Post on 01-Oct-2021
Running head: MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 1
Mentoring as a Leadership Development Intervention
A Research Paper
Presented to
The Faculty of the Adler Graduate School
__________________
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
The Degree of Master of Arts in
Adlerian Counseling and Psychotherapy
___________________
By:
Nancy Hodnefield
November, 2013
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 2
Abstract
The early 21st century has been a time of significant change and growth for the world economy.
Now considered a global economy, increased competition is forcing companies to identify
competitive advantages in order to maximize organizational performance and ensure their
survival. Through other studies, employee engagement and productivity have been linked to
organizational performance. This study attempts to ascertain the effects of a leadership
development intervention—mentoring, on organizational performance.
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 3
Table of Contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………2
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………..4
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………...5
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem……………………………………………………………….6
Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………….7
Purpose of the Study………………………………………………………………………8
Significance of the Study………………………………………………………………….8
Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………………10
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Leadership………………………………………………………………………………..12
Goal Setting and Self-regulation…………………………………………………………15
Mentoring………………………………………………………………………………...18
Impact on Protégé, Mentor and Organization………………...………………….18
Optimal mentoring program structure………………………...…………………19
Common pitfalls…………………………………………………………………20
Factors that facilitate success………………..…………………………………..21
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….21
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………..23
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 4
List of Figures
Figure 1. What People Need From Their Bosses: A Checklist of Personal Needs
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 5
List of Tables
Table 1. Elements of a Developmental Experience
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 6
Mentoring as a Leadership Development Intervention
The world economy has experienced significant change in the 21st century, marked by its
expansion across the globe, the transition from producing goods to providing services, and
increased utilization for and the value of knowledge. Its landscape has shifted from one that is
predictable, manageable, and controllable to one that is highly competitive, fast-paced,
increasingly demanding, and chaotic. What is a company to do in order to survive in today’s
information-based, knowledge-driven, service-intensive, global economy? While there are
endless tactics and strategies companies can take in order to ensure their success and long-term
survival, which are the most effective? Which ones ensure that these companies will remain
long-term key players?
McGuire and Rhodes (2009) contend that a new type of organizational leadership culture
is emerging in the Western world as a result of these changes. They also maintain that the two
former ‘command and control’ and ‘achievement-based’ types of organizations may not be
compatible with the types of changes the global economy is now experiencing. They suggest that
what is needed (and what they purport is actually starting to evolve) is the ‘interdependent-
collaborative’ organization. It encompasses collaboration and the ability to transform, and
involves “adaptive, quick-footed, see-around-the-corner capacity” (McGuire & Rhodes, 2009, p.
6).
Kouzes and Posner (2002) found parallel support for this theory when they conducted
research to better understand what people did in order to be effective at leading others. They
found that while the content of what is expected of leadership today is the same as it was in the
past, the context to which a leader responds has changed, and is more important now given the
amount of change and tragedy experienced in the world in recent years. A leader’s response to
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 7
change and uncertainty, combined with behaviors they model, impacts followers’ ability and
willingness to adjust and move forward. This is also the case in terms of the role leaders play in
sustaining or changing an organization’s culture. Cultural assumptions “become quite evident
through the daily behavior of the leaders” (Schein, 2010, p. 250).
Companies that provide effective leadership development to train and prepare their future
leaders will be the most likely to survive in today’s global economy. Doing so will also enable
companies to engage and retain their employees—the likelihood of which is often directly
related to the sense of belonging/connection employees have with their respective organization.
“All of us want to belong” (Mosak & Maniacci, 1999, p. 16).
This paper will explore ways one can develop leadership, with emphasis on the
relationship between self-regulation and goal setting. The intervention of mentoring will also be
analyzed as an effective vehicle for developing employees to become future leaders.
