Post on 15-Jul-2015
The Empire
Augustus
Rome’s first emperor
Detail from the
Cuirass
The symbolic figures on the breastplate
represent the following:
• At the top, Dawn riding her chariot,
bringing in a new day under the protective
mantle of the sky god.
•In the center, Tiberius, Augustus’
successor, accepts the return of captured
Roman army standards from a barbarian
prince.
•At the bottom, Mother Earth offers a horn
of plenty.
After the Battle of Actium
Octavian had:
Vast military force + Egypt’s wealth
Cooperation: Italy wanted to end civil war
Republican practices weakened
People were ready for able ruler
Octavian and the Senate
Fresh memories of Julius Caesar’s fate
Needed to work WITH the Senate
If Senate opposes ruler: danger!
Senate support helps gain public support
Octavian’s Rise to Power
Augustus as Imperator
principate = the rule of a Roman emperor
Augustan principate = Augustus’ regime
princeps = “first citizen”
Ruler’s unofficial title; means he founded the regime
imperator = “emperor”
Pacifying the Senate: January 13, 27
B.C.
Octavian offered to relinquish his power, provinces
Senate begged him to reconsider
Kept proconsular power in Spain, Gaul, Syria
Also kept consulship in Rome
Senate governed other provinces (this pacified Senate)
Octavian’s Real Power
Commanded 20 of Rome’s 26 legions
Senate gave semi-religious title “Augustus”
Implies veneration, majesty, holiness
Became Rome’s first emperor
23 B.C.: Resigns consulship, given two
powers
imperium maius
Greater proconsular power than any other proconsul
Could exercise imperium within Rome
tribunician power
Could conduct public business in assemblies, Senate
Power of veto with sacrosanctity (no punishment)
Augustan Reforms
Established a constitutional monarchy
Lessened distinction between:
Romans & Italians; Senators & equestrians
More equestrians and Italians entered Senate
Reforming the Senate
Senate took on majority of assemblies’ work
Purged Senate; fixed number of senators: 600
Recruited wealthy men of good character
Had to serve as lesser magistrate first
Controlled elections
Always treated Senate with respect, honor
Caring for the People of
Rome Divided city into wards with
elected officials
Rickety wooden housing burned, collapsed
First public fire department + first police force
Controlled reasonable grain distribution to poor
Created organizations to provide water
Rome’s Fire
Department
The underground remains of
an ancient Roman fire station
Time of Roman Prosperity &
Stability
Wealth of Egypt
More commerce and industry
Vast program of public works
Veterans resettled on farms
Stable government
Octavian’s Stable Government
Chose governors
Removed incompetent leaders
Good administrators ruled longer
Greater local autonomy:
Aristocrats ruled provincial cities; tribal leaders ruled outer regions
A Tribute to Augustus
Augustus sits on a curule
chair, denotes high office
The inscription means “He
restored the laws and rights of
the Roman people”.
An Unstable Northern Frontier
Hermann
Goal: pacify friendly tribes + find defensible frontiers
9 A.D. revolt: German tribal leader (Hermann)
Ambushed, destroyed three Roman legions
Older Augustus, abandoned campaign
Border defense became ongoing problem
Following Marius’ Lead
Invested money, effort to build up Roman
army
All Roman soldiers had same weapons,
training
Made legion better organized, more efficient
Changes to the Army
Roman soldiers had professional status
Enlistment for 20 years (mostly Italians)
Pay was relatively good
Bonuses + pension upon retirement
Money OR plot of land
Dressed to Kill
Foot soldier equipped like a human tank:
Metal armor protected chest, abdomen
Metal greaves protected legs
Helmet
Shield
Heavy leather belt with metal fittings
Tunic underneath protected skin
Roman Armor and Helmet
Armor made of metal strips,
held together by leather
Centurions and other officers wore crests on their helmets,
so that their men could see them
and follow them into battle.
Greaves and Cingulum
Metal greaves protected the
legs from enemy blades.
The cingulim was a soldier's badge of office, worn with
the tunic at all times.
Sandals and Weapons
Military sandals were as important as armor, because the legions won wars by fast
marches as much as by battle. These boots were strong and well-ventilated. Patterns of iron hobnails were especially designed to
take weight and withstand miles of marching.
The pugio or dagger was worn on the left, and a gladius, or short sword, on the right. The sword was a terrible stabbing weapon, short enough to wield easily in the crush of battle. It was horribly effective against the
Gauls, who were not armored.
Ready for Battle
Weapons of War
pilum = iron-tipped spear; punched through shield, bent after use
gladius = short, two-edged sword; for hand-to-hand combat
shield used as a weapon (“bulldozer” broke up formations)
crossbow = shot arrows (sometimes flaming)
catapult = hurled stones, flaming “bombs” over walls
A One-Time Weapon
The pilum bent upon impact
so that the enemy could not
pick it up and use it again.
A Roman Gladius
The term “gladiator” comes from glaidius.
The Roman Shield
The Ballista
After moving in catapults,
portable towers, and siege
engines, the legions’ attack
began with a relentless
barrage of spears, rocks,
and burning rags.
