i on i n ge ne r a l . A s p r e d i c t e d ,

t h e a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y w a s u n i q u e l y a s s o c i -

a t e d ( p < . 05 ) w i t h s ub j e c t s ' fe e l ing l a c k o f " p r i d e " l a c k o f f ee l-

i n g " s u r e o f s e l f a n d g o a l s " " f e e li n g l on e ly , " " f e e li n g b l u e " a n d

" f e e l i ng no i n t e r e s t i n t h i ngs ? '

T h e a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y w a s a l s o u n i q u e l y

a s s oc i a t e d ( p < . 05 ) w i t h t he B l a t t I n t r o j e c t i on s ubs c a l e a s w e ll

a s w i t h t he B l a t t A na c l i t i c subs c a l e, w h i c h m o s t l y m e a s u r e s be -

l ie fs c onc e r n i ng de p e nde nc y o n o t he r s a n d s e ns i t iv i t y t o o t he r s '

e xpe c t a t i ons ( e. g. , " I f I f a il t o li ve up t o e xp e c t a t ions , I fe e l un -

w o r t h y" " I a m ve r y s e ns it ive t o o t he r s f o r s i gns o f r e je c t i on" ) .

I n ge ne r a l , t he n , t he r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t udy s ugge s t t ha t t he a c t ua l /ow n : i de a l / o t he r d i s c r e pa nc y i s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h dejection fro m

perceived or anticipa ted loss of social affection or esteem.

3 . A c t u a l / o w n v e r su s o u g h t / o t h e r : T h i s d i s c re p a n c y w a s p re -

d i c t e d t o be a s s oc i a t e d w i t h f e a r a nd f e e l i ng t h r e a t e ne d i n pa r -

t i t u l a r a n d w i t h a g i t a t i o n i n g e n e r a l . T h e a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t /

o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y w a s u n i q u e l y a s s o c i at e d ( p < . 0 5) w i t h s u b -

j e c t s ' s u f f e r i ng " s pe l ls o f t e r r o r o r pa n i c , " f e e l i ng " s udde n l y

s c a r e d f o r n o r e a s o n , " f e e li n g " s o c o n c e r n e d w i t h h o w o r w h a t

I fe e l t ha t i t ' s ha r d t o t h i nk o f m u c h e l s e , " a nd f e e li ng " s ha m e . "

T h e a s s o c i a t io n b e t w e e n f e el in g " s h a m e " o r " l a c k o f p r i d e " a n d

pos s e s s i ng a d i s c r e p a nc y f r o m e i t he r a s i gn i f ic a n t o t he r ' s ough t

s t a nda r d o r a s ign i f i c a n t o t he r ' s i de a l s t a nda r d s u ppo r t s t he po -

s i ti on , d i s c us s e d e a rl ie r, t ha t s ha m e i s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h " o t he r "s t a n d p o i n t s o n e i t h e r m o r a l o r n o n m o r a l d o m a i n s ( e .g ., A u s u -

bel , 1 955; Lewis , 1979) . In genera l , the resul t s of th i s s tudy sug-

g e st t h a t t h e a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y i s a s so c i a te d

wi th ag i ta t ion rom f ear and threa t.

4 . A c t u a l / o w n v e r s u s o u g h t / o w n : T h i s d i s c r e p a n c y w a s p r e -

d i c t e d t o be a s s oc i a t e d w i t h f e e l i ngs o f gu i l t a nd s e l f - c on t e m p t

i n pa r t i c u l a r a nd w i t h a g i t a t i on i n ge ne r a l . A s p r e d i c t e d , t he

a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y w a s a s s o c i a te d w i t h " f e e l -

i n g s o f w o r t h l e ss n e s s " a n d w a s t h e o n l y t y p e o f d i s c r e p a n c y t h a t

w a s un i q ue l y a s s oc i a t e d w i t h f e e l ings o f " gu i l t ? ' B u t t he l a t t e r

c o r r e l a t i on w a s negative, pa r t ia l r ( 49 ) = - . 2 7 , p < . 05 . I n a

l a t e r s t udy ( S t r a u m a n & H i gg i ns , 1987) , w e a ls o f ound t ha t t he

SELF-D I SCR EPA N C Y TH EO R Y 32 7

a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y w a s u n i q u e l y b u t n e g a -

t ive l y a s s oc i a te d w i t h " a nx i e t y ove r t r a ns g r e s s i ons o f r u le s , "

pa r t i a l r ( 59 ) = - . 2 6 , p < . 05 . A l t ho ugh t he d i r e c t i on o f t he s e

r e s u l ts w a s no t e xpe c t e d , t he ove r a l l pa t t e r n i s c ons i s t e n t w i t h

a n a n a l y si s o f " g u i l t " p r o v i d e d b y H o m e y ( 1 9 3 9 ) a n d o t h e r s

( e. g. , C a m e r on , 1963) . H o m e y s ugge s t e d t ha t t he m or e pe op l e ' s

f e e li ngs o f gu i l t o r s e l f - r e c r i m i na t i on f o r m o r a l t r a ns g r e s s i on

a r e g e n u i n e , th e m o r e t h e y m a y r e f r ai n f r o m e x p r e s si n g t h e m .I nde e d , i t ha s be e n s ugge s t e d t ha t " gu i l t y " ne u r o t i c s t e nd t o

de ny t he i r f e e li ngs o f gu i l t a nd i n s t e a d e x p r e s s t he m a s f e e li ngs

o f w or t h l e s s ne s s t ha t l e s s d i r e c t ly i m p l y s i n f u l ne s s .

T h e r e w a s a ls o e v i d en c e t h a t t h e a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o w n d i s-

c r e p a nc y w a s un i que l y a s s oc i a t e d ( p < . 05 ) w i t h t he f o l l ow i ng

e m o t i o n a l s y m p t o m s : " f e el i n g i r r it a t e d a l l t h e t i m e " " f e e li n g

l ow i n e ne r gy o r s l ow e d dow n , " " f e e l i ng no i n t e r e s t i n t h i ng s "

a nd " f e e l i ng e ve r y t h i ng is a n e f f o r t. " Th i s c l u s t e r o f e m ot i on a l

s y m p t o m s i s c o n s i st e n t w i t h t h e c l a s s ic d e s c r i p ti o n o f " g u i l t y "

o r " a nx i e t y" ne u r o t i c s a s su f f e ri ng f r om i r r it a b i l i ty a n d f a t i gue

( ge e C a m e r on , 1963) . I n ge ne r a l , t he n , t he r e s u l t s o f t h is s t udy

t e n ta t iv e l y s u g ge s t t h a t t h e a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y

i s a s s oc i a te d w i t h agitation fro m self-criticism. F u r t h e r r e s e a r c hon t h i s d i s c r e pa nc y i s c le a r l y ne e de d , how e ve r, t o t e s t t h i s hy -

pothes i s .

W e a l s o f o u n d e v i d e n c e o f d i s t in c t s e l f -d i s c r e p a n c y - d i s c o m -

f o r t a s s o c i a t i o n s i n a s t u d y b y S t r a u m a n a n d H i g g i n s ( 1 9 8 7 )

t h a t e x t e n d e d a n d r e f i n e d t h e H i g g i n s , K l e i n , a n d S t r a u m a n

( 1 9 8 5 ) s t u d y i n a n u m b e r o f r es p e c ts . F i r st , t h e m e t h o d f o r ca l -

c u l a t in g t h e m a g n i t u d e o f s e l f- d is c r ep a n c ie s w a s i m p r o v e d . I n

t he Se l ve s que s t i onna i r e , a f t e r re s pond e n t s l i s te d t he a t t r i bu t e s

f o r e a c h s e l f -s t a te , t he y w e r e a s ke d t o r a t e t he e x t e n t t o w h i c h

t he s t a n dpo i n t p e r s on ( s e l f o r o t he r ) e i t he r be l i e ve d t he y a c t ua l l y

pos s e s s e d o r ough t t o pos s e s s o r w a n t e d t he m i de a l ly t o pos s e s s

e a c h a t t r i bu t e t he y l is te d . T he 4 - p o i n t r a t i ng s c a l e r a nge d f r o m

slightly (1) to extremely ( 4) . The s e r a t i ngs pe r m i t t e d a ne w d i s -t i n ct io n t o b e m a d e - - b e t w e e n " t r u e " m a t c h es , w h e re s y n o n y -

m o us a t t r i bu t e s a c r os s t w o s e l f -s t a te s a ls o ha d r a t i ngs t ha t va r -

i e d b y n o m o r e th a n l s c al e p o i n t , a n d s y n o n y m o u s " m i s -

m a t c h e s , " w h e r e s y n o n y m o u s a t t r i b u te s a c r o s s t w o s e l f- st a te s

ha d r a t i ngs t ha t va r i e d by 2 o r m or e s c a l e po i n t s ( e . g . , a c t ua l /

ow n : " s l i gh t l y a t t r a c t i ve " ve r s us i de a l / ow n : " e x t r e m e l y a t t r a c -

t i ve " ). A n t on ym ou s a t t r i bu t e s a c r os s t w o s e lf - s ta t e s c on t i nue d

t o b e c o d e d a s m i s m a t c h e s . T h i s n e w m e a s u r e o f t h e m a g n i t u d e

o f s e l f- d i s cr e pa nc y , t he n , r e s e r ve s t he " m a t c h" c l a s s if i c a ti on t o

c a se s o f t r u e o v e r la p a n d t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e s e v e ri ty o f a

m i s m a t c h .

T h e s e c o n d i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e s t u d y w a s t h e c o l le c t io n o f

t h e v a r io u s m e a s u r e s o f d i s c o m f o r t a n d e m o t i o n a l s y m p t o m sa p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 m onths after subjec t s f i ll ed ou t the Selves ques-

t i onna i r e . The de l a y bo t h r e duc e d t he l i ke l i hood t ha t s ub j e c t s

w o u l d r e s p o n d t o t h e d i s c o m f o r t m e a s u r e s b y t r y i n g t o r el a te

t h e m t o t h e i r a n sw e r s o n t h e S e l v es q u e s t io n n a i r e a n d p e r m i t t e d

a t e s t o f t he s t a b i l it y o f t he s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y - d i s c om f or t a s s oc i a -

t i o n s o v e r a p e r i o d o f ti m e . T h e f i n a l im p r o v e m e n t w a s t h e d e -

ve l opm e n t o f s ubs c a l e s r e fl e c t ing d i s ti nc t i ve k i nds o f d i s c o m f o r t

t h a t c o u l d b e u s e d a s m u l t i- i te m m e a s u r e s t o r e p l a c e th e i t e m -

b y - i t e m a n a l y s e s p e r f o r m e d i n o u r 1 9 8 5 s t u d y . W e a c c o m -

p l i s he d t h i s r e f ine m e n t by p e r f o r m i ng a s e r i es o f f a c t o r a na l ys e s

o n s u b j e c ts ' r e s p o n s e s t o t h e u n a m b i g u o u s l y d e j e c ti o n - re l a te d

a n d a g i ta t io n - r e la t e d i t e m s i n t h e B e c k D e p r e s s i o n I n v e n t o r y

( B D I ) , t he B l a t t D e pr e s s i ve Expe r i e nc e s Q ue s t i onna i r e

( B D E Q ) , t h e H o p k i n s S y m p t o m C h e c k l i st (H S C L ) , a n d th e

E m o t i o n s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( E Q ).

The s e a na l ys e s i de n t if i e d t w o d i s t i nc t s e t s o f i t e m s ( i. e. , h i gh

w i t h i n - s e t i n t e r c o r r e l a t i ons a nd l ow be t w e e n- s e t i n t e r c o r r e -

l a t i ons ) , w h i c h r e f l e c t e d a " d i s a ppo i n t m e n t / d i s s a t i s f a c t i on"

e m o t i o n a l s y n d r o m e a n d a " f e a r /r e s tl e s s n es s " s y n d r o m e , a s f o l -

1. Disappointment~dissatisfaction: ( a ) " d i s a p p o i n t e d i n

y o u r s e l f " ( E Q ) ; ( b ) " I a m v e r y s at is f ie d w i t h m y s e l f a n d m y

a c c om pl i s hm e n t s " ( B D EQ , r e ve r s e d s c o r i ng ) ; ( c ) " I f e e l I a m

a l w a ys m a k i ng f u l l u s e o f m y po t e n t i a l a b i l i ti e s " ( B D EQ , r e -

ve r s e d s c o r i ng ) ; ( d ) " unc e r t a i n ove r a b i l i t y t o a c h i e ve goa l s "

( EQ ) ; a nd ( e ) " b l a m i ng y ou r s e l f f o r f a il u r e t o a c h i e ve

goa l s " ( EQ ) .

2. Fear~restlessness: a ) " f e e l ing you a r e o r w i ll be p un i s h e d"

( B D I ) ; (b ) " f e e li n g a f ra i d t o g o o u t o f y o u r h o u s e a l o n e "

( H SC L) ; ( c ) " f e e l i ng a f r a i d t o t r a ve l on bus e s , s ubw a ys o r

t r a i n s " ( H SC L) ; ( d ) " s l e e p t ha t i s r e s tl e s s o r d i s t u r be d" ( H SC L) ;

a nd ( e ) " f e e li ng s o r e s tl e ss yo u c o u l d n ' t s i t s ti l l" ( H S C L) .

A c c o r d i ng t o s e l f- d i s c r e pa nc y the o r y , t he a c t ua l / ow n : i de a l /o w n d i s c r e p a n c y s h o u l d b e r e l a te d t o t h e d i s a p p o i n t m e n t / d i s -

s a t i s f a c t i on c l u s t e r , w he r e a s t he a c t ua l / ow n : ough t / o t he r d i s -

c r e p a nc y s hou l d be r e l a t e d t o t h e f e a r / r e st l e ss ne s s c l us te r. A n d

i n d e e d t h e y w e r e : t h e a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y w a s

s i gn i f ic a n t l y r e l a t e d t o t he d i s a ppo i n t m e n t / d i s s a t i s f a c t i on s ub -

s c a l e ( a s m e a s u r e d 2 m on t hs l a te r ) , r ( 70 ) = . 38 , p < . 001 , a nd

t h e a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e -

la ted to the fear / res t lessness subsca le , r (70) = .42, p < .001. But

t he c r i t i c a l que s t i on i s w he t he r t he s e a s s oc i a t i ons a r e un i que .

To t e s t t h is , e a c h o f t he s e l f - d i s c re pa nc i e s w a s r e l a t e d t o e a c h o f

t h e k i n d s o f d i s c o m f o r t , w i th t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e a s s o c i a ti o n

be t w e e n e a c h pa i r o f va r i a b l e s f r om t he i r a s s oc i a t i ons t o t he

a l t e r na t i ve va r i a b l e s be i ng s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e m ove d . The pa r t i a lc o r r e l a t i ona l a na l ys i s r e ve a l e d , a s p r e d i c t e d , t ha t t he a c t ua l /

o w n : i d e a l / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y w a s u n i q u e l y r e l a te d t o t h e d i s a p -

po i n t m e n t / d i s s a t i s f a c t i on c l u s t e r ( a s m e a s u r e d 2 m on t hs l a t e r ) ,

pa r t i a l r ( 66 ) = . 30 , p = . 01 , bu t w a s un r e l a t e d t o t he f e a r /r e s t -

l e s sne s s c l u st e r, pa r t ia l r ( 66 ) = - . 0 8 , p > . 35 . The a c t u a l / ow n :

o u g h t / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y w a s u n i q u e l y r e l at e d t o t h e f e a r / re s t -

l essness c lus ter , par t i a l r (66) = .35, p < .0 l , but was unre la ted t o

t he d i s a ppo i n t m e n t / d i s s a t i s f a c t i on c lu s te r, pa r t i a l r ( 66 ) = . 04 ,

p > .50.

I t s hou l d be no t e d t ha t , a s p r e d i c t e d by s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he -

o r y , i t w a s t he a c t ua l / ow n d i s c r e pa nc y f r om t he s e l f - gu i de a s

d e f i n ed b y b o t h d o m a i n a n d s t a n d p o i n t t h a t w a s c r it ic a l f o r p r e -

d i c t in g e a c h d i s ti n c ti v e k i n d o f e m o t i o n a l s y n d r o m e . C o n s i s -t e n t w i t h t h e t h e o r y ' s p r e d i c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g w h i c h s p e c i f i c

t y p e o f s e lf - d is c r e p a n c y w o u l d b e a s s o c ia t e d w i th w h i c h p a r t ic -

u l a r k i n d o f d i s c o m f o r t , t h e d i s a p p o i n t m e n t / d is s a t i sf a c t io n

c l us t e r w a s s i gn i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t he a c t ua l / ow n : i de a l /

o w n d i s cr e p a n c y b u t not w i t h t h e a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o th e r d i s-

c r e p a nc y ( p > . 10 ), a nd t he f e a r /r e s t le s s ne s s c l u s t e r w a s s ign if i-

c a n t l y c o rr e l a te d w i t h t h e a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y

b u t not with the a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o w n d i s c re p a n c y ( p > .5 ).