Statement of the Problem
According to a study completed in 2012 by the Society for Human Resource
Management (SHRM), “the three biggest challenges facing human resource executives over the
next ten years are: retaining and rewarding the best employees (59%), developing the next
generation of corporate leaders (52%), and creating a corporate culture that attracts the best
employees to organizations (36%)” (Challenges Facing HR, 2012). In today’s fast-paced, highly
competitive environment, organizations need to be able to quickly address issues in a way that
diffuses or preferably eliminates long-term negative impact. A mentoring program is a leadership
development vehicle that has the potential to address all three of these issues.
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 8
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine how to structure a mentoring program to
effectively develop and retain employees to become leaders in an organization.
Significance of the Study
The question of whether mentoring is an effective leadership development intervention is
important because we currently operate in a world where the mindset is ‘do more with less’ and
‘get things done as quickly as possible, at minimum cost’. This new mindset has caused many
leaders to focus more on their bottom line than on their employees. “Lack of job security,
shifting emphasis away from seniority and toward flexibility and the variety of structural
arrangements within and among organizations often make managers unavailable as mentors”
(Pullins & Fine, 2002, p. 259).
Consequently, employees may receive less interaction, feedback or coaching from their
managers, causing them to feel discouraged, disconnected and disengaged. The result is that they
may not develop leadership skills; may become unproductive; or may choose to leave the
organization. Any one of these situations negatively impacts an organization and makes it
vulnerable. The potential impact of these events may be catastrophic to an organization, causing
it to fail. Implementing a mentoring program that enables leaders committed to developing others
may serve as a good supplement to address this dilemma.
According to Baird and Kram (1983), people generally experience four stages in their
career, and have identifiable personal needs from their bosses during each of these stages, as
indicated in Figure 1.
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 9
Career Stage Personal Needs
Establishment. Coaching
Feedback
Training
Role-modeling
Acceptance and confirmation
Protection
Advancement. Exposure
Challenging work
Sponsorship
Counseling
Maintenance. Autonomy
Opportunities to develop others
Withdrawal. Consultative roles
Figure 1. What People Need From Their Bosses: A Checklist of Personal Needs (after Baird &
Kram, 1983, p. 54).
During the establishment and advancement phases of one’s career, employees are in
greater need of support and guidance. A mentor could be a good alternative, or complement to
the employee’s manager for either phase. In the course of the maintenance phase, employees are
in greater need of developing others. Being a mentor to someone else would enable an individual
to fulfill this phase.
The following is a list of topics that will be addressed throughout this study. Some are
general questions related to leadership development and goal theory, while others are specific to
mentoring.
1. How is leadership developed?
2. What role does goal setting and self-regulation play in development?
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 10
3. How does mentoring impact the individual, organization?
4. What is the optimal mentoring program structure?
5. What are the common pitfalls of mentoring programs?
6. What factors facilitate the success of mentoring programs?
Definition of Terms
The following terms are related to leadership development and mentoring and are
referred to throughout this paper.
Goal orientation – “Mental framework that one uses to interpret and then shape how to
behave in learning-oriented environments” (Salas, Tannenbaum, Kraiger, & Smith-Jentsch,
2012, p. 84).
Leadership efficacy – “Specific form of efficacy associated with the level of confidence
in the knowledge, skills, and abilities associated with leading others” (Hannah, Avolio, Luthans,
& Harms, 2008, p. 669).
Mentoring – “The relationship between a senior and more junior member of an
organization directed towards the advancement and support of the junior member” (Fowler &
O’Gorman, 2005, p. 1).
Self-efficacy – “What [an individual] believes about his or her own ability” (Salas et al.,
2012, p. 84).
Self-regulation – “Processes that enable an individual to guide his or her goal-directed
activities over time and across changing circumstances, including the modulation of thought,
affect, and behavior” (Porath & Bateman, 2006, p. 185).
Social interest – “An action based upon the feeling of community, of a sense of
belonging” (Mosak & Maniacci, 1999, p. 113).
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 11
Striving – “Motivational force used to move from a perceived minus situation to a
perceived plus situation” (Mosak & Maniacci, 1999, p. 21-22).