Then, legionaries climbed the
siege towers and rushed across
ramps into the burning city.
The Roman Catapult
The Portable Siege Tower
The Roman Siege Engine
Besieging the Enemy
Organization
Roman army: best equipped — best
organized
Every man had specific job
Orders flowed through a chain of command
Roman Officers
Legatus = “governor”: commanded legions in his province
Centurion = led century of 80 to 100 men
Signifier = carried the legion’s emblem
Tesserarius = gave legionaries password to enter camp
Tribune = commanded a cohort (about 600 men)
The Chain of Command
The Legatus A Centurion and a Legionary
Other Soldiers
The Signifier The Tesserarius
The Roman Navy
Second Punic War: found abandoned Carthaginian ship
Became model for Roman ships
Built a fleet of 160 vessels
Romans added secret weapon — the “corvus”
The Corvus
This ramp had a sharp point
on the end to smash down on
an enemy ship, enabling
soldiers to board and attack.
The corvus also punched
holes in enemy ships to hold
them in place.
A Soldier’s Life: Hard and
Tough
Legionaries served for 20 years or more
Marched to the ends of the known world
Carried necessary tools + supplies
Built roads, forts, camps along the way
Strength and Endurance
Soldier carried 90 pounds: weapons, tools,
equipment
Marched up to 20 miles each day
The Best Weapons?
Might be the pick and spade
Built fortified camps overnight
Beseiged cities
Could survive in enemy territory longer than enemy
Roman legionary and his marching
pack
“All roads lead to Rome”
Soldiers usually set up camp and immediately began to
construct roads that could help them get to Rome quickly.
Good roads insured access to food and other supplies.
Some of these ancient roads are still in use today.
Via Appia
An Ancient Roman Road
The Frontier Army: 300,000 men
Army permanently based in provinces
Brought Roman culture: spread language, customs
Married local women; settled down in area
Attracted merchants; established new Roman towns, cities
Many provincials became Roman citizens
Auxiliary Troops
Recruited from provinces (not professionals)
Fought alongside legionaries
P aid less than professionals
Equipment, training not as good
Some were excellent horsemen, archers
If they survived, they received Roman citizenship
Praetorian Guards
Emperor’s bodyguards
Wore special uniforms
Well paid
Only armed soldiers allowed within city of Rome
Became very powerful
Contributions of the Roman
Army
Conquered distant lands
Brought vast riches to Rome
Spread Roman culture
Kept peace throughout the empire
Built roads that expanded trade
Repairing the Damage
The family of Augustus,
depicted on a relief from the Ara Pacis
Civil war, political strife hurt Roman tradition
Goal: restore traditional values of family, religion
Introduced laws curbing adultery and divorce
Encouraged early marriage
Encouraged birth of legitimate children
Setting an Example
Lived in relative simplicity
Austere behavior in his own household
Banished daughter, Julia, for immorality
Julia’s Exile
Augustus’ only daughter was banished to one of the Pandataria Islands.
The islands are called the Pontine Islands today.
Uniting Romans through Religion
Built temples, revived cults
Reorganized priestly colleges
Banned worship of newly introduced foreign gods
Writers, like Virgil, pointed out descent from Venus
Deified AFTER death, state cult to worship him
Preserving Tradition
Court built by Augustus Roman Temple of Augustus
in Croatia
Role of the High Priest
Augustus assumed the role of high priest.
He led efforts to restore traditional values and religious practices.
Augustus: Rome’s
pontifex maximus
High priest
Made sacrifices to gods
at important festivals
Pax Romana: “Roman
Peace”
Initiated with the Augustine principate
Time of political stability and great prosperity
Lasted for nearly 200 years
Ruling the World
Rome ruled Mediterranean + much of western Europe
Empire highly organized, centrally controlled
Network of roads linked territories to Rome
Well-trained Roman legions defended trouble spots
Common Traits
Citizens of the empire shared the following:
Common laws
Common culture
Common language (Latin)
The Late Republic
Cicero
Famous orations delivered in courts, Senate
Wrote treatises on rhetoric, ethics, and politics
Put Greek philosophies into Latin terminology
Cicero’s Beliefs
World is governed by divine law ANDnatural law
Human reason can perceive divine AND natural law
Human institutions reflect divine AND natural law
Law, custom, tradition produce stability and liberty
Cicero’s Death
Attacked Mark Antony in speeches (The Philippics)
Named after Demosthenes’ speeches against Philip II
Mark Antony ordered his death
Too ill to escape; bundled into litter by slaves
Tracked down, killed; head, hands cut off, displayed on Rostra in the Forum
Antony’s wife repeatedly jabbed Cicero’s tongue with hairpin as revenge against his power of speech
History
Sallust
Wrote about Jugurthine
War and Catiline
conspiracy
Sympathetic to Julius
Caesar
Critical of Senate
Style similar to Thucydides
Julius Caesar, the Historian
Wrote treatises on Gallic
and civil wars
Military narratives written
from Caesar’s point of view
Persuasive in style
Law
Changes in Roman Law
Originally developed by court, case by case
Contact with Greeks + others forced change
Edicts of praetors had increasing importance
praetor = commander of the army or a magistrate
Terms
jus gentium = “law of peoples”
Body of Roman law that dealt with foreigners
jus naturale = “natural law”