T h i s s t u d y a l s o t e s te d t h e t h e o r y ' s p r e d i c ti o n t h a t t h e a c t u a l /

o w n : i d e a l / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y a n d t h e a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o t h e r

d i s c r e p a n c y a r e a s s o c ia t e d w i t h t w o d i f fe r e n t k i n d s o f a n g e r - -

f r u s t r a t i on a nd r e s e n t m e n t , r e s pe c t i ve l y . The pa r t i a l c o r r e l a -

3 2 8 E . T O R Y H I G G I N S

t i ona l a na l ys i s r e ve a l e d , a s e xpe c t e d , t ha t t he a c t ua l / ow n : i de a l /

o w n d i s c r e p a n c y w a s u n i q u e l y r e l a te d t o " f r u s t r a t i o n " ( a s m e a -

s u r e d 2 m on t h s l a te r ), pa r t i a l r ( 66 ) = . 36 , p < . 01 , bu t no t w i t h

" r e s e n t m e n t " ( p > . 1 5 ) , w h e r e a s t h e a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o t h e r

d i s c r e p a n c y w a s u n i q u e l y a s s o c ia t e d w it h " r e s e n t m e n t " p a r t ia l

r = . 39 , p < . 01 , bu t no t w i t h " f r u s t r a t i on" ( p > . 2) .

Evidence That M agnitude and A ccessibility of DifferentTypes o f Self-Discrepancy Determ ine Kind o fDiscomfort

S e l f -d i s c re p a n c y t h e o r y p r o p o s e s t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e m a g n i -

t ude a nd a c c e s s i b il i ty o f a pa r t i c u l a r t ype o f s e l f- d i s c re pa nc y ,

t he m or e i t s pos s e s s o r w i l l e xpe r i e nc e t he k i nd o f d i s c o m f o r t

a s s oc i a t e d w i t h it . Th a t i s , t he t he o r y p r o pos e s t ha t d i s c om f or t

i s in f l u e n c e d b y t w o f a c to r s : (a ) T h e m a g n i t u d e o f o n e ' s a v a il -

a b l e t ype s o f s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc i e s - - t he g r e a t e r the d i s c r e pa nc y ,

t he m or e i n t e ns e l y i t s pos s e s so r w i ll e xpe r i e nc e t he k i nd o f d i s-

c om f or t a s s oc i a t e d w i t h i t . Thus , e ve r y t h i ng e l s e be i ng e qua l ,

o n e w i l l e x p er i e n ce m o s t i n t en s e l y t h e k i n d o f d i s c o m f o r t a s s o -

c i a t e d w i t h t he g r e a t e s t s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y . ( b ) The a c c e s s i b i l i t yo f one ' s a va i la b l e t ype s o f s e l f - d i sc r e pa nc i e s - - - the g r e a t e r t he

a c c e s s i b il i ty o f a pa r t i c u l a r t ype o f d i s c r e pa nc y , t he m or e l i ke ly

i ts pos s e s s o r w il l e xpe r i e nc e t he k i nd o f d i s c om f or t a s s oc i a t e d

w i t h i t . Thus , e ve r y t h i ng e l se be i ng e qua l , on e i s m os t l i ke l y

t o e x p e r ie n c e t h e k i n d o f d i s c o m f o r t a s s o c ia t e d w i t h t h e m o s t

a c c e s s ib l e s e l f- d i s c re pa nc y . The s e i m p l i c a t i on s o f t he c e n t r a l

h y p o t h e s is o f t h e t h e o r y w e r e d i r e c tl y t e s te d i n a c o u p l e o f r e-

c e n t e xpe r i m e n t a l s t ud i e s ( H i gg i ns , B ond , K l e i n , & S t r a um a n ,

1986).

T h e f ir st s t u d y t e s t e d w h e t h e r t h e k i n d o f d i s c o m f o r t t h a t r e -

s u i te d f r o m f o c u s in g o n a n e g a ti v e e v e n t w o u l d v a r y d e p e n d i n g

o n t h e t y p e o f s e lf - d is c r e p an c y t h a t w a s p r e d o m i n a n t f o r a n i n -

d i v i dua l ( i. e. , t he t yp e o f s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y w i t h t he g r e a t e s t m a g-n i t ude ) . U nde r g r a dua t e s w e r e a s ke d t o im a g i ne e i t he r a pos i t ive

e v e n t i n w h i c h p e r f o r m a n c e m a t c h e s a c o m m o n s t a n d a r d ( e. g.,

r e c e i v i ng a g r a de o f A i n a c ou r s e ) o r a ne ga t i ve e ve n t i n w h i c h

pe r f o r m a nc e f a i l s t o m a t c h a c om m on s t a nda r d ( e . g . , r e c e i v i ng

a g r a d e o f D i n a c o u r s e t h a t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r o b t a i n i n g a n i m -

p o r t a n t j o b ) . F o r t h e " n e g a t i v e e v e n t " c o n d i t io n , w e e x p e c t e d

t ha t s ub j e c t s w i t h a p r e dom i na n t a c t ua l : i de a l d i s c r e pa nc y

w ou l d s how a n i nc r e a s e i n de j e c t i on - r e l a t e d e m ot i ons , w he r e a s

s u b j e c t s w i t h a p r e d o m i n a n t a c t u a l : o u g h t d i s c r e p a n c y w o u l d

s how a n i nc r e a s e i n a g i t a t i on - r e l a t e d e m ot i ons . Fo r t he " pos i -

t i ve e ve n t " c ond i t i on , w e e xpe c t e d t ha t t he s ub j e c t s ' p r e dom i -

na n t s e l f - d is c r e pa nc i e s w o u l d p r o du c e l e s s e f f e ct on t he i r e m o-

t i ons be c a us e t he ne ga t i ve p s yc ho l og i c a l s i t ua t i ons a s s oc i a t e dw i t h t he d i s c r e pa nc i e s w ou l d no t be a pp l i c a b l e t o pos i t i ve

e ve n t s ( se e H i gg i ns & K i ng , 1981 ; se e a l s o Mi s c he l , 1984 , f o r a

s i m i l a r a r gum e n t ) .

Sub j e c t s f il le d o u t t he Se l ve s que s t i on na i r e a f e w w e e ks be f o r e

t he e xpe r i m e n t a l s e s s ion . The y w e r e d iv i de d i n t o h i gh a n d l ow

a c t u al :i d e a l d i s c re p a n c y g r o u p s a t t h e m e d i a n o f t h e ir a c t u a l /

o w n : i d e a l / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y s c o re s , a n d i n t o h i g h a n d l o w a c -

t u a l : o u g h t d i s c re p a n c y g r o u p s a t t h e m e d i a n o f th e i r a c t u a l /

o w n : o u g h t / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y s c o re s . W e t h e n u s e d t h e s e d iv i -

s i o n s t o c r e a t e t w o d i s t in c t g r o u p s o f s u b je c t s v a r y i n g o n w h i c h

t y p e o f d i s c r e p a n c y w a s p r e d o m i n a n t - - a h i g h a c tu a l : id e a l d is -

c r e p a n c y / l o w a c t u a l : o u g h t d is c r e p a n c y g r o u p a n d a h i g h a c -

t u a l : o u g h t d i s c r e p a n c y / l o w a c t u a l : i d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y g r o u p .

W h e n t h e s u b j e c ts a r r iv e d a t t he e xp e r i m e n t a l s e s s ion , t he y f i r st

c om pl e t e d a s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l que s t i onna i r e t ha t a s s e s s e d

t h e i r g e n e r a l m o o d p r i o r t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n i p u l a t i o n .

The y a l s o pe r f o r m e d a s i m p l e w r i t i ng - s pe e d t a s k . Wr i t i ng -

s pe e d s c o r e s ha ve be e n f ound t o de c r e a s e f o l l ow i ng a " s a d"

m oo d i nduc t i on ( N a t a l e & H a n t a s , 1982) . Sub j e c t s t he n r e -

c e i ve d e i t he r t he pos i t i ve o r ne ga ti ve gu i de d - i m a ge r y t a s k , m o d-

e l e d a f te r a p r oc e du r e u s e d by Wr i gh t a nd Mi s c he l ( 1982) . Fo l -

l ow i ng t he gu i de d - i m a ge r y t a s k , s ub j e c t s w e r e g i ve n t he w r i t i ng -

s pe e d t e s t f o r t he s e c on d t i m e . Th e y t he n f il le d ou t t he Mul t i p l e

A f f e c t A d j e c t i ve C he c k l i s t ( MA A C L;Z u c k e r m a n & L u b i n , 1 9 6 5)

t o m e a s u r e t he i r c u r r e n t f e e li ngs .

T h e M A A CLw a s u s e d t o c r e a t e a s u m m a r y s c o r e fo r d e j e c-

t i on - r e l a t e d e m ot i ons ( e . g . , b l ue , d i s c ou r a ge d , l ow , ha ppy [ r e -

ve r s e d f o r s c o r i ng ] , s a t is f ie d [ r e ve rs e d f o r s c o r i ng ] ) a nd a s um -

m a r y s c o r e f o r a g i ta t i on - r e l a t e d e m o t i ons ( e .g ., a f r a i d , a g i t a t e d ,

de s pe r a t e , c a l m [ r e ve r se d f o r s c o r i ng ] , qu i e t [ r e ve r s e d f o r s c o r -

i n g] ). A T y p e o f S e l f - D i s c r e p a n c y ( p r e d o m i n a n t a c t u al : id e a l

d i s c r e p a n c y ; p r e d o m i n a n t a c t u a l : o u g h t d i s c r e p a n c y ) • E v e n t

Foc us ( pos i ti ve e ve n t ; ne ga t i ve e ve n t ) • K i n d o f D i s c om f or t

( de j e c t i on - re l a t e d ; a g i t a t i on - r e la t e d ) a na l ys i s o f va r i a nc e ( A N -

O V A ) w a s p e r f o r m e d o n t h e p o s t m a n i p u l a t i o n m o o d s c o r e s ,

w i t h s u b j e c ts ' p r e m a n i p u l a t i o n m o o d ( a s m e a s u r e d b y t h e s e-

m a n t i c d i f fe r e n t ia l ) a s a c ova r i a t e . W e f oun d a s i gn i fi c a n t t h r e e -

w a y i n t e r a c t i on . A s p r e d i c t e d , t he r e w a s no d i f f e r e nc e be t w e e n

p r e d o m i n a n t a c t u a l : i d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y s u b j e c t s a n d p r e d o m i -

na n t a c t ua l : ough t d i s c r e pa nc y s ub j e c t s i n t he i r de j e c t i on - r e -

l a t e d a n d a g i t a t i o n - r e l a t e d m o o d s c o r e s w h e n t h e y w e r e e x -

p o s e d t o a p o s i ti v e ev e n t ; b u t w h e n t h e y w e r e e x p o s e d t o a n e g a -

t i ve e ve n t , p r e dom i na n t a c t ua l : i de a l d i s c r e pa nc y s ub j e c t s f e l t

s i g ni f ic a n tl y m o r e d e j e c t ed t h a n d i d p r e d o m i n a n t a c t u a l : o u g h t

d i s c r e p a nc y s ub j e c t s , w he r e a s t he l a t t e r te nde d t o f e e l m o r e a g i -

t a t e d t h a n t h e i r c o u n t e r p a rt s .We a l s o t e s t e d t he h ypo t he s i s by pe r f o r m i ng~a Type o f Se lf -

D i s c r e p a n c y • E v e n t F o c u s A N O V A o n t h e p e r c e n ta g e o f i n -

c r e a s e i n s ub j e c t s ' w r i t i ng s pe e d , a ga i n u s i ng s ub j e c t s ' p r e m a -

n i p u l a t i o n m o o d a s a c o v a r i a te . W e f o u n d a t w o - w a y i n te r a c -

t i o n . A s p r e d i c t e d , t h e p r e d o m i n a n t a c t u a l : i d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y

s ub j e c t s w e r e s l ow e r f o l l ow i ng t he ne ga t i ve e ve n t f oc us a s c om -

p a r e d t o t h e p o s i t iv e e v e n t f o cu s , w h e r ea s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t a c -

t ua l : ou gh t d i s c r e pa nc y s ub j e c t s w e r e , i f a ny t h i ng , f as te r.

Th e r e s u l t s o f t h is f i rs t s t udy i nd i c a t e d t ha t bo t h t he i n t e ns i t y

a n d t h e q u a l i t y o f e m o t i o n a l c h a n g e i n d u c e d b y f o c u s in g o n a n

e ve n t t ha t w a s l i ke ly t o be e xpe r i e nc e d a s ne ga t ive va r i e d a s a

f u n c t i o n o f t h e m a g n i t u d e a n d t y p e o f s e l f- d i sc r e p a n c y t h a t w a s

p r e do m i n a n t f o r a sub j e c t ( a s m e a s u r e d w e e ks ea rl ie r) . Th us w eve r i f i e d t he hypo t he s i z e d r e l a t i on be t w e e n t he r e l a t i ve m a gn i -

t ude o f d i f fe r e n t t ype s o f d i s c re pa nc i e s a nd d i f f er e nc e s i n e m o -

t i o n a l c h a n g e .

T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e s e c o n d s t u d y w a s t o d e m o n s t r a t e o u r s e c-

ond hypo t he s i z e d r e l a t i on , be t w e e n t he r e l a t ive a c c e s s ib i l it y o f

d i f f e r e n t t ype s o f se l f - d is c r e pa nc i e s a nd d i f f e re nc e s i n e m o-

t i ona l c ha nge . Fo u r t o 6 w e e ks be f o r e the e xpe r i m e n t a l s e s s ion ,

u n d e r g r a d u a t e s c o m p l e t e d t h e S e l v e s q u e s t i o n n a i r e . T w o

g r o u p s o f s u b je c t s w e r e r e c r u it e d f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t ( f o r fu r t h e r

p r oc e dur a l de t a i l s , s e e H i gg i ns , B ond , K l e i n , & S t r a um a n ,

1986) - - - s ub j e c t s w ho w e r e r e l a t i ve l y h i gh on bo t h a c t ua l : i de a l

d i s c r e p a n c y ( i . e . , a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y a n d a c -

t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y c o m b i n e d ) a n d a c t u a l : o u g h t

d i s c r e p a n c y ( i . e . , a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y a n d a c -

t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y c o m b i n e d ) a n d s u b j e ct s w h o

w e r e r e l a t i ve l y l ow on bo t h d i s c r e pa nc i e s . The os t e ns i b l e pu r -

pos e o f t he s t udy w a s t o ob t a i n t he s e l f - re f l e c ti ons o f a you t h

s a m pl e f o r a l i f e - s pa n de ve l opm e n t a l s t udy . The s ub j e c t s w e r e

t o l d t h a t t h e i r m o o d d u r i n g t h e s t u d y w o u l d b e c h e c k e d b e c a u s e

p r e v i o u s r e se a r c h i n d i c a te d t h a t m o o d c a n s o m e t i m e s i n fl u e n c e

pe op l e ' s s e lf - re f le c t ions . Th i s c ove r s t o r y p r ov i de d t he r a t i ona l e

f o r o b t a in i n g m o o d m e a s u r e s b o t h b e f o r e a n d a f t e r t h e e x p e r i-

m e n t a l m a n i p u l a t i o n .