Applications of Mentoring as a Leadership Development Tool
The research of Christopher A. Bartlett and Sumantra Ghoshal (2002) suggest that during
the last couple of decades, the focus of successful companies’ strategy has evolved from
competition for products and markets, to competition for resources and competencies, to
competition for talent and dreams. As a result, successful companies now consider human and
intellectual capital as their key strategic resource versus financial capital.
In today’s global economy, the costs associated with doing business are significantly
greater than they were decades ago. The expectations for companies to grow their earnings
increases each year, to the point that they have to be conservative in the amount of dollars
allocated to their budgets to support running their businesses. As a result, considerations about
how to spend budget dollars are heavily scrutinized, with the expectation that whatever is
invested in will directly or indirectly produce results.
Lin and Wang (2005) indicated that it is necessary for companies to identify, invest and
maintain their human capital in order to derive a competitive advantage from that capital.
“Investments in labor are maximized when they are focused or aligned with the business strategy
and its targeted markets, when they are directed at motivating or energizing employees to excel,
and when they provide the requisite capabilities and resources to flourish” (Schiemann, 2006, p.
43).
The 21st century is a time of constant change and chaos. In order to effectively deal with
this reality, companies and their employees will need to be agile, flexible and resilient as
required. Agility, flexibility and resiliency are important key competencies required to be
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 12
successful in today’s environment. How do companies ensure their employees possess these
competencies? This author believes that leadership development is an opportunity for companies
to maximize investments made in their human capital resources.
The focus of this study is to explore what leadership is and how it is developed; what
characteristics are required in order for someone to learn and develop; the importance of goal
setting and self-regulation; and finally, how mentoring can serve as a leadership development
intervention.
Leadership
Kotter (1996) distinguishes leadership from management by its requirements of strategic,
creative, and adaptive capabilities. He believes “leadership defines what the future should look
like, aligns people with that vision, and inspires them to make it happen despite the obstacles” (p.
25). This author believes Kotter’s definition effectively captures the current challenges and needs
required of this important role.
The subject of whether leadership is born or made remains controversial. In his case
study to resolve this issue, William Fifer (1997) found that leadership demonstrated by
individuals he analyzed was the result of both of these factors, combined with destiny. Kouzes
and Posner (2002) contend that leadership is available to all types of people and exists at all
levels. They also maintain that “success in leading will be wholly dependent upon the capacity to
build and sustain those human relationships that enable people to get extra-ordinary things done
on a regular basis” (p. 21).
Tubbs and Schulz (2006) found extensive research to support the link between
organizational success and its commitment to leadership development. Additionally, they created
a taxonomy of leadership competencies that distinguish between those that can be learned
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 13
(behaviors) from those that are either inherent (core personality) or values-based. This taxonomy
demonstrates that leadership is both born and made.
The postmodern information age has created a shift in leadership expectations. The
former command-control leader is no longer acceptable. To be successful and effectively enable
people to reach their goals in today’s global economy, leaders need to be motivating and
inspiring. This shift requires a change in what and how we develop future leaders (Leonard,
2003).
What enables leadership development? Can a person simply attend a management class
one day and expect to be knowledgeable enough to be placed into a leadership position?
McCauley and Van Velsor, editors for the Creative Center for Leadership (CCL), (2004) would
say that this is not the case, based on research and educational programs they have conducted.
Instead, they would say that leadership development is a process that occurs throughout a
person’s lifetime. Skip Bell (2010) also believes that leadership development is an ongoing
process. Additionally, he suggests that “it is created by nurturing eight conditions: rethinking
mission, interrelatedness, theological reflection, theoretical learning, reflection on leadership
practices, experiential learning, training, and feedback” (p. 111).
A review completed recently by Cummings, Lee, MacGregor, Davey, Wong, Paul and
Stafford (2008) found that participation in leadership development programs had significant
influences on participants’ observed leadership. A longitudinal field experiment consisting of a
six-month mentorship program completed by Lester, Hannah, Harms, Vogelgesang and Avolio
(2011) found that leadership efficacy could be enhanced through a semiformal mentoring
program. Okpala, Hopson, Chapman and Fort (2011) recently found while completing their
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 14
study, that job experiences increased the cognitive dimensions of leadership development of
adult learners.