Stoic concept of a world ruled by divine reason
Poetry
Purpose
Greeks believed purpose of poetry was to:
Entertain and teach
Romans adopted this idea but included:
Historical and moral instruction
Lucretius
Wrote De Rerum Natura
Means On the Nature of the
World
Took scientific and
philosophical approach
Wanted to save society
from fear and superstition
Catullus
Wrote for pleasure; personal poems; some autobiographical
Allusions to mythology; topics: love’s joy/pain
Poetry criticized Julius Caesar
No moral lessons; nothing about history, politics
A Golden Age
Literature reflected new type of society
Poets had patrons (like Maecenas)
Patrons gave poets time, security to write
Poets dependent on patrons; limited expressive freedoms
Poetry often promoted Augustus as ideal ruler
Virgil (Vergil)
Most important Augustan poet
Roman equivalent of Homer
Eclogues, Bucolics: short poems celebrating country life
Georgics:
Modeled after Hesiod’s Works and Days
Virgil’s Aeneid
His greatest work
Rome’s national epic
Aeneas personifies ideal Roman qualities:
Duty and responsibility
Patriotism
Horace: Another Important
Poet Joined army after Julius Caesar’s
assassination
Served under Brutus; fought at Philippi
Octavian gave him amnesty after the war
Returned to Italy, estate confiscated
Worked as Treasury official; Maecenas = his patron
The Quotable Horace
Responsible for famous Latin phrases:
Carpe diem:
○ “Seize the day”
Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori:
○ “It is sweet and honorable to die for your country.”
Propertius
Some considered his
poetry subversive,
immoral
Famous for elegies
His dead characters
speak to loved ones
Ovid’s Poetry
Love and sex; seducing women
Ars Amatoria = The Art of Love
Abandoned women
Mythological transformations: Metamorphoses
Angered Augustus because of immoral topics; banished
History during the Augustan
Age
Livy
Wrote The History of Rome; moral purpose
Focus: legendary origin of Rome until 9 B.C.
History as example of good/bad behavior
Glorified Rome’s greatness
Wanted moral lessons to advance Roman society
Architecture and Sculpture
Beautifying Rome & Glorifying
Augustus
Augustus ordered construction of new buildings:
Theaters, baths, basilicas, temples
Roman Forum (rebuilt); built his own Forum
Influenced by Greek classical style
Aimed at serenity and ideals
Ara Pacis or “Altar of Peace”
The greatest monument of the age
Shows a procession in which Augustus and his family appear to move forward, followed by magistrates, Senate, and Roman people
The Forum
Market square with public buildings around it
People gathered here for business, to gossip
Around the public square:
Shops, “fast food” stalls, monuments, statues
Temples to gods – and famous Romans (emperors)
The Forum
Artist’s rendering, showing what the Forum would have looked like
during Augustus’ reign.
Ruins from the Roman Forum
Ancient Graffiti
Samples of graffiti found on walls in Pompeii
Aufidius was here.
Marcus loves Spendusa.
I am amazed, O wall, that you have not collapsed and fallen, since you must bear the tedious stupidities of so many scrawlers.
On April 19 I baked bread.
Let anyone who invites me to dinner prosper.
Roman Graffiti
Graffiti from the
Roman Colosseum at Arles
Photo by Robert Brown
Ancient Pompeii graffito
caricature of a politician
Ancient Roman Basilicas
On one side of the forum
was the basilica.
The basilica was used as:
Town hall
Court of law
Public meeting place
14 - 180 A.D.
The Emperors
For 500 years, imperator had absolute power
Beginning with Augustus, 79 men ruled Rome
Few ruled and died peacefully
A Dangerous Time
Men who took power by force often died at the hands of the same soldiers they once commanded.
Ambitious sons killed their fathers, and brothers murdered brothers to earn the right to be hailed emperor of Rome.
Expanding the Borders
Augustus warned successors not to expand empire
Most didn’t listen
Wanted glory of conquest + more wealth
For 100+ years, emperors expanded Rome’s borders
Coinage
Most citizens never saw emperors, except on coins
Emperor’s face on every official coin
Roman leaders showed power by issuing coins
Financial problems = emperors decreased coins’ value
Coins = thinner, lighter; paid for more soldiers
The Julio-Claudian Dynasty
The Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Tiberius
Gaius (Caligula)
Claudius
Nero
Year of the Four Emperors
Tiberius
Tiberius
Octavian’s step-son
Married Augustus' daughter; adopted by Augustus
Became a Julian; took name Tiberius Julius Caesar
Considered one of Rome's greatest generals
Campaigns laid foundations for northern frontier
A Somber Ruler
Became dark, reclusive
Never wanted to be emperor
After son’s death, rule declined, ended in terror
Consul (Sejanus) plotted overthrow; caught, executed
Tiberius hunted and killed all political opponents
The historian Tacitus describes
the last years of Tiberius’ reign
Executions were now a stimulus to his fury, and he ordered the
death of all who were lying in prison under accusation of complicity
with Sejanus. There lay, singly or in heaps, the unnumbered dead, of
every age and sex, the illustrious with the obscure. Kinsfolk and
friends were not allowed to be near them, to weep over them, or even
to gaze on them too long. Spies were set round them, who noted the
sorrow of each mourner and followed the rotting corpses, till they
were dragged to the Tiber, where, floating or driven on the bank, none
extinguished the sense of human fellowship, and, with the growth of
cruelty, pity was thrust aside.