H a l f o f h e s u b j e ct s i n e a c h d i s c r e p a n c y g r o u p w e r e r a n d o m l y

a s s ig n e d t o a n i d e al p r i m i n g c o n d i t i o n , a n d t h e o t h e r h a l f w e r e

a s s i g n e d t o a n o u g h t p r i m i n g c o n d i t i o n . I n t h e i d e a l p r i m i n g

c ond i t i on , t he s ub j e c t s w e r e a s ke d ( a ) t o de s c r i be t he k i nd o f

p e r s o n t h a t t h e y a n d t h e i r p a r e n t s w o u l d i d e a ll y li k e t h e m t o b e

a n d t h e a t t ri b u t e s t h a t t h e y a n d t h e i r p a r e n t s h o p e d t h e y w o u l d

h a v e , a n d ( b ) to d i s c u s s w h e t h e r th e r e h a d b e e n a n y c h a n g e o v e r

t h e y e a r s in t h e s e h o p e s a n d a i m s . I n t h e o u g h t p r i m i n g c o n d i -

t i on , s ub j e c t s w e r e a s ke d ( a ) t o de s c r i be t he k i n d o f pe r s on t ha t

t h e y a n d t h e i r p a re n t s b e l i ev e d t h e y o u g h t t o b e a n d t h e a t t ri -bu t e s t ha t t he y a nd t he i r pa r e n t s be l i e ve d i t w a s t he i r du t y o r

ob l i ga t i on t o ha ve , a nd ( b ) t o d i s c us s w he t he r t he r e ha d be e n

a ny c h a nge ove r t he ye a r s in t he s e be li ef s. B o t h be f o r e a nd a f t e r

t h i s p r i m i ng m a n i pu l a t i on , s ub j e c t s fi ll ed ou t a m oo d que s t i on -

na i r e t ha t i de n t i fi e d bo t h de j e c t i on - r e l a t e d e m ot i on s ( e. g. , s a d ,

d i s a ppo i n t e d , a nd e n t hu s i a s t i c [ r e ve r s e d f o r s c o r i ng ] ) a nd a g i -

t a t i on - r e l a t e d e m ot i ons ( e . g . , t e ns e , ne r vous , a nd c a l m [ r e -

ve r s e d f o r s c o r i ng ] ) . Th e s ub j e c t s w e r e a s ke d t o r a t e t he e x t e n t

t o w h i c h t h e y n o w w e r e f e e li n g e a c h e m o t i o n o n a 6 - p o i n t s c a l e

t h a t r a n g e d f r o m n o t a t a l l (0) to a g r e a t d e a l ( 5 ) . The s c o r e s

f o r t h e d e j e c ti o n - re l a te d e m o t i o n s w e r e c o m b i n e d t o c r e a t e a

de j e c t i on m e a s u r e , a nd t he s c o r e s f o r t he a g i t a t i on - r e l a te d e m o -

t i o n s w e re c o m b i n e d t o c r e a t e a n a g i t a t io n m e a s u r e .F o r t h e s u b j e ct s w h o w e r e h i g h i n b o t h t y p e s o f s e l f- d is c re p -

a n c ie s , w e p r e d i c t e d t h e k i n d o f d i s c o m f o r t a s s o c ia t e d w i t h t h e

t ype o f s e lf - d i s c r e pa nc y w hos e a c c e s s i b il i ty w a s t e m p or a r i l y i n -

c r e a s e d b y t h e p r i m i n g m a n i p u l a t i o n - - a n i n c r ea s e i n d e j ec -

t i o n - re l a t e d e m o t i o n s i n t h e i d ea l p r i m i n g c o n d i t i o n a n d a n i n -

c r e a se i n a g i t a ti o n - re l a te d e m o t i o n s i n t h e o u g h t p r i m i n g c o n -

d i ti o n . I n c o n t r a s t, f o r th e s u b j e c t s w h o w e r e l o w i n b o t h t y p e s

o f s e lf - di s cr e p an c i es , w e p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e p r i m i n g m a n i p u l a -

t i o n w o u l d , i f a n y th i n g , d e c r e a s e t h e k i n d o f d i s c o m f o r t a s s o c i -

a t e d w i t h t he p r i m e d d i s c r e pa n c y (i .e ., m a ke t h e m f e e l be t t e r

b y r e m i n d i n g t h e m o f g o a l s o r o b l i g at i o n s t h e y h a v e m e t ) - - a

s l igh t de c r e a s e i n de j e c t ion - r e l a t e d e m ot i on s i n t he i de a l p r i m -

i ng c ond i t i on a nd a s li gh t de c r e a s e i n a g i t a t ion - r e l a t e d e m ot i on si n t he ough t p r i m i ng c ond i t i on . To t e s t t he s e p r e d i c t i ons , a

Le ve l o f Se l f - D i s c r e pa nc y ( h i gh a c t ua l : i de a l a nd h i gh a c t ua l :

o u g h t ; l ow a c t u a l: i d e al a n d l o w a c tu a l : o u g h t ) x T y p e o f P r i m i n g

( id e a l p r im i n g ; o u g h t p r i m i n g ) X K i n d o f D i s c o m f o r t ( d e je c -

t i on - r e l a t e d ; a g i t a t ion - r e l a t e d ) A N O V A w a s pe r f o r m e d o n s ub -

j e c t s ' m o o d c h a n g e s c o r es (i .e ., t h e p o s t p r i m i n g s c o r e m i n u s t h e

p r e p r i m i n g s c o re ) .

A s Ta b l e 1 s how s , w e f oun d a s i gn i f ic a n t t h r e e - w a y i n t e r a c -

t i on . A s p r e d i c t e d , i de a l p r i m i ng i nc r e a s e d h i gh - d i s c r e pa n c y

s ub j e c t s ' de j e c t i on a nd s l i gh t l y de c r e a s e d l ow - d i s c r e pa nc y s ub -

j e c t s ' de j e c t i on , w he r e a s ough t p r i m i ng i nc r e a s e d h i gh - d i s c r e p -

a nc y s ub j e c t s ' a g i ta t i on a nd s l i gh t l y de c r e a s e d l ow - d i s c r e pa nc y

Ta b l e 1

M e a n C h a n g e i n D e j e c t io n E m o t i o n s a n d A g i ta t i o n E m o t i o n s

a s a F u n c t i o n o f L e v e l o f S e l f - D i sc r e p a n c ie s

a n d T y p e o f P r i m i n g

Ideal priming Ought priming

Level of se lf - Deject ion Agitation Deject ion Agitationdiscrepancies emotions emotions emo tions emo tions

High actual:idealand actual:oughtdiscrepancies 3.2 -0 .8 0.9 5.1

Low actual:idealand actual:oughtdiscrepancies - 1.2 0.9 0.3 -2 .6

Note. Each of eight dejection emotions a nd eight agitation emotions wa smeasured o n a 6-point scale from not at all to a great deal. The m or epositive the num ber, the greater the increase in discomfort.

s ub j e c t s ' a g i t a t i on . Thus , t h i s s t udy de m ons t r a t e s t ha t i nc r e a s -

i ng t he a c c e s s i b i li t y o f d i f f e r e n t t ype s o f s e l f - d i s c re pa nc i e s i n -c r e a s e s d i ff e r e n t k i nds o f d i s c om f or t , bu t on l y f o r s ub j e c ts

w ho s e m a gn i t ude o f d i s c r e pa nc y i s h i gh (i .e ., i nd i v i dua l s f o r

w h om t he s e l f - d i s c re pa nc i e s a r e a va i la b l e ). A nd t h i s oc c u r s e ve n

f o r t h o s e w h o p o s s es s b o th t ype s o f s e lf - d is c r e pa nc ie s . T he f a c t

t ha t p e op l e w i t h bo t h t ype s o f s e l f -d i s c r e pa nc i e s c a n e xpe r i e nc e

e i t he r a n i nc r e a s e i n de j e c t i on o r a n i nc r e a s e i n a g i t a t i on de -

p e n d i n g o n w h i c h t y p e o f d i s c re p a n c y i s m a d e t e m p o r a r i l y

m o r e a c c e ss ib l e b y t h e m o m e n t a r y c o n t e x t e x p la i n s w h y s o m e

pe op l e s u f f e r f r om de j e c t i on a nd a g i t a t i on a t d i f f e re n t m om e n t s

in th e i r l ives.

Th e r e s u l t s o f t he s e s t ud i e s i nd i c a t e t ha t a c t i va t ing s e l f- di s-

c r e p a n c i e s b y h a v i n g p e o p le t h i n k a b o u t n e g a ti v e e v e n ts o r t h e i r

ow n pe r s ona l gu i de s ( i . e . , t he i r hope s a nd goa l s o r du t i e s a ndob l i ga t i ons ) w il l i ndu c e t he k i n d o f d i s c o m f o r t t ha t i s a s s oc i a t e d

w i t h t he a c t i va t e d s e l f - d is c r e pa nc y . B u t i f a s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y is

a c o g n i t iv e s t r u c t u r e c o m p o s e d o f t b e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n t w o s e lf -

s t a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i ons ( e. g. , t he r e l a t ions be t w e e n a pe r s o n ' s a c -

t u a l / o w n a t t r ib u t e s a n d h i s o r h e r o u g h t / o t h e r a t t ri b u te s ) , t h e n

i t s hou l d be pos s i b l e t o a u t o m a t i c a l l y a c t i va t e t h i s s t r uc t u r e ,

a n d t h u s i n d u c e i ts a s s o c i a te d d i s c o m f o r t , b y s i m p l y a c t iv a t in g

a s i ng le c om po ne n t o f t he s t r uc t u r e . Mor e ove r , g ive n t ha t t he

a t t r i bu t e s i n p e op l e ' s s e l f -gu i de s a r e i nhe r e n t l y pos i ti ve , a c t iva t -

i n g e v e n a p o s i t i v e a t t r ib u t e s h o u l d i n d u c e d i s c o m f o r t i f th e a t -

t r i bu t e i s a c om po ne n t o f a pe r s on ' s s e lf - gu ide a nd t he pe r s on ' s

a c t u a l / o w n v a l u e o n t h e a t t r i b u t e i s d i sc r e p a n t f r o m h i s o r h e r

s e l f- gu i de va l ue on t ha t a t t r i bu t e . A n d i f it w e r e pos s ib l e t o a c t i -va t e t he s e l f -d i s c r e pa n t s t r uc t u r e a nd i nduc e i t s a ss oc i a t e d d i s -

c o m f or t w i t h a t a s k t ha t d i d n o t e ve n i nvo l ve s e l f -f oc us e d a t t e n -

t ion ( i .e . , a non-se l f - referent ia l t ask) , the not ion tha t se l f -d i s -

c r e pa nc i e s a r e e m ot i ona l l y s i gn i f i c a n t c ogn i t i ve s t r uc t u r e s

w ou l d be e s pe c i a ll y c om pe l l i ng . The s e pos s i b il i ti e s w e r e t e s t e d

i n a r e c e n t s t u d y b y S t r a u m a n a n d H i g g i n s ( i n p re s s) .

N e w Y o r k U n i v er s i ty u n d e r g r a d u a t e s w e r e a s k e d t o p a r t ic i -

pa t e i n a s t ud y on " phys i o l og i c a l e f fe c t s o f pe r c e i v i ng o t he r s "

i n w h i c h t h e y w e r e g i ve n p h r a se s o f t h e f o r m , " A n x p e r s o n i s

" ( w h e r e x w o u l d b e a t r a i t a d je c ti v e s u c h a s " fr i e n d l y "

o r " i n t e ll i g e n t" ) a n d w e r e a s k e d t o c o m p l e t e e a c h s e n t e n c e a s

qu i c k l y a s pos s i b le . Fo r e a c h s e n t e nc e , e a c h s ub j e c t ' s t o t a l ve r -

3 3 0 E . T O R Y H I G G I N S

b a l i za t i o n ti m e a n d s k i n c o n d u c t a n c e a m p l i t u d e w e r e re c o r d e d .

I n a d d i t io n , s u b je c t s re p o r t e d t h e i r m o o d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d

e nd o f t he s e ss i on . Th e s ub j e c t s w e r e e i t he r p r e dom i na n t l y a c -

t u a l: id e a l d i s c r e p a n t o r p r e d o m i n a n t l y a c t u a l : o u g h t d i s c r e p a n t

a s m e a s u r e d a t l e a st 4 w e e ks ea rl ie r. Ea c h o f t he s e g r oups o f

s u b j ec t s w a s r a n d o m l y a s s i g n e d t o o n e o f t h r e e p r i m i n g c o n d i -

t i o n s : ( a ) " n o n m a t c h i n g " p r i m i n g , w h e r e t h e t r a i t a d j e c t i v e s

w e r e a t t r i bu t e s i n a s ub j e c t ' s s e l f - gu i de bu t t he a t t r i bu t e s d i d

no t a ppe a r i n t he s ub j e c t ' s a c t ua l / ow n s e l f - c onc e p t ; ( b ) " m i s -

m a t c h i ng" p r i m i ng , w he r e t he t r a i t a d j e c t i ve s w e r e a t t r i bu t e s

i n a s ub j e c t ' s s e l f- gu i de a nd t he va l ue o f t he s e a t t r i bu t e s i n t he

s ub j e c t ' s a c t ua l / ow n s e l f - c onc e p t w a s d i s c r e pa n t f r o m t he va l ue

i n t he s e l f - gu i de ; a nd ( c ) " yoke d ( m i s m a t c h i ng ) " p r i m i ng ,

w he r e t he t r a i t a d j e c t i ve s w e r e a t t r i bu t e s t ha t d i d n o t a p p e a r i n

e i t he r a s ub j e c t ' s se l f -gu i de o r a c t ua l / ow n s e l f - c onc e p t bu t w e r e

th e s a m e a t t r i bu t e s t ha t a ppe a r e d a s t he t r a i t a d j e c t ive s f o r s om e

o t h e r s u b je c t in t h e " m i s m a t c h i n g " p r i m i n g c o n d i t i o n . I n a d d i -

t i on t o t he s e t r a i t a d j e c t i ve s t ha t de f i ne d t he t h r e e s ub j e c t - r e -

l a t e d p r i m i ng c ond i t i ons , a l l s ub j e c t s r e c e i ve d t he s a m e s e t o f

" s ub j e c t - un r e l a t e d" t r a i t a d j e c t i ve s , w h i c h w e r e a t t r i bu t e s t ha t

d i d n o t a p p e a r i n a n y o f t h e s u b j e ct s ' s e lf -g u i de s o r a c t u a l / o w nsel f -concepts .

T h e b a s i c p r e d i c t i o n w a s t h a t p r i m i n g m i s m a t c h i n g a t t r i -

bu t e s w ou l d i nduc e a de j e c t i on - r e l a t e d s yndr om e ( i . e . , m ood ,

phys i o l ogy , a nd be ha v i o r ) i n i de a l - d i s c r e pa n t s ub j e c t s bu t

w o u l d i n d u c e a n a g i t a ti o n - re l a te d s y n d r o m e i n o u g h t - d i s c re p -

a n t s ub j e c t s . The r e s u l t s w e r e c ons i s t e n t w i t h t h i s p r e d i c t i on .

The g r e a t e s t i nc r e a s e i n de j e c t i on - r e l a t e d e m ot i ons ( f r om t he

be g i nn i ng t o t he e nd o f t he s e s s ion ) oc c u r r e d f o r ide a l - d i s c re p -

a n t s u b j e c t s i n t h e " m i s m a t c h i n g " p r i m i n g c o n d i t i o n , a n d t h e

g r e a t e s t i nc r e a s e i n a g i t a t i on - r e l a t e d e m ot i ons oc c u r r e d f o r

o u g h t - d i s c r e p a n t s u b j e c t s i n t h e " m i s m a t c h i n g " p r i m i n g c o n -

d i t i ons ( p < . 05 ). T he s a m e ba s i c pa t t e r n o f r e s u l t s w a s a l s o

f o u n d o n t h e p h y s i o l o g ic a l a n d b e h a v i o r a l m e a s u r e s . A s s h o w ni n T a b l e 2 , i n t h e " m i s m a t c h i n g " p r i m i n g c o n d i t i o n , i d ea l- d rs -

c r e p a n t s u b j e c ts ' m e a n s k i n c o n d u c t a n c e a m p l i tu d e s a n d t o t a l

ve r ba l i z a t i on t i m e decreased ( f o r s ub j e c t - r e l a t e d a t t r i bu t e s a s

c o m p a r e d w i t h s u b j e c t - u n r e l a t e d a t t r i b u t e s ) , w h e r e a s o u g h t -

d i s c r e p a n t s u b je c t s' m e a n s k i n c o n d u c t a n c e a m p l i t u d e s a n d t o -

t a l ve r ba l i z a t ion t i m e increased ( bo t h p s < . 05 ). A s p r e d i c t e d ,

f o r t he s ub j e c t - re l a t e d a t t r ibu t e s i n t he m i s m a t c h i n g p r i m i ng

c ond i t i on , t he d i f f e r e nc e s be t w e e n a c t ua l : i de a l d i s c r e pa n t s ub -

j e c ts a n d a c t u a l :o u g h t d i s c r e p a n t s u b j e ct s in m e a n s k i n c o n d u c -

t a n c e a m p l i tu d e a n d m e a n t o t a l v e rb a l iz a t io n t i m e w e r e q u i te

s t r i k i ng ( bo t h p s < . 01 ).