McCauley and Van Velsor (2004) have identified three elements that must be present for
leadership development to occur, combined with the two functions that each of them serve:
Table 1. Elements of a Developmental Experience.
Element Role in Motivation Role as a Resource
Assessment Desire to close gap between
current self and ideal self
Clarity about needed changes; clues
about how gap can be closed
Challenge Need to master the challenge Opportunity for experimentation and
practice; exposure to different
perspectives
Support Confidence in ability to learn and
grow; positive value placed on
change
Confirmation and clarification of lessons
learned
(after McCauley & Van Velsor, 2004, p. 5).
Leadership development can occur through learning from experience in multiple ways,
ranging from attending classroom training, to completing online learning programs, to taking on
new projects at work. McCauley and Van Velsor (2004) believe that the ability to learn from
experience involves all of the following:
Recognizing when new behaviors, skills, or attitudes are called for; this involves
being able to see when current approaches are not working or when existing strengths
are not enough
Accepting responsibility for one’s development and continued effectiveness
Understanding the important aspects of one’s personality, preferences, values, and
commitments; how they inform current strengths; and how they get in the way of
easily taking a different approach
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 15
Going against the grain—intentionally trying on behaviors or attitudes that do not feel
natural or moving into areas where one’s skills are not well honed so that one might
be exposed to opportunities for development
Being able to reflect on the process of learning in day-to-day life; monitoring daily
experiences with an eye toward examining how one is attempting to learn what is
needed to be successful
Persisting with attempts to learn, grow, and change in the face of mistakes, setbacks,
and temporary performance outcomes
Using a variety of learning tactics to understand what is required in a new situation
and to facilitate the development of new capacities (p. 210).
Goal Setting and Self-regulation
A key theory of Alfred Adler is his belief that man’s behavior is directed by his goals. He
also believes that all men strive for superiority, and depending upon their level of social interest,
their striving is either negative or positive. According to Mosak and Maniacci (1999), horizontal
(positive) striving is thought to be prosocial (concern about the impact on/welfare of others);
whereas, vertical (negative) striving is considered to be antisocial (focus is on self – often at the
expense of others). Griffith and Graham (2004) believe that specific strategies are required to
enable people to attain goals that “create the conditions that allow people to experience meaning,
purpose, and growth” (p. 25).
Researchers Locke and Latham (2002) believe that “goals affect performance through
four mechanisms: (1) they direct attention and effort toward goal-relevant activities and away
from goal-irrelevant activities, (2) high goals lead to greater effort than low goals, (3) goals
affect persistence, and (4) goals affect action indirectly by leading to the arousal, discovery,
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 16
and/or use of task-relevant knowledge and strategies” (p. 706-707). They also indicate, based on
research, which three factors influence whether or not goals effectively impact performance:
“goal commitment (which includes importance and self-efficacy); clear and timely feedback; and
task complexity” (p. 707-708).
Koch and Nafziger (2011) believe that goals motivate us in most cases, but not all. In
their research to show how the choice of goals can serve as a tool for regulating one’s own
behavior, they found that setting challenging goals can influence an individual‘s motivation to
perform because they want to avoid failure. They also found that self-regulation does not work
for everyone when the outcome results in having to face uncomfortable self-discipline.
Porath and Bateman (2006) completed a longitudinal field study to understand how
people attempt to self-regulate at work, and how self-regulation can be done to enhance job
performance. They found evidence to support that “both learning and performance-prove goal
orientations predicted proactive behavior, but learning goal orientation predicted emotional
intelligence tactics whereas performance-prove goal orientation predicted a different self
regulation tactic, feedback seeking” (p. 189).