Tiberius’ Final Days
Eventually exiled himself from Rome
Left Rome in hands of unscrupulous men
Tacitus records that crowd rejoiced at news of Tiberius’ death — only to become suddenly silent when they heard that he had recovered.
The crowd rejoiced again at the news that Caligula and Macro had smothered him.
Caligula
Gaius (Caligula)
Father’s soldiers called him “Little Boots”
Given nickname as a child
Dressed in uniform, little sword, shield, boots
Became brutal as an adult
Tiberius once called him a “viper”
An Insane Ruler
“Conquered” ocean; ordered troops to collect seashells
Demanded worship
Statues: replaced gods’ heads with his head
Kept favorite horse in marble stable
Tried to make his horse a consul
A Cruel Emperor
Ordered his enemies’
murder — by slow
torture
His own guards finally
murdered him
Claudius
Claudius: The Reluctant
Emperor Lame, stammering, forced to
take throne
Praetorian Guard dragged him from behind curtain
Made him emperor
He surrounded himself with able advisers
Expanded empire’s wealth, power
Nero
Nero
Last of Julius Caesar’s relatives to rule
His mother convinced Claudius to adopt Nero
Seemed harmless
Entered singing contests, athletic competitions —always “won”
A Vengeful Son
Mother forbade relationship with former slave
Tried three times to poison mother
Made ceiling above bed fall; didn’t die
Put mother on boat that fell apart at sea; swam to shore
Eventually had mother, wives, stepbrother killed
Nero: Insanity
Probably started fire in 64 A.D.; blamed Christians
Destroyed 10 of city’s 14 districts
During fire, sang about fall of Troy
Built “Golden House” on burned land
“At last, I can begin to live as a human being.”
Nero
Declared himself a god
Had towering bronze statue of himself erected
Very unpopular
Fled Rome
Committed suicide as soldiers neared
69 A.D.: Year of the Four
Emperors
In one year, four different emperors assumed
power in quick succession as different Roman
armies took turns placing their commanders on
the throne.
The Flavian Dynasty
The Flavian Dynasty
Vespasian
Titus
Domitian
Vespasian
Founded Flavian dynasty
First emperor not from old Roman nobility
Italian middle class; lived simply; respected army general
Strengthened empire’s borders
Granted citizenship to many people in provinces
Masada
For 100+ years, Jews had rejected Roman domination:
Refused to obey emperor
Denied Roman gods, continued their religious traditions
Jews captured desert fortress: Masada; butchered Roman garrison
Vespasian outraged; besiegedJews
Masada
960 rebels fought for three years; resisted siege
73 A.D., Roman troops built huge earthen ramp
Night before attack, Jews committed suicide
Only two women + five children, hidden in wells, survived.
Vespasian’s Greatest Contribution
Many grand building
projects
Began Colosseum in
Rome
Colosseum constructed
on land that had been
part of Nero’s palace
The Colosseum
Proper name: FlavianAmphitheater
Very large: 160 ft. in height
Seated up to 60,000 spectators
People came to watch “sports”:
Beast hunts, public executions, gladiator fights
Structure and Design of the Colosseum
Arena (Latin for “sand”)
Sand covered fighting area to soak up blood
Flooded for mock sea battles
80 entrance arches, all numbered except four main entrances
Free tickets given out early in morning
Each ticket numbered, matched arch; enter through arch
Masts or “sails” sheltered crowd from sun
Underground Passages
Once covered by wooden floor
Prisoners, animals kept in cages there
Scenery also stored there
Mechanisms used to hoist people, animals to surface
Exotic animals imported from distant lands
Seating in Four Tiers
Emperor sat in front row; senators sat in front of first tier, same level as emperor
Only men allowed in first two tiers; women sat above men, separated by wall
Behind women, against outer wall: standing room for slaves
The building can be evacuated in ten minutes.
Battles
Several pairs of gladiators fought at same time
One battle staged in Rome on orders from Trajan lasted for 117 days.
More than 10,000 gladiators took part.
Gladiators
Convicts, slaves (men, women) trained as gladiators
Equipped as warriors (like Samnites, Thracians)
Armed with fishing gear
Fought each other and wild animals
Musicians played bronze horns and water organs in background
Gladiators
Retiarius
“The Net Man
Unlike other gladiators, who wore some protective armor, the retiarius carried only a
weighted net, a Neptune’s trident used by tuna fishermen, and a short sword.