S e l f- D i s cr e p a n c ie s a n d E m o t i o n a l P r o b l e m s

T h e r e s u lt s o f t h e se v a r i o u s c o r r e la t i o n a l a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l

s t ud i e s p r ov i de c ons i de r a b l e s upp or t f o r t he c e n t r a l hypo t he s i s

o f s e l f- d i sc r e p a n c y th e o r y . F u r t h e r s u p p o r t i s p r o v i d e d b y s o m e

a dd i t i ona l e v i de nc e t ha t a l s o r a i s e s a n i m por t a n t que s t i on :

G i ve n t ha t pe op l e c a n s u f f e r g r e a t l y f r om d i s c r e pa nc i e s be t w e e n

t he i r a c t ua l s e l f -s t a te a nd t he i r s e lf - gu ide s , w hy do t he y n o t s i m -

p l y low e r o r c ha nge t he i r s e l f - gu ide s t o r e duc e t he d i s c r e pa nc y?

I t i s s oc i a l i z a t ion f a c t o r s i n t he e t i o l ogy o f s e l f -d i s c r e pa nc ie s ,

I b el ie v e, t h a t p r o v i d e t h e a n s w e r b o t h t o w h y t h e y d o n o t a n d

t o w h y s e l f- d i s c r e pa nc ie s c a n be s o pa i n f u l . Pe r h a ps pe o p l e pos -

s e s si ng a c t ua l : ou gh t d i s c r e pa nc i e s ha d a n e a r l y h i s t o r y o f pa -

Ta b l e 2

Mea n S tandardi zed Sk in Conduc tance A mpl i tude an d Mean

Total Verbalizat ion Tim e as a Funct ion of Typ e of Sel f-

Discrepancy a nd T ype of Pr imin g o r Subject-Related

an d Subject-Unrelated A ttributes

Subject- Subject-

Type o f self-discrepancy unrelated relatedand type of priming at tr ibutes at tr ibutes

Mean standardized skin conductance ampli tude i

Actual:ideal discrepancyMismatching - 0 . 1 0 - 0 . 3 0

Nonmatching -0.2 1 0.19Yoked (mismatching) -0. 02 0.24

Actual:ought discrepancyMismatching -0. 14 0.26Nonmatching -0 .2 5 0 .09Yoked (mismatching) -0. 09 0 .1 4

Me an total verbalization time b

Actual:ideal discrepancy

Mism atching 1.59 1.31Nonm atching 1.89 1.97Yoked (mismatch ing) 2.15 2.26

Actual:ought discrepancyMism atching 1.99 2.47Nonm atching 1.60 1.65Yoked (misma tching) 1.40 1.42

"A ll values are standardized using the mean an d standard d eviation skinconductance amplitude from each subject's priming trials (subject-re-lated and unrelated attributes).b The length in seconds of each subject's total verbal response to eachattribute phrase.

r e n t a l i n t e r a c t i ons t ha t i nvo l ve d t he p r e s e nc e o f ne ga ti ve ou t -c o m e s - - f o r e x a m p l e , p a r e n t s w h o c r it ic i z ed , p u n i s h e d , o r r e -

j e c t e d t h e m f o r n o t b e i n g t h e t y p e o f c h i ld t h e i r p a r e n t s b e l ie v e d

t h e y o u g h t t o b e ; p a r e n t s w h o w e r e i n tr u s i v e o r c o n t r o l li n g i n

o r d e r t o m a k e t h e m b e c o m e t h e ty p e o f c h i ld t h e p a r e n t s b e -

l i e v e d t h e y o u g h t t o b e ; p a r e n t s w h o c o m m u n i c a t e d t o t h e m

t h e ir w o r r i e s a b o u t t h e m o r t h e ir o w n f e a r a n d d r e a d o f t h e

w or l d i n ge ne r a l . I n c on t r a s t , pe op l e pos s e s s i ng a c t ua l :i de a l d i s-

c r e p a n c i e s m a y h a v e h a d a n e a r ly h i s t o r y o f p a r e n t a l i n te r a c -

t i o n s t h a t i n v o l v e d t h e a b s e n c e o f p o s it iv e o u t c o m e s - - f o r e x -

a m p l e , p a r e n ts w h o w i th d r e w f r o m t h e m , a b a n d o n e d t h e m , o r

p a i d l i tt le a t t e n t i o n t o t h e m w h e n e v e r t h e y w e r e n o t t h e t y p e o f

c h i l d t h e p a r e n t s w a n t e d o r h o p e d f o r ; p a r e n t s w h o d i d n o t o r

c ou l d no t s a t i s f y t he c h i l d ' s ne e ds f o r l ove , nu r t u r a nc e , o r a p -p r o v a l ; p a r e n t s w h o c o m m u n i c a t e d t o t h e m t h e i r d i s a p p o i n t -

m e n t i n t he m o r t he i r ow n f e e li ngs o f hope l es s ne s s , s adne s s , a nd

d i s c ou r a ge m e n t a bou t l if e. Pe o p l e pos s e s s ing bo t h t ype s o f s e lf -

d i s c re p a n c i e s m a y h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d b o t h k i n d s o f n e g at iv e i n -

t e r a c t i ons w i t h t he i r pa r e n t s .

I t is l ike l y t ha t c h i l d r e n a r e m o t i va t e d t o a vo i d t he ne ga t i ve

ps yc ho l og i c a l s i t ua t i on a s s oc i a t e d w i t h t he i r pa r e n t s ' ne ga t i ve

i n t e r a c t i ons w i t h t he m . To do s o , c h i l d r e n m us t l e a r n t o a n t i c i-

pa t e t he s e e ve n t s a nd d i s c ove r how t he i r ow n r e s pons e s a nd a t -

t r i bu t e s i nc r e a s e o r de c r e a s e t he l i ke l i hood t ha t t he s e e ve n t s w i l l

oc c u r . Th i s l e a r n i ng p r oc e s s u l t i m a t e l y l e a ds t o t he a c qu i s i t ion

o f m e n t a l r e p r e s e n t a t i ons o f t he i r pa r e n t s ' i de a l gu ide s f o r t he m

( t o a v o i d t h e a b s e n c e o f p o s i ti v e o u t c o m e s ) a n d / o r t h e i r p a r e n t s '

o u g h t g u i d e s f o r t h e m ( t o a v o i d t h e p r e s e n c e o f n e g at iv e o u t -

c om e s ) . I t a ls o c a us e s c h i l d r e n t o a c qu i r e be l i e f s a bo u t t he ne g a -

t ive c ons e que nc e s o f fa i li ng t o m e e t t he i r p a r e n t s ' gu i de s . I t is

w e ll k n o w n , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t d e p r e s s e d p e o p l e o f t e n g r o w u p

be l i e v i ng t ha t t he i r pa r e n t s ' c a r e , a f f e c t i on , a nd a pp r ova l a r e

d e p e n d e n t o n t h e i r l iv i n g u p t o a n d p u r s u i n g t h e i r p a r e n t s ' s t a n -

da r ds f o r t he m ( s ee A r ie t i & B e m por a d , 1978 ; B e c k , 1967 ; G u i -

da n o & L i o t t i , 1983).

I f c h i l d r e n be l ie ve t ha t i t i s e s se n t i a l t o m e e t t he i r pa r e n t s '

gu i de s t o a vo i d e x pe r i e nc i ng a ne ga t i ve p s yc ho l og i c a l s i t ua t ion ,

t he n a f a i l u r e t o do s o ( a s r e f l e c t e d i n a d i s c r e pa nc y be t w e e n

t he i r c u r r e n t s t a t e a nd t he e nd - s t a t e r e p r e s e n t e d by t he i r pa r -

e n t s ' gu i de s f o r t he m ) i s li ke ly t o i nd uc e i n t e ns e e m ot i ona l d i s -

c om f or t . I n o r de r t o a vo i d t h i s i n t e ns e pa i n , t he c h i l d m us t a t -

t e m p t t o m e e t t h e p a r e n t s ' g u id e s , w h i c h r e q u i r e s i n t u r n t h a t

t h e c h i l d m o n i t o r h i s o r h e r p r o g r es s t o w a r d m e e t i n g t h e g u id e .

S u c h m o n i t o r i n g in v o l v e s c o m p a r i n g a c u r r e n t p e r f o r m a n c e o r

a t t r ib u t e t o t h e s t a n d a r d r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e g u id e . T h i s m e a n s

t ha t t he c u r r e n t l eve l o f t he a t t r i bu t e i s i n t e r p r e t e d i n r e f e r e nc e

t o t h e g u i d e r a t h e r t h a n i n r e f e re n c e t o s o m e f a c t u a l s ta n d a r d ,s uc h a s t he c h i l d ' s p r e v i ous l e ve l o f t he a t t r i bu t e ( s e e H i gg i ns ,

S t r a u m a n , & K l e i n , 1986). O ve r t i m e , t he n , t he c h i l d ' s a c t ua l /

ow n s e l f m a y be c ons t r uc t e d , a t l e a s t i n pa r t , i n r e f e r e nc e t o h i s

o r he r gu i de s . Thu s t o t he e x t e n t t ha t c h i l d r e n be l ie ve i t i s e s s e n -

t i a l t o m e e t t he gu i de s f o r t he m , t he y a r e m or e l i ke l y t o a c qu i r e

a c t ua l : gu i de d i s c r e pa nc i e s , t he y a r e m or e l i ke l y t o s u f f e r i n -

t e n s e l y f r o m a n y d i s c r e p a n c y t h e y d o p o s s e s s , a n d t h e y a r e

m o r e l ik e ly t o r e s is t a n y a t t e m p t t o m o d i f y t h e i r g u i de s .

We ha ve a r gue d ( H i gg i ns , K l e i n , & S t r a um a n , 1985) t ha t i n

o r de r f o r s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y t o be m a x i m a l l y u s e f u l a s a n

a p p r o a c h f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d e v e n t u a l ly tr e a ti n g , e m o t i o n a l

p r ob l e m s , i t m us t be e x t e nde d t o i nc l ude va r i a b l e s t ha t r e f l e c t

pe r s ona l be l i e fs a bou t t he i n t e r pe r s ona l c ons e qu e nc e s o f pos -s e s si ng t he d i s c r e pa nc y . The r e f o r e , a m e a s u r e o f be li e f s i n s uc h

c o n t in g e n c i e s w a s i n c l u d e d i n S t r a u m a n a n d H i g g i n s ' s ( 1 9 8 7 )

s t udy de s c r i be d e a rl ie r. Pa r t o f a ge ne r a l Soc i a l i z a ti on Q ue s t i on -

na i r e a s ke d t he s ub j e c t s t he f o l l ow i ng k i nds o f que s t i ons : ( a )

" H a v e y o u e v e r fe l t u n l o v e d b e c a u s e y o u d i d n ' t l iv e u p t o y o u r

p a r e n t s ideals f o r y o u ? T o w h a t e x t e n t ? " ( b ) " H a v e y o u e v e r fe l t

y o u w o u l d b e e m o t i o n a l l y a b a n d o n e d i f y o u d i d n ' t l iv e u p t o

y o u r p a r e n t s ' i d e a ls f o r y o u ? T o w h a t e x t e n t ? " ( c ) " D i d y o u

e v e r b e li e ve t h a t y o u r p a r e n t s w o u l d r e j e c t y o u i f y o u d i d n ' t l iv e

u p t o t h e i r oughts f o r y o u ? T o w h a t e x t e n t ? " S u b j e c t s' s c o r e s fo r

t he t h r e e i de a l que s t i ons w e r e a ve r a ge d t o f o r m a n ove r a l l ide a l -

o u t c o m e c o n t i n g e n c y s c o re , a n d t h e i r s c o r e s f o r t h e t h r e e o u g h t

q u e s t i o n s w e r e a v er a g e d t o f o r m a n o v e r a l l o u g h t - o u t c o m e c o n -t i nge nc y s c o r e .

As descr ibed ear l i e r , subjec t s ' se l f -d i screpancies were ob-

t a i n e d w e e k s b e f o r e th e y a n s w e r e d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s m e a s u r -

i ng the i r e m o t i ona l p r o b l e m s . U s i ng t e r t i a r y s p li ts , w e d i v i de d

t h e s u b j ec t s i n t o t h r e e l e v e ls - -- h ig h , m e d i u m , a n d l o w - - w i t h

r e ga r d t o bo t h a c t ua l : i de a l d i s c r e p a nc y ( i. e. , a c t ua l / ow n : i de a l /

o w n d i s c r e p a n c y a n d a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y c o m -

b i n e d ) a n d a c t u a l : o u g h t d i s c r e p a n c y ( i . e . , a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t /

o w n d i s c r e p a n c y a n d a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y

c om bi ne d ) . U s i ng m e d i a n s p li ts , w e a ls o d i v i de d t he s ub j e c ts

i n t o t w o l eve ls o f i de a l - ou t c o m e c on t i nge nc y a nd t w o l e ve l s o f

o u g h t - o u t c o m e c o n t i n g en c y . W e th e n p e r f o r m e d a L e v e l o f A c -

Ta b l e 3

Squared Multiple Correlations Between Domain of Self-Discrepancy Plus Outcome Contingencyand Type of Emotional Problem

Dom ain o f sel f-discrepancy an d

outcome BDI HSCL HSCL HSCLcontingency de pr es s io n de pre ss i on anxie ty paranoid

Ideal .39*** .27*** .18* .11Ou ght .11 .17* .22** .24**

Note.BD I = Beck Depression Inventory; HSCL = H opkins SymptomChecklist. N = 70.* p < . 0 5 . * * p < . 0 1 . * * * p < . 0 0 1 .

t u a l :I d e a l D i s c r e p a n c y • L e v e l o f Id e a l - O u t c o m e C o n t i n g e n c y

A N OV A a n d a L e v e l o f A c t u a l : O u g h t D i s c r e p a n c y • L e v e l o f

O u g h t - O u t c o m e C o n t i n g e n c y A N O V A f o r e a c h o f a s e t o f g en -

e r a l m e a s u r e s o f e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s .O u r m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r e d i c ti o n w a s t h a t t h e i n t e n s it y o f th e

s u b j e c t s ' e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s w o u l d b e r e l a t e d t o b o t h t h e i r

l e ve l o f s e l f -d i s c r e pa nc y a nd t he i r l eve l o f ou t c om e c on t i ng e nc y

a n d t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e i r e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s w o u l d d e p e n d

on th e typ e of se l f -guide invo lved ( i .e . , idea l vs . ough t ) . Table

3 s how s t he r e s u lt s . A s p r e d i c t e d , a n a c t ua l : i de a l d i s c r e pa nc y

c o m b i n e d w i t h a n i d e a l - o u tc o m e c o n t i n g e n c y w a s s tr o n g ly a s-

s oc i a t e d w i t h de p r e s s i ve (i .e ., de j e c t i on - r e l a t e d ) s y m p t om s bu t

ha d a r e l a t i ve l y w e a k a s s oc i a t i on w i t h a nx i e t y / pa r a no i d ( i . e . ,

a g i t a t i on - r e l a t e d ) s ym pt om s , w he r e a s t he r e ve r s e w a s t r ue f o r

a n a c t u a l : o u g h t d i s c r e p a n c y c o m b i n e d w i t h a n o u g h t - o u t c o m e

c on t i nge nc y . ( Fo r o t he r r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t udy , se e H i gg i ns , K l e i n ,

& S t ra u m a n , 1 9 8 7 .)Th e r e s u l t s i n Ta b l e 3 s ugge s t t ha t t he r e i s s om e r e l a t i on ( a l -

t h o u g h w e a k ) b e t w e e n a n a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y

a n d a g i t a t io n - r e la t e d s y m p t o m s a n d s o m e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n a n

a c t u a l / o w n : o u g h t / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y a n d d e j e c t i o n - r e l a t e d

s ym pt om s . Th i s a ppa r e n t w e a k re l a t i on , how e ver , c ou l d be due

t o t he i n t e r c o r r e l a t i on be t w e e n t he t w o t ype s o f se l f - d is c r e pa n -

c ies . In order to cont rol s ta t i s t i ca l ly for th i s potent ia l fac tor ,

a n a l ys e s o f c o v a r i a n c e w e r e p e r f o r m e d i n w h i c h l ev el o f a c tu a l :

ough t d i s c r e pa nc y w a s t he c ova r i a t e f o r t he a na l ys e s i nvo l v i ng

t he i de a l dom a i n , a n d l e ve l o f a c t ua l :i de a l d i s c r e pa n c y w a s t he

c o v a r i a te f o r t h e a n a l y s es i n v o l v i n g th e o u g h t d o m a i n . T h e s e

a na l ys e s r e p l i c a t e d t he s i gn i f i c a n t r e l a t i on be t w e e n i de a l do -

m a i n a n d d e p r es s iv e s y m p t o m s a n d t h e s i g n if i ca n t r el a t io n b e -t w e en o u g h t d o m a i n a n d a n x i e t y /p a r a n o i d s y m p t o m s , b u t b o t h

t h e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n i d e a l d o m a i n a n d a n x i e t y a n d t h e r e l a t io n

be t w e e n ough t dom a i n a nd de p r e s s i on w e r e no l onge r s i gn i f i -

c a n t ( p > . 20 ).