Sandars and Cleary (2011) researched studies on the self-regulation process and found it
to be cyclical and iterative, with “before (or forethought), during (or performance), and after (or
self-reflection) phases” (p. 876). Sandars and Cleary also developed key self-regulation
questions that could be integrated into a person’s learning/development process in order to
enhance it:
Forethought Phase
What is the nature of the task?
What is my goal?
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 17
What kind of information and strategies do I need?
How much time and resources will I need?
What is my motivation?
Do I need to modify the environment?
Performance Phase
Do I have a clear understanding of what I am doing?
Does the task make sense?
Am I reaching my goals?
Do I need to make changes?
Do I need to modify my thoughts/emotions?
Do I need to modify the environment?
Self-reflection Phase
Have I reached my goal?
What worked?
What didn’t work?
Would I do things differently next time?
What is the impact on my motivation? (p.884)
In summary, goals and self-regulation provide the motivation and processes to move
people in positive or negative directions in terms of their performance and development.
Anticipating and reflecting on key questions throughout learning and/or performance phases, as
proposed by Sandars and Clearly, increases the potential for an individual to develop and
perform successfully. This potential could be further maximized if integrated into a mentoring
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 18
program because a mentor could provide ongoing feedback and encouragement to the protégé to
enable the transfer of learning.
Mentoring
This section reviews key considerations of implementing a mentoring program. Those
considerations include: impact on protégé, mentor and organization; optimal structure; common
pitfalls; and, factors that facilitate success.
Impact on protégé, mentor and organization. A successful mentoring program has the
potential to be an effective leadership development intervention given its focus on development,
combined with its inter-connected, relationship-oriented process. Based on the six month
longitudinal field experiment conducted by Lester et al. (2011), they suggest that “mentoring that
helps leaders make meaning of their leadership experiences could be important in influencing
development” (p. 413).
The benefits of mentoring to the protégé include: increased self-efficacy and feeling of
belongingness (Pullins & Fine, 2002; Lester et al., 2011; Hegstad & Wentling, 2005; Reinstein &
Fogarty, 2012/2013), increased job satisfaction (Pullins & Fine, 2002; Hegstad & Wentling,
2005; Reinstein & Fogarty, 2012/2013), alignment of beliefs and greater organizational
commitment (Wallen et al., 2010), enhanced knowledge, skills and abilities (United States Office
of Personnel Management, 2008), increased visibility and likelihood of promotion (Hegstad &
Wentling, 2005; Reinstein & Fogarty, 2012/2013), increased social/career network (OPM, 2008;
Hegstad & Wentling, 2005; Reinstein & Fogarty, 2012/2013), and increased ability to manage
stress and conflict (Reinstein & Fogarty, 2012/2013).
The benefits of mentoring to the mentor include: leadership skill development and
practice (OPM, 2008; Pullins & Fine, 2002; Lester et al., 2011; Reinstein & Fogarty,
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 19
2012/2013), fulfilling psychosocial need (Pullins & Fine, 2002; Hegstad & Wentling, 2005),
increased self-awareness (Reinstein & Fogarty, 2012/2013), increased leader efficacy (Pullins &
Fine, 2002; Lester et al., 2011), and greater job fulfillment/rejuvenation (OPM, 2008; Pullins &
Fine, 2002; Hegstad & Wentling, 2005; Reinstein & Fogarty, 2012/2013).
The organization benefits from mentoring in the following ways: increased
morale/motivation (Hegstad & Wentling, 2005; Reinstein & Fogarty, 2012/2013), increased
employee retention (Wallen et al., 2010; Hegstad & Wentling, 2005; Reinstein & Fogarty,
2012/2013), improved succession planning (Joiner, Bartram & Garreffa, 2004), increased
organizational commitment (Joiner, Bartram & Garreffa, 2004; Hegstad & Wentling, 2005,
Reinstein & Fogarty, 2012/2013), career/leadership development (Joiner, Bartram & Garreffa,
2004; Lester et al., 2011; Hegstad & Wentling, 2005; Reinstein & Fogarty, 2012/2013),
knowledge transfer and retention (Lester et al., 2011; Reinstein & Fogarty, 2012/2013) and
organizational development and cultural transformation (Lester et al., 2011).