Murmillo
“Fish man”
Wore a helmet decorated
with a fish symbol
Often pitted against the retiarius
Gladiators
Hoplomachus
Was the most heavily armed gladiator
Had leg and arm coverings,
a huge helmet,
a spear, and a bowl-shaped shield
Secutor
The “Pursuer”
Armed with a sword,
shield and manica (“arm guard)
Gladiators
Samnite Thracian
Two female gladiators
Honor and Death
The contestants shouted, “We who are about to die, salute you!” as they filed past the imperial stand during the opening parades.
Wounded gladiators could appeal for mercy, but jeers from the crowd and the thumbs-down signal from the emperor brought death.
Victorious gladiators were treated as stars and could win their freedom.
Vespasian’s Dying Thoughts
Had two sons to continue
in his footsteps
Died peacefully
On deathbed, ridiculed
practice of deifying
emperors, saying, “Alas, I
think I am becoming a
god.”
Titus
Titus
Vespasian’s son
Remained awhile in
Palestine after
Vespasian’s victory
Captured Jerusalem for
the empire
The Arch of Titus
In 70 A.D., Titus conquered the province of Judea,
took the city of Jerusalem, and destroyed its holy Temple.
The Arch of Titus, still standing in Rome, celebrated this victory over the Jews.
Pompeii
The eruption of Mt. Vesuvius buried Pompeii and Herculaneum near the beginning of Titus’s reign
The Romans thought this was a
bad omen for Titus.
Completing the Colosseum
Dedicated the
Colosseum
Titus died two years
after taking power
Poisoned by
ambitious younger
brother, Domitian
Domitian
Domitian: Vespasian’s Son
Strengthened economy by reevaluating Roman coinage
Expanded border defenses
Massive building program; restored damaged city of Rome
Expanded Empire as far as Scotland
Assassinated by court officials
The “Five Good Emperors”
The “Five Good Emperors”
Nerva
Trajan
Hadrian
Antoninus Pius
Marcus Aurelius
A Unique Plan for
Succession Domitian had no close relatives to succeed him
Senate put Nerva on the throne
None had sons, so they followed Nerva’s example
Adopted an able senator, establishing him as successor
Nearly a century of peaceful succession, competent rule
Nerva
Nerva: First of “Five Good
Emperors” Wise, moderate ruler, good
intentions — but weak
Vowed to restore liberties curtailed during Domitian’s reign
Financial difficulties + little authority over army
Ruled only fifteen months; died of natural causes
Trajan
Trajan
Simple man
One of Rome’s most talented military leaders
During his rule, empire grew to largest extent
Empire stretched from Britain to Africa, east to Persia
Senate later told new emperors: “May you be more successful than Augustus, better than Trajan.”
Trajan’s Column
Trajan’s Column still stands in Rome today.
It celebrates the emperor’s victories in Dacia and Parthia.
The column is almost 130 feet tall.
Hadrian
Hadrian
Ruled during happiest period of Roman Empire
Respected soldier, spent much time with armies
Traveled throughout empire; decided empire too large
Reorganized government, legal system
Built fortifications as defense against barbarians
Hadrian’s Wall
Hadrian was most famous for his stone wall
that stretches across northern Britain.
Antoninus Pius
Antoninus Pius
Earned name:
After compelling Senate to deify Hadrian
Or, by saving senators Hadrian sentenced to death in later years
Built temples, theaters, mausoleums; promoted arts, sciences
Bestowed honors, rewards uponteachers of rhetoric, philosophy
Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius
Last of “five good
emperors”
Famous scholar and writer
Wanted to read, write
memoirs, called Meditations
Famous Stoic philosopher
Protecting Roman Borders
Established, maintained peacethroughout Empire
Most of reign along borders, fighting barbarians
Raised taxes to pay for more soldiers
Became increasingly unpopular
Helped during famines, emergencies; sold personal possessions
Marcus Aurelius: Persecutor
Mercilessly persecuted Christians
Believed that they challenged imperial authority
Died from plague; thousands of Romans died
Commodus
Commodus
Vicious son of Marcus Aurelius
One of Rome’s cruelest rulers
Thought he was a great gladiator
His own troops plotted against him
Was strangled by wrestler named Narcissus
Septimius Severus
Septimius Severus: A Famous
Soldier
Born in Roman family that lived in Africa
Marched on Rome after Commodus’ murder
To calm fears, switched from uniform to civilian clothes before entering Rome
Reorganized military, raised soldiers’ pay, executed enemies
Died in Britain during military expedition
The Arch of Septimius Severus
Dedicated in 203 A.D., this arch celebrated military victories
and the tenth anniversary of Septimius Severus’s reign.
Dying Wishes
On his deathbed, Septimius Severus
ordered his sons to live in peace, keep the
soldiers happy by raising their pay, and
despise the rest of the world.
Instead, the brothers hated each other.