T h e a b i li t y o f s e l f- d i sc r e p a n c y t h e o r y t o d i s c r i m i n a te b e -

t w e e n pe op l e vu l ne r a b l e t o m i l d de p r e s s i on a nd t hos e s us c e p t i -

b l e t o a n x i e t y w a s re t e s te d i n a s u b s e q u e n t s t u d y b y S t r a u m a n

a nd H i gg i ns ( 1987) . We us e d a l a t e n t va r i a b l e a na l ys i s t o e va l u -

a t e s i m u l t a ne o us l y t he va l i d i t y o f t he p r e d i c t e d c ons t r u c t s ( s e e

Bentler, 1980). In t ro du cto ry psych olog y s tuden ts f i rs t f il led out

t h e S e l v es q u e s t io n n a i r e a s p a r t o f a b a t t e ry o f m e a s u r e s t h e y

r e c e i ve d a t t he be g i nn i ng o f t he s e m es te r. A p pr ox i m a t e l y 1

33 2 E. TORY HIGGINS

Figure 1. Latent-variable model relating type of self-discrepancy (actual/own:ideal/own discrepancy; ac-tual/own:ought/other discrepancy) to kind o f emotional problem (depression, social anxiety). (SAD = So-

cial Avoidance and Distress Scale; FNE = Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale; HSCL = Hopkins SymptomChecklist, I = Interpersonal Sensitivity subscale, D = Depression subscale; BDI = Beck Depression Inven-tory.)

mo nth la ter they f il led out an other bat tery of measures that

comprised both the la tent variable for depression--the Beck

Depres s ion Inven tory (BDI) and the Hopk ins Symp tom C heck-

l is t Depress ion subscale (H SC L-D )-- and the la tent variable for

social anxiety---the Fear of Negat ive Evaluat ion Scale (FNE;

Watso n & Friend, 1969), the Social Avo idance and Distress

Scale (SAD; Watson & Friend, 1969), and the Hopk ins Sym p-

tom Checklist Interpersonal Sensitivity subscale (HSCL-I).

The hypothes ized causal s t ruc ture -- th e val idi ty of both the

depress ion c onstruct an d the social anxiety cons truct , a re la t ionbetween actual /own: ideal /own discrepancy and depress ion that

is independent of a re la tion between actual /own :ough t /other

discrepancy and socia l anxiety, and vice versa--was the only

model to provide an acceptable f it to the sam ple data , x 2 (11,

N = 163) = 16.70, p > . 15. (For further discussion of the com -

parison o f the hypothes ized causal s t ructure wi th a l ternat ive

models, see Strauman & Higgins, 1987.) As Figure 1 shows,

actual /own: ideal /own discrepancy was uniquely associa ted

with depress ion but not wi th anxiety, whereas actual /own:

ought /other discrepancy was uniquely associa ted with socia l

anxiety but not w i th depression. Th e resul ts of this s tudy, then,

s t rongly support the predict ions o f se l f-discrepancy theory.

C o m p a r i s o n t o O t h e r T h e o r i e s R e la t i n g

Se l f -Be l i e f s and Affec t

W ha t is the relation b etween self-beliefs and affect? This h as

been a centra l ques t ion from the beginning o f psychologists ' in-

terest in the self. An d the general answer m ost ofte n given is that

incompat ible se lf-bel iefs produ ce emotion al problems. A mon g

a wide arr ay o f poss ibi l it ies , three bas ic types of incom pat ible

self-beliefs can b e identified: (a) inconsistencies between one 's

self-perceived attributes (or self-concept) and external, behav-ioral feedback re la ted to one 's se l f-percept ions; (b) contradic-

t ions amo ng one 's sel f-perceived a tt r ibutes th at imp ede a coher-

ent and unified self-concept; and (c) discrepancies between

one 's self-perceived attributes and som e standa rd o r self-guide.

Self-discrepancy theory is an example of the la t ter type o f

theory.

Inconsis tencies between on e 's se l f and external feedback can

occu r from on e 's own responses or the responses of others. Ar-

onso n's (1969) vers ion of cogni t ive dissonance theory (Fes-

tinger, 1957), with its emph asis o n self-expectancies, is an ex-

ample oftb e forme r case . The theory proposes that when people

behave in a m ann er that i s inconsis tent wi th thei r se l f-concept ,

t he y e xpe r i e nc e d i s c om f or t (s e e a l s o B r a m e l , 1968 ; R oge r s ,

1959) , a s w he n s om e one w ho be l i e ve s t ha t he o r s he i s de c e n t

a n d t r u t h f u l p e r s u a d e s a n o t h e r p e r s o n t o p e r f o r m a t a s k t h a t

h e o r s h e k n o w s i s b o r i n g . W i c k l u n d a n d G o l l w i t z e r' s ( 1 9 8 2 )

s y m b o l i c s e l f -c o m p l e t io n t h e o r y p r o p o s e s t h a t p e o p l e w h o a r e

c o m m i t t e d t o a s e l f -d e f in i ti o n b u t h a v e b e e n u n a b l e t o a c h i e v e

i t c om pl e t e l y e xpe r i e nc e a p s yc ho l og i c a l t e ns i on t h a t m o t i va t e s

s e l f - c om pl e t i on s t r a te g i e s. Sw a nn ' s ( 1983) s e l f- ve r if i c a ti on t he -

o r y i s a l s o c onc e r ne d w i t h i nc ons i s t e nc i e s be t w e e n s e l f - c on -

c e p t s a nd e x t e r na l f e e dba c k , bu t i t f oc us e s on pe op l e ' s a t t e m p t s

t o o b t a i n r e s p o n s e s f r o m o t h e r s t h a t c o n f i r m t h e i r s e l f- c o n c e p t

( s ee a l s o Le c ky , 196 l ; Wi c l d und & G o l l w i t z e r , 1982). T he t he -

o r y s t a t e s t ha t pe op l e a r e d i s t r e s s e d w he n t he y r e c e i ve s oc i a l

f e e dba c k t h a t i s i nc ons i s t e n t w i t h t he i r s e l f - c onc e p t , e ve n w he n

t he f e e db a c k d i s c on f i r m s a ne ga t i ve s e lf - c onc e p t i on . Pe op l e w i l l

s e e k ou t s e l f - c ons is t e n t s oc ia l f e e dba c k a nd a vo i d s e l f - inc ons i s -

t e n t f e e d b a c k i n a m a n n e r r e m i n i s c e n t o f th e " s e l e ct iv e e x p o -

s u r e " h y p o t h e s i s o f c o g n it iv e d i s s o n a n c e t h e o r y ( se e O l s o n &

Z a n n a , 1 9 7 9 ; W i c l d u n d & B r e h m , 1 9 76 ).

I t h a s a ls o b e e n p r o p o s e d t h a t p e o p l e n e e d c o n s i s t e n c y a m o n g

t he i r s e l f - pe r c e i ve d a t t r i bu t e s i n o r de r t o f o r m a c ohe r e n t a ndun i f i e d s e l f - c onc e p t ( se e , f o r e xa m pl e , A l l po r t , 1955 ; B r i m ,

1976 ; Eps t e i n , 1973 ; H a r t e r , 1986 ; Le c ky , 196 l ; Mor s e & G e r -

ge n , 1970 ; R oge r s , 1961 ; Snygg & C om bs , 1949) . H a r t e r ha s

f ound t ha t a do l e s c e n t s a r e a b l e t o d i s t i ngu i s h be t w e e n t hos e

s e l f- pe r c e ive d oppos i t e t r a i t s t ha t a r e i n c o n f l i c t o r inc ons i s t e n t

w i t h e a c h o t h e r ( e .g ., " s m a r t " a n d " f u n - l o v i n g " i n s c h o o l ) a n d

t h o s e t h a t a r e n o t i n c o n f l i c t b e c a u s e t h e y o c c u r i n d i f f e r e n t

c o n t e x t s (e .g ., " o u t g o i n g " w i t h f r ie n d s a n d " s h y " w i t h r o m a n t i c

i n t e r e s t s ) . A s t he o r i e s p r opos i ng t he ne e d f o r s e l f - c ons i s t e nc y

s ugge s t, t he a do l e s c e n t s w e r e d i s t re s s e d by t he i r s e l f - pe r c ei ve d

conf l i c t in g t ra i ts .

Th e f i r s t t w o t y pe s o f the o r i e s o f inc o m p a t i b l e s el f- be li ef s e m -

pha s i z e t he i n t e r r e l a t i on a m ong s e l f - pe r c e i ve d a t t r i bu t e s , be -h a v i o r s , a n d e x p e r i e n c e s - - t h a t i s , t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n a m o n g

d i f f e r e n t p i e c e s o f i n f o r m a t i on a bou t t he a c t ua l s e lf . The t h i r d

t y p e e m p h a s i z e s t h e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n t h e a c t u a l s e l f a n d s o m e

s t a nda r d o r s e l f - gu i de . The s e t he o r i e s p r opos e t ha t d i s c r e pa n -

c i e s be t w e e n ou r s e l f - pe r c e i ve d a t t r i bu t e s ( o r be ha v i o r ) a nd

s om e c on t e x t ua l l y s a l i e n t s t a nda r d o r pe r s ona l a s p i r a t i ons o r

va l ue s p r oduc e d i s c om f or t ( e . g . , A d l e r , 1964 ; C a n t o r & K i h l -

s t r o m , 1 9 8 6 ; C o o l e y , 1 9 0 2 / 1 9 6 4 ; D u v a l & W i c k l u n d , 1 9 7 2 ;

F r e u d , 1 9 2 3 / 1 9 6 1 ; H o m e y , 1 9 5 0 ; J a m e s , 1 8 9 0 / 1 9 4 8 ; M a r k u s

& Nu r ius , 1987; Scheier & Carver , 1982 ; Sul l ivan, 1953). In

h i s c la s s i c t he o r y o f the s e lf , J a m e s d i s t i ngu i s he d be t w e e n t he

m o t i v a t i o n a l r o l e o f th e s e l f i n p r o m p t i n g a n d r e g u l at i n g a c t i o n

( i .e . , se l f - seeking, se l f -preservat ion) and in inf luencing the pro-cess of se l f -evaluat ion ( i.e ., se l f -es t im at ion, se l f -ap prec ia t ion ) .

T h e o r i e s o f t h e t h i r d t y p e v a r y i n w h e t h e r t h e y e m p h a s i z e t h e

s e l f - r e gu l a t o r y /a c t i on - e l i c it i ng a s pe c t o f t he s e l f ( e. g. , C a n t o r &

K i h l s t r om , 1986 ; M a r ku s & N ur i u s , 1987 ; Se he i e r & C a r ver ,

1982) or the se l f -evaluat ive aspect o f the se l f (e .g . , A dler, 1964;

C oo l e y , 1902 / 1964 ; H om e y , 1950) .

B e c a us e pa s t t he o r i e s o f i nc om pa t i b l e s e lf -be li ef s ha ve o f t e n

no t e xp l i c i tl y d i s t i ngu i s he d be t w e e n a c t ua l - s e l f a t t r i bu t e s a nd

sel f -guides (e .g . , goal s and values) , so me o f the m are , in fac t ,

b l e nds o f t he s e c on d a nd t h i r d t ype s o f the o r i e s ( e. g. , H a l t e r ,

1986 ; Le c ky , 1961 ; R oge r s , 1961 ; Snyg g & C om bs , 1949) . I n

s uc h c a s e s i t is no t c l e a r w h e t he r pe op l e ' s m o t i va t i o n i s t o ha ve

a c ohe r e n t , un i f i e d s e l f pe r s e - - s e l f - c ons i s t e n c y f o r t he s a ke o f

s tabi li ty , predic tabi l i ty , o r order l iness ( like a "go od Ge s ta l t

f i t " ) - - o r w h e t h e r t h e i r m o t i v a t io n i s s e l f -e n h a n c e m e n t a s d e -

f i ne d i n r e l a t i on t o t he i r goa l s a nd va l ue s .

S e l f -d i s c re p a n c y t h e o r y i s a n e x a m p l e o f th e t h i r d t y p e o f

t he o r y t ha t e m p ha s i z e s t he s e l f - eva l ua ti ve a s pe c t o f t he s e lf , bu t

i t h a s a n u m b e r o f u n i q u e f e a tu r e s:

I . I t e xp l i c it l y d i s ti ngu i s he s a m o ng d i f f e r e n t t ype s o f s e lf -

gu i de s i n t he d i f f e r e n t t ype s o f ne ga t i ve p s yc ho l og i c a l s i t ua t i ons

t ha t a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by t he i r d i s c r e pa nc y f r om t he a c t ua l s e l f -

c on c e p t (e .g ., a n a c t ua l s e l f - c onc e p t : i de a l s e lf - gu ide d i s c r e pa nc y

r e p r e s e n t i ng t he a bs e nc e o f pos i t ive ou t c om e s ; a n a c t ua l s e lf -

c o n c e p t : o u g h t s e lf - gu i d e d i s c r e p a n c y r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e p r e s e n c e

o f ne ga t ive ou t c om e s ) .

2 . I t e xp l i c i t l y d i s t i ngu i s he s a m ong d i f f e r e n t s e l f - gn i de s i n

t e r m s o f th e s t a n d p o i n t o n t h e s e l f t h a t i s i n v o lv e d . A s I m e n -

t i one d e a rl ie r, a l t ho ugh M e a d ( 1934) de s c r i be d t he de ve l opm e n t

o f d i ff e r e n t s t a ndpo i n t s , i t i s no t c l e a r i n h i s t he o r y w h e t he r t he

d i f f e r e n t s t a ndp o i n t s on t he s e l f r e m a i n d i s t inc t . Th e d i s t i nc t i on

be t w e e n p r i va t e a nd pub l i c s e l f - c ons c i ous ne s s a s c h r on i c p r e -

di spo s i t ions to be se l f -a t t ent ive (see Ca rve r & Scheier, 1978;

Fe n i gs t e i n , Sc he i e r , & B us s , 1975) s e e m s t o m i r r o r t he " ow n"

v e r s u s " o t h e r " s t a n d p o i n t p r o p o s e d h e r e . B u t b o t h " o w n " a n d

" o t h e r " s t a ndpo i n t s a r e pe r s ona l , c ove r t a s pe c t s o f one ' s i n t e r -

na l l y r e p r e s e n t e d s e lf - gu ide s , a nd t hu s both o f t h e s e s t a n d p o i n t s

w ou l d be a s s oc i a t e d w i t h private s e l f- c ons c i ous ne s s. Mor e ove r ,

i n s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y on l y t he i n t e r na l ly r e p r e s e n t e d s t a nd -

p o i n t s o f significant o t h e r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d - - n o t s o m e g e n e r a l

c o n c e r n a b o u t h o w o n e a p p e a r s a n d i s o b s e r v e d b y o t h e r s ( i. e. ,

pub l i c s e l f -c ons c i ous ne s s ).

3 . I t expl ic i t ly d i s t inguishe s be tw een th e avai labi l i ty of a sel f-

d i s c re p a n c y , a s m e a s u r e d b y t h e m a g n i t u d e o f a d i s c r e p a n c y

between in ternal ly represented se l f - s ta tes , and the access ibi l i tyo f a s e lf - d i sc r e pa nc y , w h i c h c a n va r y a s a f unc t i on o f c on t e x t ua l

p r i m i n g .

S e l f -d i s c re p a n c y t h e o r y c o u l d b e u s e d t o p r o v i d e a g e n e r a l

f r a m e w o r k f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e m o t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f

inc om pa t ib le se l f-be lie fs . In par t i cular , i t co uld be used to d i s -

t i ngu i s h a m on g i nc om pa t i b l e s el f- be li ef s w i t h r e ga r d t o t he

d i f f e r e n t k i nds o f ne ga t ive e m ot i on s t he y a r e l ike l y to i nduc e .