Optimal mentoring program structure. In order to be successful, a mentoring program
should have senior leaders’ commitment and support, appropriate resources designated to
support it, and an established direction and understanding regarding its goals and objectives. A
key consideration when making decisions about the program is the process that will be used to
identify protégé and mentor participants, in addition to how the matching of partnerships will be
determined. Another key consideration is whether the program should be formal or informal. A
formal mentoring program is one that assigns mentoring partnerships, is structured, and generally
lasts for a shorter timeframe than an informal one. Informal mentoring typically occurs
organically, and lacks the formal structure and support from the organization (Reinstein et al.,
2012/2013).
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 20
To ensure understanding of the mentoring program and its goals, combined with what it
will entail, this author recommends developing a framework that outlines these key elements.
The United States Office of Personnel Management (OPM) recommends including the following
when creating a mentoring program framework:
The goal(s) of the mentoring program;
Success factors and desired outcomes;
Targeted population (e.g. all employees, specific occupations, new employees,
new supervisors);
Duration of the program;
How the [organization] plans to market and recruit mentors and protégés;
Benefits to mentors and protégés;
Benefits to the [organization] (e.g., increased morale, transfer of knowledge from
one employee to another);
Budget (include contractor cost if planning to use one);
Matching process;
Outline of the orientation session;
Types of materials provided to mentors, protégés, and supervisors; and
Potential mentoring and development activities (2008, p. 7).
Common pitfalls. Hegstad and Wentling (2005) found “difficulty in making mentoring a
priority, time constraints and constant organizational changes” to be barriers to success for
mentoring programs (p. 485). In their study that researched problems in mentoring relationships
from a mentor perspective, Eby, Durley, Evans and Ragins (2008) found “three distinct types of
negative experiences: protégé performance problems, interpersonal problems, and destructive
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 21
relational patterns” (p. 369). Researchers Hunt and Michael (1983) also claim that poor
relationship issues can occur between the mentor and protégé causing the partnership to fail. This
was further evidenced by researchers Warren, Humphris, and Bicknell (2008) who identified the
need to confirm alignment of personal and professional goals of protégés and mentors to ensure
successful mentoring matches.
Factors that facilitate success. The study conducted by Hegstad and Wentling (2005)
involving interviews with 29 participants of successful mentoring programs from 17 different
Fortune 500 companies, found that top management support/involvement is a necessary
component of the success of a mentoring program. Also important is an “effective matching
process, alignment of organizational and program missions, effective ongoing communication
and committed coordinators and teams” (p. 485). Lester et al., (2011) found the development of
leadership efficacy was influenced by the protégé’s preference for feedback and trust in their
mentor. Valerie Stead (2005) found mentoring to be effective in leadership development when
combined with other learning-oriented activities and support. And last, the process for
identifying and matching protégé/mentor participants is important. This includes whether or not
participants are given a voice in how they are matched (Allen, Eby & Lentz, 2006a; Allen, Eby
& Lentz, 2006b; Warren et al., 2008).
Conclusion
There are many different approaches and methods organizations can take for developing
and preparing their future leaders. To survive in today’s fast-paced, ever-changing, highly
competitive environment, companies need to develop and implement creative leadership
development solutions that are adaptable, cost-effective, and flexible enough to address multiple
issues. These solutions must also align with and support the goals and objectives of the
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 22
individual and company, as well as the ‘interdependent-collaborative’ organizational culture that
is emerging in today’s workplace.
This literature review explored ways one could develop leadership, with a focus
on the relationship between self-regulation and goal setting. Mentoring was analyzed as an
effective intervention for developing leadership because its framework enables each of these
constructs to occur naturally, while promoting and enabling collaboration of participants through
development activities at minimum expense to the organization.
MENTORING AS LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION 23
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