Diocletian
Diocletian
Army general
Army proclaimed him emperor in 284 A.D.
Divided Roman Empire
tetrarchy = rule of Empire by four men with power divided territorially
The Tetrarchy: Peaceful Succession
Two co-emperors shared title of Augustus
Diocletian = senior Augustus
Two given subordinate title ofCaesar
Successors to half of the Empire
Loyalty enhanced by marriages to Augusti’s daughters
Dividing the Empire
Each tetrarch was supreme in his sphere
Tetrarchs chose capital where they ruled
No one chose Rome
Diocletian’s Reign
Reformed army; no leader to become too powerful
Constructed monumental baths, but visited Rome only once
Passed Edict on Maximum Prices
Unsuccessful price controls to curb inflation
Moved capitals away from Rome, East highlighted
Diocletian’s Persecution of
Christians
Lasted from 303–311
Empire's last, largest, bloodiest persecution of Christianity
Did not destroy Empire's Christian community
After 324, Christianity became the Empire's preferred religion
First Christian emperor: Constantine
Galerius
Galerius
One of four tetrarchs; served with Diocletian
First named Caesar; later, promoted to Augusti
Extended Roman Empire into Persia
Probably encouraged Diocletian to persecute Christians
May have burned Imperial Palace, blaming Christians
Succession
First emperor to abdicate throne voluntarily
Retired , compelled co-emperor to do same
Plan for smooth succession failed
In 310: five Augusti, no Caesars
Constantine defeated opponent, made himself emperor
Valerian
Valerian
Captured by Sassanids; insulted
“Human footstool” when Shapurmounted his horse
Offered huge ransom; forced to swallow molten gold
Flayed alive; stuffed with straw, temple “trophy”
Eventually, skin was given cremation and burial
Constantine
Constantine the Great
Also called:
Constantine I
Saint Constantine (by Orthodox + Byzantine Catholics)
First Christian Roman emperor
Reversed Diocletian’s persecutions
The Edict of Milan: 313 A.D.
Proclaimed religious
toleration throughout
Roman Empire
Removed penalties for
professing Christianity
Reforms of Constantine the
Great
Reunited empire divided by Diocletian
Wanted to restore Rome’s power
Carried forward most of Diocletian’s policies
But supported Christianity
Constantine’s Conversion
Adopted mother Helena was a Christian
Christian in youth (Helena’s influence)? Gradually? Later?
Maintained pagan title Pontifex Maximus until death
Over 40 when he declared himself “Christian”
Wrote Christians: “owed successes to God alone”
Constantine’s Support of
Christianity
Supported Church ($) + privileges for clergy (tax exemptions)
Promoted Christians to high ranking offices
Returned property confiscated during Diocletian’s Great Persecution
325 A.D.: Council of Nicaea
First Ecumenical Council; dealt with Arianheresy
Constantine’s Building Projects
St. Peter’s Basilica
Built basilicas
Most famous building projects:
Church of the Holy Sepulchre
Old Saint Peter's Basilica
Constantinople
The Hagia Sophia
Constantinople
Moved empire’s capital to Constantinople
Formerly ancient Greek colony of Byzantium
Became new imperial residence
Capital of Byzantine Empire 1,000+ years
The Walls of Constantinople
Important Terms
Religious Terms
catholic = majority opinion, considered to be universal
Example: “catholic belief”
orthodox = holding the right opinion
Example: “orthodox doctrines”
Controversies
Controversy about Christian
Doctrine
Occurred during 4th century A.D., focusing on:
Jesus’ divinity
His relationship to God the Father
The nature of the Trinity
325 A.D. = Constantine I gathered Christian bishops at Nicaea
Response from the Council of
Nicaea
Three points:
1. Jesus, the Son, is equal to the Father
2. Jesus is one with the Father
3. Jesus is of the same substance as the
Father
The council condemned Arian teaching
Arianism
Teachings of priest, named Arius, who said:
1. Jesus was a created being (therefore, not eternal)
2. Jesus is inferior to God the Father
3. Father and Son from similar substance but not identical
4. Jesus neither fully man nor fully God (something in between)
Heresy
Orthodox Christians
consider Arianism a
heresy because the
teaching denies the
biblical truth that the
Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit are co-equal and
co-existent.
The Nicene CreedI believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things
visible and invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father
before all worlds; God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God; begotten, not
made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made.
Who, for us men and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by
the Holy Spirit of the virgin Mary, and was made man; and was crucified also for us
under Pontius Pilate; He suffered and was buried; and the third day He rose again,
according to the Scriptures; and ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of
the Father; and He shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead;
whose kingdom shall have no end.
And I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of Life; who proceeds from the Father
and the Son; who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified;
who spoke by the prophets.
And I believe one holy catholic and apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the
remission of sins; and I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world
to come. Amen.