Th e f i rs t t w o t ype s o f the o r i e s o f i nc om p a t i b l e s el f- be li ef s, i n

p a r ti c u la r , h a v e t e n d e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e e m o t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s

o f i nc om p a t i b i l i t y on l y i n ve r y ge ne r a l t e r m s , s uc h a s c on f l ic t ,

a nx i e t y , o r d i s t re s s . I f w e c ons i de r t he f ir s t t ype o f the o r y , f o r

e x a m p l e , i t m a y b e t h a t t h e e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t o f e x t e rn a l b e h a v -

i o r al f e e d b a c k , w h e t h e r f r o m o n e ' s o w n r e s p o n s e o r f r o m a n -o t h e r p e r so n , d e p e n d s o n w h e t h e r t h e a c t u a l / o w n a t t r i b u t e t o

w h i c h t he f e e dba c k i s r e le va n t ha s i m p l i c a t i ons f o r t he pe r s on ' s

s e l f -d i s c r e pa nc ie s . I f t he be ha v i o r a l f e e d ba c k e i t he r d i s c on f i r m s

a n a c t u a l / o w n a t t r i b u t e t h a t c u r r e n t l y m a t c h e s a n i d e a l / o w n

a t t ri b u t e , c o n f i r m s a n a c t u a l / o w n a t t r ib u t e t h a t c u r r e n t l y m i s -

m a t c h e s a n i d e a l / o w n a t t r i b u t e , o r c r e a t e s a n e w a c t u a l / o w n

a t t r i b u t e t h a t m i s m a t c h e s a n i d e a l / o w n a t t r i b u t e , t h e p e r s o n

s hou l d fe e l d i s a pp o i n t e d a nd d i s s a ti s fi e d . O n t he o t he r ha nd , i f

t h e b e h a v i o r a l f e e d b a c k e i t h e r d i s c o n f ir m s a n a c t u a l / o w n a t tr i -

b u t e t h a t c u r r e n t l y m a t c h e s a n o u g h t / o t h e r a t t ri b u t e , c o n f r m s

a n a c t u a l / o w n a t t r i b u t e t h a t c u r r e n t l y m i s m a t c h e s a n o u g h t /

o t h e r a t tr i b u t e, o r c r e a te s a n e w a c t u a l / o w n a t t r i b u t e t h a t m i s -

3 3 4 E . T O R Y H I G G I N S

m a t c h e s a n oug h t / o t he r a t tr i bu t e , t he pe r s on s ho u l d f ee l a f r a i d

a n d t h r e a te n e d .

O n e c a s e o f d i s c o m f o r t i n d u c e d b y d i s c o n f i r m i n g f e e d b a c k

w ou l d s e e m t o be d i f fi c u l t t o e xp l a i n i n t e r m s o f s e l f -d i s c r e p -

a n c y t h e o r y : T h e c a s e w h e r e s o m e o n e w h o p o s s e s se s n e g a ti v e

o r s o c ia l ly u n d e s ir a b l e a c t u a l / o w n a t t ri b u t e s i s m a d e u n c o m -

f o r t a b l e by f e e dba c k d i s c on f i r m i ng t hos e a t t r i bu t e s ( s e e Sw a r m ,

1983) . I n s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y the o r y , how e ve r, w he t he r a n a t t r i bu t e

i s s oc i a l ly de s ir a b l e i s no t r e l e va n t . W ha t m a t t e r s i s w he t he r a n

a t t r i bu t e m a t c h e s o r m i s m a t c he s one ' s se l f- gn ide s . I t i s pos s i b le ,

t he r e f o r e , t ha t a pe r s on c ou l d pos s e s s a n a t t r i bu t e t ha t i s ne ga -

t ive o r s oc i a ll y unde s i r a b l e bu t ne ve r t he l e s s m a t c he s o ne o f h i s

o r he r i m p or t a n t s e lf -gu ide s. Fo r e xa m p l e , e ve n t hou gh a n a t t r i-

b u t e i s d y s f u n c t i o n a l o u t s i d e t h e h o m e a n d d o e s n o t m e e t a

c h i l d ' s o w n w i s h es i t c o u l d m a t c h w h a t s o m e s i g n i fi c a n t o t h e r

i n t h e h o m e w a n t s t h e c h i l d t o b e o r b e li e ve s th e c h i l d o u g h t t o

be , s uc h a s i n t he c a s e o f a c h i l d w hos e pa r e n t s be l i eve i t is h i s

o r he r du t y t o be de pe nde n t , s ubm i s s i ve, a nd d i f f i den t . A c c o r d -

i ng t o s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y , d i s c on f i r m i ng s uc h " ne ga t i ve "

a t t ri b u t e s w o u l d i n d u c e d i s c o m f o r t b e c a u s e i t w o u l d c r e a t e a

d i s c r e p a n c y w i t h a s e lf -g n id e ; t h e k i n d o f d i s c o m f o r t w o u l d d e -

p e n d o n w h i c h t y p e o f s e lf - d is c r e p a n cy t h e d i s c o n f i r m e d a t t r i-

bu t e a c t i va t e d ( e. g. , f e a r a nd t h r e a t f o r a n a c t u a l / ow n : ou gh t /

o t he r d i s c r e pa nc y ) .

Th e s e c on d t ype o f the o r y o f i nc om p a t i b l e s e lf -be li ef s c on -

c e r n s c a s es o f d i s c o m f o r t f r o m c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a m o n g s e lf -a t tr i-

bu t e s t ha t i m pe de a c o he r e n t a nd un i f i e d s e lf . Som e o f t he s e

c a s e s m a y r e f l e c t d i s c r e pa nc i e s be t w e e n t he a t t r i bu t e s pe op l e

be l i e ve t he y pos s e s s a nd t he a t t r i bu t e s t ha t s i gn i f i c a n t o t he r s

be l i e ve t he y pos s e s s ( i . e . , a n a c t ua l / ow n : a c t ua l / o t he r d i s c r e p -

a nc y ) o r d i s c r e pa nc i e s be t w e e n t he a t t r i bu t e s t h a t t w o d i f f e r e n t

s i gn i fi c a n t o t he r s be li e ve t he y pos s e s s (i .e ., a n a c t ua l / O t he r 1 :

a c t u a l / O t h e r 2 d i s c re p a n c y ) . S u c h d i s c r e p a n c i e s a r e o f t e n d e -s c r i b e d a s a n " i d e n t i t y c r i s i s " a n d a r e e s p e c i a l l y c o m m o n i n

a do l e s c e nc e (s e e Er i k s on , 1950 / 1963 , 1968 ; H a r t e r , 1986) .

A s I m e n t i one d e a r li er , o t h e r c a s e s o f t h i s ge ne r a l t ype m a y

r e f le c t d i s c r e pa nc i e s i nvo l v i ng s e l f - gu ide s a nd t hus a r e a c t ua l l y

i n s t a nc e s o f t he t h i r d t ype o f t he o r y . Le c k y ( 196 l ) , f o r e xa m pl e ,

d e s c r ib e d t h e a c u t e n e e d f o r u n i t y i n a d o l e s c e n c e c a u s e d b y a

c ha l l e nge t o va l ue s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h t he a do l e s c e n t s ' pa r e n t s

f r om va l ue s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h t he a do l e s c e n t ' s r om a n t i c pa r t ne r .

Th i s c on f l i c t p r oba b l y r e f l e c t s a d i s c r e pa nc y be t w e e n t he k i nd

o f p e r s o n t h e p a r e n t s b e l ie v e t h e a d o l e s ce n t o u g h t t o b e a n d t h e

k i n d o f p e r s o n t h e r o m a n t i c p a r t n e r w o u l d l i k e th e a d o l e s c e n t t o

be ( i. e. , a n ou gh t / O t he r 1 i de a l / O t he r 2 d i s c r e pa nc y ) . S i m i l a r ly ,

H a r t e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) p r o v i d e s t h e f o ll o w in g e x a m p l e o f a s t u d e n t ' s b e -f ie fs a b o u t h o w h e o r s h e s h o u l d a c t in s c h o o l - - " I k n o w I shouM

b e d o i n g w e ll i n s c h o o l. I g e t p r e s s u re f r o m m y f a t h e r " - - w h i c h

i s in c on f l i c t w i t h t he s t ud e n t ' s s e l f - per c e i ved a c t i ons . A c c o r d i ng

t o s e l f - d is c r e pa nc y t he o r y , t h i s a c t ua l / ow n : ou gh t / o t he r d i s c r e p -

a n c y s h o u l d p r o d u c e n o t o n l y g e n er a l c o n fl ic t , a s H a r t e r s u g -

ge st s, bu t f e a r a nd t h r e a t i n pa r t i c u la r . A nd d i s c r e pa nc i e s w i t h

pe r s ona l goa l s a nd de s i r e s , w h i c h H a t t e r a l s o de s c ri be s , s hou l d

p r oduc e d i s a ppo i n t m e n t a nd d i s s a t i s f a c t i on . Se l f - d i s c r e pa nc y

t h e o r y c o u l d p o t e n t ia l ly c o m p l e m e n t o t h e r t h e o r ie s o f se l f- b e -

f i e f i nc om pa t i b i l i t y by d i f f e r e n t ia t i ng a m ong t he k i nds o f d i s -

c o m f o r t t h a t i n c o m p a t i b i l it y c a n p r o d u c e a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e

t ype s o f d i s c r e pa nc i e s r e f l e c t e d i n t he i nc om pa t i b i l it y .

S e l f - D i s c r e p a n c i e s a n d S e l f - C o n c e p t N e g a t i v i t y

( o r L o w S e l f -E s t e e m )

T h e n o t i o n t h a t a d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n o n e ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t

( i. e. , t he pe r c e i ve d a c t ua l s e l f ) a nd one ' s p r e f e r r e d , po t e n t i a l s e l f

i s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h d i s c om f or t ha s be e n c e n t r a l t o t he l i t e r a t u r e

on s e l f - e s t e e m ( s e e R os e nbe r g , 1979 ; We l l s & Ma r w e l l , 1976 ;

Wyl i e , 1961 , 1979) . A l t hough t he s e de s c r i p t i ons a r e o f t e n no t

e xp l i c i t a bou t w h i c h s e l f - gn ide i s i nvo l ve d , i t i s u s ua l l y t he i de a l

s e l f - gu i de d i s c r e pa nc y , w i t h l ow s e l f - e s t e e m be i ng a s s oc i a t e d

w i t h a h i gh a c t ua l : i de a l d i s c r e pa nc y . A t t he s a m e t i m e , s om e

o t he r r e s e a r c he r s ha ve de f i ne d l ow s e l f - e s te e m a s a g l oba l ne ga -

t i ve s e l f - c onc e p t ( s e e D e m o , 1985) . I nde e d , s om e ha ve que s -

t i o n e d w h e t h e r m e a s u r i n g " d i s c r e p a n c y " c o n t r i b u t e s a n y t h i n g

b e y o n d m e a s u r i n g j u s t t h e " n e g a t i v i t y " o f s e lf - co n c e p ts (s ee

Ho ge & McC ar thy , 1 983; Wel l s & Maxwel l, 1976; Wyl ie, 1961,

1979) . Th e s a m e que s t i on c ou l d be r a i s e d w i t h r e s pe c t t o se lf -

d i s c r e p a n c y th e o r y : D o e s t h e n o t i o n o f " d i s c r e p a n c y " c o n t r i b -

u t e a n y t h i n g b e y o n d t h e n e g a t iv i t y o f t h e a c t u a l s e l f a l o n e?

Th e r e s u l t s o f ou r t e s t s o f s e l f -d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y , de s c r i be d

e a rl ie r, i nd i c a t e t ha t t he n o t i on o f d i s c r e pa nc y i s ne c e s s a r y i f w e

w i s h t o d i s ti n g u i sh a m o n g d i f fe r e n t k i n d s o f d i s c o m f o r t a s s o ci -

a t e d w i t h a g l oba l " ne ga t i ve " s e l f - c onc e p t . I n one o f t he e xpe r i -

m e n t s , f o r e xa m pl e , s ub j e c t s w ho pos s e s s e d bo t h a n a c t ua l : ide a l

d i s c r e p a n c y a n d a n a c t u a l : o u g h t d i s c r e p a n c y e x p e r i e n c e d

d i ff e re n t k i n d s o f d i s c o m f o r t d e p e n d i n g o n w h i c h s e lf -g n id e w a s

p r i m e d . Mor e ove r , i f g loba l s e l f - c onc e p t ne ga t i v i t y w a s a ll t ha t

m a t t e r e d a n d t y p e o f d i s c r e p a n c y w a s i r re l e va n t , t h e n o u r a n a l -

y s e s p a rt i a li n g t h e e f f ec ts o f o n e t y p e o f d i s c r e p a n c y f r o m t h e

e f f ec t s o f a no t he r , w he r e e a c h d i s c r e pa n c y i s c a l c u l a te d i n r e l a -

t i o n t o t h e s a m e m e a s u r e o f t h e a c t u a l s e lf - co n c e p t, w o u l d r e -

ve a l no t h i ng . Th e r e s u l t s o f ou r s t ud i e s , how eve r, c l e a r l y s up -

p o r t t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t d i s c o m f o r t i s i n d u c e d b y t h e n e g a ti v e

ps yc ho l og i c a l s i t ua t i on t ha t t he a c t ua l - s e l f : s e l f - gu i de d i s c r e p -a n c y as a whole r e p r e s e n t s .

T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e n o t i o n o f d i sc r e p a n c y i s al s o ev i d e n t

w h e n w e c o n s i d e r cases o f discrepancy that do not even involve

the self-concept. A s I m e n t i on e d e a r li er , a l t houg h t h i s a r ti c l e f o -

c us e s on t he c a s e o f a c t ua l / ow n : s e l f - gu i de d i s c r e pa nc i e s , se lf -

d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y i s no t r e s t r i c t e d t o t he s e d i s c r e pa nc i e s . Fo r

e x a m p l e , s o m e p e o p l e ' s p e r s o n a l h o p e s a n d w i sh e s f o r t h e m -

s e l ves a r e d i s c r e pa n t f r om s om e s i gn i f ic a n t o t he r ' s be li e fs a bou t

t h e k i n d o f p e r s o n i t i s t h e i r d u t y o r o b l ig a t io n t o b e - - a n i d e a l/

o w n : o u g h t / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y ( s e e H o m e y , 1 9 46 ). S u c h S e lf -

G u i de 1 Se l f - G u i de 2 d i s c r e pa nc i e s r e p r e s e n t a n o t he r t ype o f

n e g a ti v e p s y c h o l o g ic a l si tu a t io n : a d o u b l e a p p r o a c h - a v o i d a n c e

c onf l ic t . O ne w o u l d e xpe c t s u c h c on f l i c t s t o be a s s oc i a t e d w i t hf e e l ing c on f us e d o r unc e r t a i n . Th e d i s t inc t i ve ne s s o f t h i s pa r t i c -

u l a r t y p e o f d i s c r e p a n c y - d i s c o m f o r t r e l at i o n w a s t e st e d i n a r e -

c e n t s t udy ( V a n H o ok & H i gg i ns , 1986) .

Tw e n t y - e i gh t i n t r o duc t o r y p s yc ho l ogy s t ude n t s w e r e s e l ec t e d

on t he ba s i s o f t he i r r e s pons e s t o t he Se l ve s que s t i onna i r e . H a l f

o f t he s ub j e c t s ha d a t l e a s t one s e l f- gu i de :s e l f- gu i de m i s m a t c h

a nd t h e o t he r ha l f ha d no s e l f- gn i de :s e l f- gn i de m i s m a t c he s . S ix

t o e i gh t w e e k s la te r, a l l sub j e c t s f il le d ou t a n e m ot i ons que s t i on -

n a i r e t h a t a s k e d r e s p o n d e n t s t o i n d i c a t e h o w o f t e n t h e y f e l t

d i f f e r e n t k i nds o f e m o t i ons . T he qu e s t i onna i r e i de n t if i e d de je c -

t ion- re la ted emo t ion s (e .g . , d i sap poin ted, d i ssa ti sf ied , em bar -

rassed) , agi ta t ion- re la ted emot ions (e .g . , t ense , a f ra id , threa t -

SELF-D I SCR EPA N C Y TH EO R Y 335

e ne d ) , a nge r - r e l a te d e m ot i on s ( e .g ., a ng r y , r e s e n t f u l) , a n d c on -

f us i on - r e l a t e d e m o t i ons ( i. e. , uns u r e o f s e lf / goa ls , m ud d l e d ,

c on f us e d a bou t i de n ti t y ).