Julian the Apostate
Julian the Apostate
Apostate = one who abandons, renounces religious beliefs
Last non-Christian Roman Emperor
Tried to stop growing power of Christianity
Revived traditional Roman religious practices
Rejected Christianity in favor of Neoplatonism
A Military Leader
No military education
Yet, was an able military
commander
Important victory in Gaul
Led Roman army against
Sassanids (Persian Empire)
Valentinian
Valentinian I
Often called "last great western emperor"
Brother = Emperor Valens
Able soldier, good administrator
Interested in welfare of lower classes (father’s)
Sometimes chose unwise people to advise him
Efforts to Improve Rome
Founded schools
Provided medical care for Rome’s poor
1 doctor for each Roman district (14)
Christian but tolerated paganism
Forbad certain rituals/sacrifices; banned magic practice
Opposed civil/church abuses (e.g., clergy’s increasing worldliness)
Mixed Reviews
Terrible temper
A.H.M. Jones writes that "he
was of a violent and brutal
temper, and not only
uncultivated himself, but
hostile to cultivated persons”
Ammianus says “he hated
the well-dressed and
educated and wealthy and
well-born”
Co-Emperor with Valens
Wanted help to govern large, troublesome Empire
Appointed brother Valens as co-emperor
Two Augusti travelled together; divided personnel
Valentinian ruled West; Valens ruled East
Valens
Valens
Ruled Eastern part of the Empire
Sometimes called Last True Roman
Some religious persecution; was an Arian
Killed in Battle of Adrianople, fighting Goths
Marked beginning of Western Roman Empire’s fall
Theodosius
Theodosius
Born in Spain
Reunited Eastern + Western parts of Empire
Last emperor of both Eastern and Western Empire
After death, two parts split permanently
Made Christianity Empire’s official state religion
Another Heresy
Manichaeism
Founder: Mani (Persian, third century A.D.)
Light + darkness, good + evil, constantly warring
Good = spiritual, evil = material
Body = prison of evil – contains some good
“Father of Goodness” sent Mani to free humanity, gain salvation
Man must seek “light,” abandon physical desires
Anarchy
Period of Anarchy
Bribery + murder became path to power
Less than 50 years = 20 emperors ruled
All owed power to military, not Senate
Imperial throne not safe
Troops who chose emperors often murdered them
Slavery
Slavery in the Roman Empire
Many slaves wore a bronze disc, like this one. It looked something like a dog tag.
One tag said: “Hold me, in case I run away, and return me to my master Viventius on the
estate of Callistus.”
About 100 A.D.: wealthy
family might have had as
many as 500 slaves
Slaves had few rights
Could be branded on
forehead or leg as
owner’s property
Administration in the Early Empire
Common religious practices
Emperors deified after death, imperial cult established
More people given citizenship, shared Roman culture/traditions
Latin = spread to western provinces
Romanitas = “Roman-ness”
Local Municipalities
Towns governed by local council
Magistrates elected from local aristocracy
Members of council given Roman citizenship
Helped spread Roman law, culture
Created loyalty among influential people
Foreign Policy
Trajan = first to take sustained offensive
Success led to establishment of new provinces
Wealth from gold mines + increased trade
Desire to keep barbarians at bay
Expanded territory harder to defend
Decline of Slave Labor and Rise of
Coloni
Extended territory = need for more products
Some small farms, but more large estates
Managed by absentee owner, grew cash crops
Tenant farmers (coloni) replaced slave labor
Workers tied to land
The Villa
Large, country estate
• Supplied vast amounts of grain, fruit, vegetables
• Oxen used to plough fields
• Grain harvested with sickle; flour ground by hand
Mosaics, painted walls: ornate scenes of Roman life
Wall Décor
Mosaics of a hunting scenes
Other scenes might include images of grain and farming or religious celebrations
Elaborate Art
Roman Villa - Butser Ancient Farm,
shows Prehistoric and Roman building
techniques and farming.
Piazza Armerina
Roman Villa of Casale (4th century)
Mosaic with the labours of Hercules – Detail
Hadrian’s Villa
• Parts still stand today.
• Stood on hilltop, with Rome in distance
• Had pavilions, pools, terraces, banquet halls, theaters, libraries.
• Around the villa were beautiful parks
• Didn’t spend much time there; died four years after completed
Inside a Roman House
Designed to look inward
Rooms surrounded atrium + garden; few windows
atrium: courtyard with pool to collect rainwater
triclinium: dining room (three tables = nine guests)
Front rooms usually bedrooms or shops/workshops
Inside a Roman House
The Atrium The Triclinium
Furniture
Clothes in cupboards or wooden chests, not closets/dressers
Wooden or metal stools, no chairs; had couches
Dining tables low; evening meal lying on couches
Wooden beds, slats or ropes supported mattress, pillows
Pillows stuffed with wool or straw
Roman Furniture
Silver Claw-Foot
Roman Stool
Roman couch and footstool
A More Simple Country Life
Many farms small, run by retired soldiers
Raised cows, chickens, geese, pigs; kept bees
Grew olives, vegetables, grain
Typical Meals Breakfast: bread, honey, olives
Lunch: eggs or cold meats and fruit
Dinner (cena): main meal
Shellfish or salad, followed by roast meat (pork, veal, chicken, goose) + vegetables
Dessert of fruit or honey cakes
Banquets:
Songbirds, flamingo’s tongue, custard made from calves’ brains and rose hips
Food heavily spiced; often served with fish sauce called garum.