A Le ve l o f Se l f - G u i de l : Se l f - G u i de 2 D i s c r e p a nc y ( h i gh ;

l ow ) • K i n d o f D i s c om f or t ( de je c t i on ; a g i t a t i on ; a nge r ; c on f u -

s i on ) A N O V A w a s p e r f o r m e d o n t h e m e a s u r e o f f r e q u e n c y o f

d i s c om f or t . W e f ound a h i gh l y s i gn i f ic a n t m a i n e f f e c t o f l eve l o f

Se l f - G u i de l : Se l f - G u i de 2 d i s c r e pa nc y , F ( 1 , 26 ) = 17 .03 , p <

.001 ; t ha t i s , t he h i gh - d i s c r e pa n t g r oup r e po r t e d s u f f e r i ng d i s -

c o m f o r t m o r e f r e q u e n tl y t h a n d i d t h e l o w - d i s c re p a n t g r o u p . I n

a dd i t i on , t he r e w a s a l s o a s i gn i f i c a n t Le ve l o f Se l f -G u i de 1 Sel f-

G u i d e 2 D i s c r e p a n c y • K i n d o f D i s c o m f o r t i n t e ra c t i o n , F ( 3 ,

78 ) = 4 .65 , p < . 01 . A s p r e d i c t e d , t he d i f fe r e nc e be t w e e n t he

h i g h - d i s c r e p a n t a n d l o w - d i s c r e p a n t g r o u p s i n r e p o r t e d f r e -

q u e n c y o f d i s c o m f o r t w a s g r e a t e r f o r th e c o n f u s i o n - r e la t e d

e m ot i on s ( h igh , M = 4 .6 ; l ow , M = 2 .9 ) t ha n f o r t he o t he r k i nds

o f d i s c om f o r t (h i gh , M = 4 .0 ; l ow , M = 3 .3 ). T he s e r e s u l t s s ug -

ge s t t ha t t h e Se l f - G u i de 1 Se l f - G u i de 2 d i s c re pa nc y , w h e r e t he

ne ga t i v i t y o f the s u b j e c t ' s s e l f - c onc e p t is no t e ve n pa r t o f t he

m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e d i s c re p a n c y , is a s s o c ia t e d w i t h a n o t h e r d i s -

t i nc t k i nd o f d i s c o m f o r t ( i. e. , c on f us i o n / unc e r t a i n t y ) .

A l t ho ugh t he r e s u l t s o f t he s e s t ud ie s i nd i c a t e t ha t t he no t i o n

o f d i s c r e p a n c y i s n e c e s s a r y i f o n e w i s h es t o d i s ti n g u is h a m o n g

d i f f e r e n t t ype s o f e m ot i ona l vu l ne r a b i l i ti e s , i t i s pos s ib l e t ha t i f

one w i s he d on l y t o p r e d i c t l ow s e l f -e s t e e m , a m e a s u r e o f a c t ua l :

i d ea l d i s c re p a n c y w o u l d c o n t r i b u t e n o t h i n g b e y o n d a m e a s u r e

o f g l oba l s e lf - c onc e p t ne ga t iv i t y . I n f a c t , a r e c e n t s t udy b y H oge

a n d M c C a r t h y ( 1 9 8 3 ) r e p o r ts t h a t t h e i r m e a s u r e o f s u b j e ct s '

r e a l s e l f w a s s u p e r i o r t o t h e ir m e a s u r e o f r e a l - i d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y

i n p r e d i c t i ng t he s ub j e c t s ' s c o r e s on t he R os e nbe r g ( 1965) a nd

C oo pe r s m i t h ( 1967 ) s e l f - e s te e m s c a le s.

The r e a r e s e r i ous l i m i t a t i ons w i t h t h i s s t udy , how e ve r . Pe r -

ha ps m os t c r i t i c a l , s ub j e c t s w e r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a n e xpe r i -

m e n t e r - s e l e c t e d s e t o f pos it i ve a t t ri bu t e s f o r w h i c h t he y w e r e t oi nd i c a t e t he i r r e a l a nd i de a l se l ve s ( e. g. , " I a m goo d- l ook i ng" ;

" I a m t a l e n te d i n a r t s a n d m u s i c " ). W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f o n e

d i m e n s i o n ( " W h a t o n e t h i n g d o y o u l i k e t o d o b e s t o f a ll ? H o w

g o o d a r e y o u a t t h a t ? " ), t h e r e w a s n o g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e se a t t r i-

bu t e s w e r e i m por t a n t o r r e l e va n t t o i nd i v i dua l s ub j e c t s . G i ve n

t ha t t he r e a r e c ons i de r a b l e i nd i v i dua l d i f f e r e nc e s i n w h i c h a t t r i -

b u t e s a r e i m p o r t a n t a n d a c c e s si b le t o s u b je c ts , a n d t h a t m a n y

of t he a t t r i bu t e s l i s t e d by s ub j e c t s in o u r p r e v i ous s t ud i e s w e r e

nonm a t c he s ( i . e . , ne i t he r m a t c he s no r m i s m a t c he s t o s e l f -

gu i de s ) , t h i s non i d i og r a ph i c a pp r oa c h m a y s e r i ous l y unde r e s t i -

m a t e t he p r e d i c t i ve pow e r o f a c t ua l : ide a l d i s c r e pa n c y s c o r e s .

I n d e e d , a n o n i d i o g r a p h i c m e a s u r e o f g l o b a l s e l f- c o n c e p t p o si -

t iv i ty or negat iv i ty a t l eas t t aps subjec t s ' genera l se l f -evalua-t i ons , w he r e a s a non i d i og r a ph i c m e a s u r e o f a c t ua l :i de a l d is -

c r e p a n c y m a y t o t a l ly m i s s t h o s e a t tr i b u t e s t h a t a c t u a l l y m a t c h

o r m i s m a t c h t he s ub j e c t s ' pa r t i c u l a r s e l f - gn i de s . Thus , s uc h a

m e a s u r e i s e s pe c i a l l y i na pp r op r i a t e f o r t e s t i ng t he p r e d i c t i ve

pow e r o f t he a c t ua l : i de a l d i s c r e pa nc y .

I n a r e c e n t s t u d y w e u s e d t h e S e l v es q u e s t io n n a i r e m e a s u r e

o f a c t u a l s e l f -c o n c e p t a n d a c t u a l : id e a l d i s c r e p a n c y t o r e e x a m -

ine th i s i ssue (Moret t i & Higgins , 1987) . In addi t ion to f i l l ing

ou t t he Se lve s que s t i onn a i r e , 41 p s yc h o l ogy und e r g r a d ua t e s

f il le d ou t t he H og e - M c C a r t hy m e a s u r e s , t he R os e nbe r g Se lf - Es -

t e e m Sc a l e , a nd t he C oop e r s m i t h Se l f - Es t e e m Sc a le . The Se l ve s

m e a s u r e o f g l oba l s e l f - c onc e p t ne ga t i v it y w a s c a l c u l a t e d by c od -

i ng e a c h o f t he a t t r i bu t e s l i st e d by a s ub j e c t i n r e s p ons e t o t he

a c t ua l / ow n que s t i on a s be i ng e i t he r pos i t ive o r ne ga t ive a c c o r d -

i n g t o A n d e r s o n ' s ( 1 9 6 8 ) n o r m s o f a t t r ib u t e l ik a b il it y , a n d t h e n

e i t he r s i m p l y t o t a l i ng t he ne ga t i ve a t t r i bu t e s l i s t e d by a s ub j e c t

( t he a bs o l u t e g l oba l ne ga t i v i t y s c o r e ) o r d i v i d i ng t he t o t a l nu m -

be r o f ne ga t ive a t t r i bu t e s l i s te d by t he t o t a l nu m be r o f a t t r ibu t e s

l i st e d ( t he pe r c e n t a ge g l oba l ne ga t i v i t y s c o re ) . The a c t ua l : i de a l

d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e f o r e a c h s u b j e c t w a s c al c u l a te d b y c o m b i n i n g

h i s o r h e r a c tu a l / o w n : i d e a l / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e a n d h i s o r

he r a c t ua l / ow n : i de a l / o t he r d i s c r e pa nc y s c o r e ( a s i n H i gg i ns ,

K l e i n , & S t r a u m a n , 1985) .

Th e f i r st re s u l t o f i n te r e s t w a s t ha t t he Se l ve s m e a s u r e s o f

g l oba l s e l f -c onc e p t p r e d i c t e d bo t h m e a s u r e s o f (h i gh ) s e lf -e s -

t e e m b e t t e r t h a n t h e l es s i d i o g r a p h i c m e a s u r e u s e d b y H o g e a n d

M c C a r t h y ( 1 98 3 ):

1 . R os e n be r g Se l f - Es t e e m Sc a l e - - a b s o l u t e ne ga t iv i t y ,

r ( 39 ) = - . 3 5 , p < . 05 ; pe r c e n t a ge ne ga t iv i ty , r ( 39 ) = - . 33 , p <

.05 ; H o ge - M c C a r t hy pos it i v it y , r ( 39 ) = . 26 , p = . 10 .

2 . C o ope r s m i t h Se l f - Es t e em S c a l e - - a bs o l u t e ne ga t iv i t y ,

r ( 39 ) = - . 3 7 , p < . 02 ; pe r c e n t a ge ne ga t iv i ty , r ( 39 ) = - . 4 3 , p <

.01 ; H o ge - M c C a r t hy pos it i v it y , r ( 39 ) = . 25 , p = . 10 .B u t t he c r i t ic a l que s t i on i s w he t he r t he a c t ua l : i de a l d i s c r e p -

a n c y c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e p r e d i c t io n o f s e lf - es t ee m b e y o n d g l o b al

s e l f - c onc e p t ne ga t iv i t y . To t e st t h i s , t he r e l a t i on be t w e e n a c t ua l :

i de a l d i s c r e p a nc y a n d e a c h o f t he s e l f -e s t e e m m e a s u r e s w a s c a l -

c u l a t e d , w i th t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o e a c h r e l a t io n f r o m t h e i r c o m -

m on a s s oc i a t i on t o g l oba l s e l f - c onc e p t ne ga t i v i t y be i ng pa r -

t i a l e d ou t :

1 . A c t ua l : i de a l d i s c r e pa n c y a nd R os e nb e r g Se l f - Es t e e m

Sc a l e - - pa r t i a l i ng ou t a bs o l u t e ne ga t iv i t y , pa r t i a l r ( 38 ) = - . 4 5 ,

p < . 01 ; pa r t i a l i ng ou t pe r c e n t a ge ne ga t i v i t y , pa r t i a l r ( 38 ) =

- . 4 7 , p < . 0 I .

2 . A c t ua l : i de a l d i s c r e pa nc y a nd C oope r s m i t h Se l f - Es t e e m

Sc a l e - - pa r t i a l i ng ou t a bs o l u t e ne ga t i v it y , pa r t i a l r ( 38 ) = - . 5 0 ,p < . 01 ; pa r t i a l i ng ou t pe r c e n t a ge ne ga t i v it y , pa r t i a l r ( 38 ) =

- . 4 6 , p < . 0 I .

The s e r e s u l t s c l e a r ly i nd i c a t e t ha t ou r m e a s u r e o f a c t ua l : i de a l

d i s c r e p a n c y c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f s el f -e s te e m b e y o n d

g l oba l s e l f - c onc e p t ne ga t iv i ty . M or e ove r , w he n t he a c t ua l : ide a l

d i s c r e p a nc y w a s pa r t i a l e d ou t o f t he r e l a t ion be t w e e n s el f- es -

t e e m a nd g l oba l s e l f - c onc e p t ne ga t i v i t y , t he c o r r e l a t i ons be -

t w e e n t he g l oba l s e l f - c onc e p t ne ga t i v i t y m e a s u r e s a nd t he s el f-

e s t e e m m e a s u r e s w e r e no t s i gn i f i c a n t ( a ll p s > . 10 ).

G e n e r a l D i s c u s si o n a n d C o n c l u s i o n s

Se l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y s ha r e s a l ong t r a d i t i on i n p s yc ho l ogyof m ode l s p r opo s i ng t ha t i nc om pa t i b l e be li ef s, a nd pa r t i c u l a r l y

s e lf -be li ef s, i ndu c e d i s c om f or t . Se l f - d i s c r e pa nc y t he o r y , how -

ever, has so me di s t inc t ive fea ture s . Fi r s t , i t sys tem at ica l ly re la tes

d i f f e r e n t t ype s o f d i s c re pa nc i e s be t w e e n s e l f- s ta t e r e p r e s e n t a -

t i ons t o vu l ne r a b i l i t y t o d i f f e r e n t k i nds o f d i s c om f or t . Se c ond ,

n o t o n l y d o e s i t c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r p a r t i c u l a r t y p e s o f d i s c re p -

a n c y a r e a v a i l ab l e t o p e o p l e a s a f u n c t i o n o f th e m a g n i t u d e o f

t he d i s c r e pa nc i e s , bu t i t a l s o c o ns i de r s t he r e l a ti ve a c c e s s i b il i ty

o f ind i v i dua l s ' a va i l a b le d i s c r e pa nc i e s . The v a r i ous a s s um p-

t i o n s a n d i m p l i c a t io n s o f s e l f- d i sc r e p a n c y th e o r y a r e c a p t u r e d

by t he f o l l ow i ng ge ne r a l hypo t he s i s : Th e g r e a t e r t he m a g n i t ude

a nd a c c e s s i b il i ty o f a pa r t i c u l a r t ype o f s e l f - d i s c r e pa nc y pos -

3 3 6 E . T O R Y H I G G I N S

s e s se d b y a n i n d i v i d u a l, t h e m o r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l s u f f er t h e

k i n d o f d i s c o m f o r t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h a t t y p e o f s e lf - d is c r e p a n c y .

T h i s h y p o t h e s i s w a s t e s t e d i n a s e r i es o f c o r r e l a t i o n a l a n d e x -

p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s. C o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e h y p o t h e s i s , w h e n e i t h e r

t h e m a g n i t u d e o r t h e a c c e s si b i li t y o f t h e s u b j e c t s ' d i s c r e p a n c y

b e t w e e n t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t s a n d t h e i r i d e a l s e l f - g u id e s w a s

g r e a te r , t h e s u b j e c t s su f f e r e d m o r e f r o m d e j e c t i o n - r e l a t e d e m o -

t i o n s ( e. g ., d i s a p p o i n t m e n t , d i s s a ti s f a c ti o n , s a d n e s s ) . W h e n e i -

t h e r t h e m a g n i t u d e o r t h e a c c e ss i b i li t y o f d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n

t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t s a n d t h e i r o u g h t s e l f- g u i d es w a s g r e a t e r , t h e

s u b j e c t s s u f f e r e d m o r e f r o m a g i t a t i o n - r e l a t e d e m o t i o n s ( e . g . ,

f e a r , r e s tl e s s n e s s , t e n s i o n ) .

T h e p r e s e n t a r t i c l e h a s p r e s e n t e d t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s o f

s e l f - d is c r e p a n c y t h e o r y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f r e la t e d t h e o r i e s a n d

d e s c r i b e d i n i ti a l e m p i r i c a l s u p p o r t f o r th e t h e o r y ' s m a j o r h y -

p o t h e s i s . F u t u r e r e s e a r c h w i l l n e e d t o c o n s i d e r a n u m b e r o f

o t h e r i m p o r t a n t i s s u es : (a ) h o w t h e t h e o r y c o u l d b e u s e d t o p r e -

d i c t positive e m o t i o n s ( e . g . , w e h a v e f o u n d t h a t t h e a b s e n c e o f

a n a c t u a l / o w n : i d e a l / o w n d i s c r e p a n c y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f e el i n g

" h a p p y " a n d " s a ti s fi e d ," w h e r e a s t h e a b s e n c e o f a n a c t u a l / o w n :

o u g h t / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f e e l in g " c a l m " a n d" s e c u r e " ) ; ( b ) t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h s e l f - g u i d e s i n i t i a t e

a n d d i r e c t a c t i o n a s w e l l a s b e i n g u s e d a s s t a n d a r d s f o r s e l f -

e v a l u a t i o n ; ( c ) t h e r o l e o f p e o p l e ' s b e l ie f s c o n c e r n i n g t h e l i k e l i-

h o o d t h a t t h e y w i l l e v e r m e e t t h e i r g u i d e s i n m o d e r a t i n g t h e

m o t i v a t i o n a l a n d e m o t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f p o s s es s i ng s e l f- d is -

c r e p a n c i e s ( e .g ., t h e r o l e o f p e r c e i v e d s e l f -e f f ic a c y ; s e e B a n d u r a ,

1 9 8 6) ; a n d ( d ) wh e t h e r d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s o f li f e s h o u l d b e d i s t i n -

g u i s h e d w h e n m e a s u r i n g d i s c r e p a n c i e s in o r d e r t o p r e d ic t m o r e

a c c u r a t e l y e mo t i o n a l v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s i n e a c h r e g i o n ( e . g . ,

a c h i e v e m e n t v s . i n te r p e r s o n a l) .

E v e n i n i t s c u r r e n t f o r m , h o w e v e r , s e l f - d i s c r e p a n c y t h e o r y

h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r o t h e r a r e a s o f p sy c h o l o g y . F o r e x a m p l e ,

s e l f - d is c r e p a n c y t h e o r y h a s s o m e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r tr e a t i n g e m o -t i o n a l p r o b l e m s . A l t h o u g h i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o r e v i e w t h e s e i m -

p l i c a t i o n s i n d e ta i l , i t i s i n t e r e s ti n g t o n o t e t h a t e a c h o f t h e m a -

j o r a l t e r n a ti v e w a y s o f r e d u c i n g s e l f - d is c r e p a n c i e s i s c u r r e n t l y

a s s o c ia t e d w i t h s o m e i m p o r t a n t a p p r o a c h t o t r e a tm e n t . A c -

c o r d i n g t o s e l f - d i s c r e p a n c y t h e o r y , e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s a r e a s -

s o c i a t e d w i t h a c c e s s i b le d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e t w e e n p e o p l e ' s a c t u a l /

o w n s e l f - c o n c e p t a n d o n e o r m o r e o f t h e i r s e lf - g u id e s . L o g i c al l y,

t h e n , t h e r e a r e t h r e e g e n e r a l a l t e rn a t i v e s f o r r e d u c i n g e m o t i o n a l

p r o b l e m s i n d u c e d b y s e l f -d i s c r ep a n c i e s .

F i r st , o n e c o u l d c h a n g e a c l i e n t ' s a c t u a l / o w n s e l f - c o n c e p t t o

b e l e s s d i s c r e p a n t f r o m t h e c l i e n t ' s s e lf - g ui d e s. B e h a v i o r a l t h e r a -

p e u t i c a p p r o a c h e s a c c o m p l i s h t h i s b y m o d i f y i n g c l i e n ts ' p e rs i s -

t e n t p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d b o t h c o g n i t iv e a n d p s y c h o d y n a m i c t h er -a p e u t i c a p p r o a c h e s a c c o m p l i s h i t b y m o d i f y i n g c l i e n t s ' i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e . S e c o n d , o n e c o u l d c h a n g e t h e

c l i e n t 's s e l f -g u i d e s t o b e l e ss d i s c r e p a n t f r o m t h e c l i e n t ' s a c t u a l /

o w n s e lf - co n c e p t. B o t h c o g n i ti v e a n d p s y c h o d y n a m i c t h e r a p e u -

t i c a p p r o a c h e s a c c o m p l i s h t h i s b y l o w e r i n g e i t h e r t h e l e v e l o r

t h e p e r c e i v e d r e l e v a n c e o f a s e l f - g u i d e ( e . g ., b y l e a d i n g c l i e n t s

t o q u e s t i o n i t s f a i r n e s s , l e g i t i ma c y , r e a s o n a b l e n e s s , o r u t i l i t y ) .

T h i r d , o n e c o u l d c h a n g e t h e a c c e s s i b i l it y o f th e d i s c r e p a n c i e s .

B e h a v i o r al a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n t e r v e n ti o n a p p r o a c h e s a c c o m -

p l i s h th i s b y r e d u c i n g c l i e n t s ' e x p o s u r e t o s i t u a t i o n s a n d s o c i a l

i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r p r o b l e m s ( i . e . , t h a t

a r e l i k el y t o p r i m e t h e d i s c r e p a n c y ) . C o g n i t i v e a p p r o a c h e s a c -

c o m p l i s h t h i s b y h a v i n g c l i e n t s a c t i v e l y r e h e a r s e p o s i t i v e

t h o u g h t s a n d a t t i t u d e s , w h i c h t h e n f u n c t i o n a s a c t i v e s e t s t h a t

i n h i b i t p a s s i v e a c c e s s i b i l i t y e ff e c t s ( s e e H i g g i n s & K i n g , 1 9 81 ) .

T h u s s e l f - d i s c r e p a n c y t h e o r y p o t e n t i a l l y p r o v i d e s a s in g l e, u n i -

f i ed f r a m e w o r k f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e f u n c t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s

o f d if f er e n t k i n d s o f t h e r a p e u t ic a p p r o a c h e s - - w h a t t h e y d o a n d

d o n o t a c c o m p l i s h .

T h i s a r t i c l e h a s f o c u s e d o n t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f se l f - c o n c e p t

d i s c r e p a n c y t h e o r y f o r s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n s a n d p e r s o n a l e m o t i o n a l

r e s p o n s e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e t h e o r y a l s o h a s m o r e g e n e r a l i m -

p l i c a t i o n s f o r m o t i v a t i o n , e v a l u a t i o n s o f o t h e r s, a n d i n t e r p e r -

s o n a l r e l a t i o n s . P e o p l e ' s e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s t o t h e i r p e r f o r -

m a n c e , f o r e x a m p l e , c a n i n f lu e n c e t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t m o t i v a t i o n s

t o a c h i e v e ( f o r a r e v i e w , s e e W e i n e r , 1 9 8 6 ) . M o r e o v e r , i n d i v i d u a l

d i f f e r e n c e s i n a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n m a y r e f l e c t i n d i v i d u a l

d i f f e r e n c e s i n w h i c h s e l f - g u i d e s a r e a c c e s s i b l e a n d u s e d a t

d i f f e r e n t s t ag e s o f t h e p r o c e s s o f s e l f - e v a l u a ti o n ( H i g g i n s , S t r a u -

m a n , & K l e i n , 1 9 8 6 ). T h e d i f f e r e n c es , f o r i n s t a n c e , b e t w e e n

l o w - a n d h i g h - r e s u l t a n t a c h i e v e r s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e

( e . g ., A t k i n s o n , 1 9 6 4 ; K u h l , 1 9 7 8 ; Ku k l a , 1 9 7 8 ; W e i n e r, 1 9 7 2 )

c o u l d b e d u e t o l o w a c h i e v e r s ' h a v i n g a t e n d e n c y t o i n t e r p r e t

t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e a s a s u c c e s s o r a f a i l u r e o n t h e b a s i s o f

w h e t h e r i t i s a b o v e o r b e l o w t h e i r h i g h o u g h t ] o t h e r s t a n d a r d , i n

c o n t r a s t t o h i g h a c h i e v e r s ' h a v i n g a t e n d e n c y t o i n t e r p r e t t h e i r

p e r f o r m a n c e a s a s u c c e ss o r a f a i lu r e o n t h e b a s i s o f a m o r e

m o d e r a t e f a c t u a l c o m p a r i s o n s t a n d a r d ( e .g . , t h e i r o w n p a s t p e r -

f o r m a n c e o r t h e a v e r a ge p e r f o r m a n c e ) a n d a p p r a i s in g i t i n r e l a-

t i o n t o t h e i r i d e a l / o w n s t a n d a r d .

T h u s , l o w a c h ie v e r s w o u l d t e n d t o j u d g e t h e ir p e r f o r m a n c e

a s a f a i l u r e a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y f e e l a p p r e h e n s i v e a n d a n x i o u s ,

w h e r e a s h i g h a c h i e v e rs w o u l d t e n d t o j u d g e t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e

a s a s u c c e s s , t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , b u t t h e y

wo u l d a l s o f e e l d i s s a t i s f i e d b e c a u s e t h e y h a d n o t y e t f u l f i l l e d

t h e i r p e r s o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s . T h i s , i n t u r n , w o u l d c a u s e l o wachievers t o a v o i d s u b s e q u e n t a c h i e v e m e n t t a s k s a n d h i g h

a c h i e v e r s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r e f f o rt s .

S e l f - d i s c re p a n c y t h e o r y m a y a l s o h a v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r i n d i -

v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n e v a l u a t i n g o t h e r s . T h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e

e v i d e n c e t h a t p e o p l e ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t s a n d c h r o n i c p e r s o n a l c o n -

s t r u ct s c a n i n f l ue n c e t h e ir j u d g m e n t s a n d m e m o r y o f o t h e rs

( e .g . , H a s t o r f , R i c h a r d s o n , & D o r n b u s c h , 1 9 58 ; H i g g in s , K i n g ,

& M a v i n , 1 9 8 2 ; K e l l y , 19 5 5 ; K u i p e r & D e r r y , 1 9 8 1; M a r k u s &

S m i t h , 1 9 8 1 ; S h r a u g e r & P a t t e r s o n , 1 9 7 4 ) . I f i n d i v i d u a l s ' se l f -

g u i d e s a r e a l s o u s e d i n e v a l u a t i n g o t h e r s , t h e n s e l f - d is c r e p a n c y

t h e o r y c o u l d p r e d i c t n o t o n l y w h e t h e r t h e j u d g m e n t i s l ik e l y

t o b e p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e ( i. e ., d e p e n d i n g o n h o w h i g h a r e t h e

p e r c e i v e r ' s s e l f - g u i d e s ) , b u t a l s o wh a t t h e p e r c e i v e r ' s s p e c i f i ce m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e t o t h e t a r g e t ' s b e h a v i o r i s l ik e l y t o b e . F o r

e x a m p l e , a t a r g e t 's b e h a v i o r t h a t w a s d i s c r e p a n t f r o m a p e r c e i v -

e r ' s i d e a l s t a n d a r d s c o u l d c a u s e t h e p e r c e i v e r t o f e e l d i s s a t i s f ie d

a n d d i s a p p o i n t e d w i t h t h e t a r g e t o r t o f e el s a d f o r t h e t ar g e t ,

w h e r e a s a t a r g e t ' s b e h a v i o r t h a t w a s d i s c r e p a n t f r o m a p e r c e i v -

e r ' s o u g h t s t a n d a r d s c o u l d c a u s e t h e p e r c e i v e r t o f e e l r e s e n t f u l

o r c r i ti c a l t o w a r d t h e t a r g e t o r t o w o r r y a b o u t t h e t a r g e t.

S i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n p a r t n e r s i n t h e g u i d e s t h e y u s e t o e v a l u a t e

t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s c o u l d p r o m o t e p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e -

c a u s e i t w o u l d i n c r e a s e t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f th e p a r t n e r s ' r e s p o n d -

i n g s i m i l a r l y t o s o c i a l e v e n t s , w h i c h i n t u r n i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

b a l a n c e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( e. g ., H e i d e r, 1 9 58 ; N e w c o m b , 1 9 61 ).

SELF-DISCREPANCY THEORY 33 7

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n p a r t n e r s i n t h e i r s e lf -

d i s c r e p a n c i e s c o u l d i n c r e a s e t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t b o t h p a r t n e r s

w o u l d b e e m o t i o n a l l y v u l n e r a b l e t o t h e s a m e e v e n t s, w h i c h

w o u l d r e d u c e t h e a b i l i t y o f e a c h p a r t n e r t o s e r v e a s a " s a f e t y

z o n e " f o r t h e o t h e r. P e r h a p s s i m i l a r i t y o f s o c i a l e v a l u a t i v e

g u i d e s b u t d i s s i m i l a r i t y i n r e g i o n s o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y ( e .g . ,

a c h i e v e m e n t v s . i n t e r p e r s o n a l ) w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e m o s t b a l -

a n c e d r e l a t i o n s h i p .

F i n a l l y , p e o p l e ' s e m o t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s m a y b e i n f l u e n c e d

b y t h e r o l e t h e i r p a r t n e r p l a y s i n t h e i r s e l f - d i s c r e p a n c y s y s t e m .

I n s o m e c a s es , t h e p a r t n e r ( e .g . , p a r e n t , s p o u s e , b o s s) m a y b e

r e p r e s e n t e d d i r e c t l y a s t h e s i g n i f ic a n t o t h e r i n a n a c t u a l : i d e a l /

o t h e r o r a c t u a l : o u g h t / o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c y . I n s u c h c a s es , s e lf - d i s-

c r e p a n c y t h e o r y w o u l d p r e d i c t t h a t t h e i n t e n s it y a n d k i n d o f

e m o t i o n a p e r s o n w o u l d b e v u l n e r a b l e t o e x p e r i e n c i n g in t h e

r e l a t io n s h i p w o u l d b e a f u n c t i o n o f t h e m a g n i t u d e a n d t y p e o f

h i s o r h e r a v a i l a b l e s e l f - d i s c r ep a n c y n v o l v i n g t h e p a r t n e r a s s i g -

n i f i c a n t o th e r . ( S ee M c C a n n & H i g g i n s , i n p r e s s , f o r e v i d e n c e

s u p p o r t i n g t h i s p r e d i c t i o n . ) I n o t h e r c a s e s t h e p a r t n e r m a y n o t

b e r e p r e s e n t e d d i r e c t l y a s a s i g n i f ic a n t o t h e r i n a n a v a i l a b l e s e lf -

d i s c r e p a n c y , b u t t h e p a r t n e r m a y h a v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( e .g . ,p h y s i c a l a n d p e r s o n a l i t y a t t r i b u t e s ; o p i n i o n s a n d a t t i t u d e s ; i n -

t e r a c t i o n s t y le ) t h a t a r e s u b j e c ti v e l y s i m i l a r t o a s i g n i f ic a n t o t h e r

w h o s e s t a n d p o i n t o n t h e i r s e l f i s i n v o l v e d i n a p r e e s t a b l i s h e d

" o t h e r " d i s c r e p a n c y , a n d t h u s e x p o s u r e t o t h e p a r t n e r c o u l d

a c t i v a t e t h e d i s c r e p a n c y a n d i t s a s s o c ia t e d d i s c o m f o r t . I f s o m e -

o n e a t t e m p t s t o r e s o l v e a p r i o r d i s c r e p a n c y t h r o u g h a r e l a t i o n -

s h i p w i t h a n e w p e r s o n , t h e n w e h a v e t h e m a k i n g s f o r a c la s s i c

n e u r o t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p (i . e. , " T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p m a k e s m e m i s e r a -

b l e , h u t I f e e l s o m e h o w t h a t I ' m g e t t i n g a l o t o u t o f i t " ) . M o r e -

o v er , b e c a u s e t h e d y n a m i c s o u r c e o f e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s i s t h e

p r e e s t a b l i s h e d s e rf - d i s c r e p an c y a n d n o t t h e p a r t n e r ' s a c t u a l b e -

h a v i o r p e r s e , i t e x p l a i n s w h y t h e p e r s o n o v e r r e a c t s t o t h e s i t u a -

t io n .W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f su c h n e u r o t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s , o n e m i g h t

p r e d i c t m o r e g e n e r a l l y t h a t p e o p l e w o u l d s e e k o u t r e l a t i o n s h i p s

t h a t d e c r e a s e t h e m a g n i t u d e o r a c c e s s i b i l i ty o f t h e i r s e l f - d i sc r e p -

a n c i e s b y m o d i f y i n g t h e i r s el f - c o n c e p t a n d t h a t t h e y w o u l d

a v o i d r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t m o d i f y t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t i n a w a y t h a t

i n c r e a s e s t h e m a g n i t u d e o r a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f t h e i r s e l f - d i s c r e p a n -

c i es . I n d e e d , e v e n i n n e u r o t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s , su c h a s t h o s e d e -

s c r i b e d b y H o m e y ( 1 9 3 9 ) i n h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f n a r c i s s i s m , t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p m a y b e m a i n t a i n e d b e c a u s e i t r e d u c e s a s e l f - d i s -

c r e p a n c y o r s u p p o r t s a n e s s e n t ia l n o n d i s c r e p a n c y .

I f s u p p o r t f o r t h e s e a d d i t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s e lf - d i s c re p -

a n c y t h e o r y i s f o u n d i n f u t u r e r e s e a r c h , t h e n t h e t h e o r y w o u l d

h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l o f p r o v i d i n g a u n i f i e d m o d e l f o r a d d r e s s i n gc e n t r a l i s s u e s t h a t f a ll o n t h e i n t e r f a c e o f s o c i a l , p e r so n a l i ty , a n d

a b n o r m a l p s y c h o l o g y .

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