Wine usually mixed with water; sometimes flavored with honey or spices
A Typical Roman Feast
A food stall in Pompeii
Guests started the meal with wine, olives, hot sausages, plums, and pomegranate seeds — or other tasty appetizers, like sea hedgehogs, fresh oysters and mussels, peacock brain or eyeballs, lark tongues, or boar’s ribs.
The dinner itself might consist of sows’ udder, boar’s head, fish-pasties, duck, hare, or roasted fowl.
Dessert was usually some type of sweet pastry.
Trends
More independent and influential
Some became wealthy through inheritance
Some well educated
Some conducted literary salons
Some decided not to have children at all
Livia
Augustus’ wife
Great influence during his
reign
He honored her with title
“Augusta” in his will
City Life
Insulae = “islands” = apartments
Fresh water through aqueducts to:
Fountains, public baths, homes; used gravity
Arches:
Etruscan invention, Roman use = quick construction
Concrete
Invented by Greeks, developed by Romans
Insulae
The streets divided the buildings into “island-type” blocks.
The term eventually came to mean
the apartment house itself.
Roman Aqueducts — with Arches!
Le Pont du Gard is a Roman aqueduct in the south of France
A painting shows the complex interlinking system of ancient
Roman aqueducts.
Literature
The Silver Age
Between Augustus’ death and Marcus Aurelius rule
High quality work; inferior to Augustan Age
Gloomy, negative, pessimistic; more criticism and satire
Stoic in nature
Hostility to growing power + excesses of emperors
Types of Literature
Historical writing:
Focus: remote periods (Do not anger emperors!)
Poetry
Not much written; all safe topics
Romances
Written in Greek; “escapist”
Architecture
Main Contributions
The great public bath
The free-standing amphitheater
Advances in engineering:
Arch
Concrete
Architectural Wonders
Colosseum: built by Flavian emperors
Pantheon: begun by Agrippa; rebuilt by Hadrian
Aqueducts and Bridges
The Circus Maximus
The Pantheon
The Pantheon has Greek influences,
but its rotunda of brick-faced concrete,
its domed ceiling, and its arches are distinctly Roman.
Interior of the Pantheon
In Rome
Changes in Society
Troubles
Abuses of power, from emperor to magistrates
Decline in population
Cost of government rising
Expensive wars along the borders
Efforts to keep the military happy
Juvenal’s Perspective
Roman poet, wrote satires
Said common people
cared little for freedom
Wanted “bread and circuses”
(food and entertainment)
The Good News
“Christianity emerged, spread, survived, and
ultimately conquered the Roman Empire in
spite of its origin among poor people from an
unimportant and remote province of the empire.”
(The Western Heritage 174)
Jesus
The Historical Case for Jesus of
Nazareth
Oldest Gospel = Mark; Last Gospel = John
Born in Judaea during Augustus’ rule
Taught in tradition of prophets
Motives › actions; spiritual kingdom › politics
Called “Christ,” means “Messiah”
Jesus the Christ
Fulfilled Old Testament prophecies
Rejected by Jews
Crucified by Romans
Buried in tomb of Joseph of Arimathea
Raised on the third day
The Gospel
Scripture says that
Jesus took our sin on
Himself and thus, took
the full force of God’s
wrath on our behalf.
Jesus of Nazareth
Stained glass window:
Jesus teachingThe Streets of Nazareth
Death and Resurrection
Golgotha,
also called “the skull,”
where Jesus was crucified
The tomb of
Joseph of Arimathea
The Reality of the Resurrection
Guarded by Roman soldiers (death penalty)
Large stone at entrance
Many eye witnessesconfirmed resurrection
No ghost:
Ate fish; told Thomas: “Touch wounds”
Followers and Critics
Many followers were poor, needed hope
Most religious leaders suspicious (most to
lose)
Romans feared revolution, political rebellion
Josephus, the Jewish Historian
Jewish general and historian
Led revolt against Roman rule in Judea
When revolt was crushed, joined Romans
Wrote detailed account of Roman military skill
Provided eye-witness account about Jesus (not Christian)
The Apostle Paul
Paul of Tarsus (“Saul”)
Pharisee
Jews with strictest adherence to Mosaic law
Persecuted Christians
Held cloaks at Stephen’s stoning, imprisoned Christians
Converted on road to Damascus
The Road to Damascus
Paul’s Influence and
Leadership
Wrote 13 letters (epistles) to Christian churches
Explained doctrinal truths
Stressed faith in Jesus (not works based)
Said that Jesus will return someday
Became a missionary to Gentiles
The Early Church
Organization of Believers
Christians originally met in homes
Prayed, sang hymns, read Gospels
Marked by agape (“unconditional love”)
Shared what they had
Lord’s Supper (Eucharist)
A True Community
Poor people attracted to Christianity: “hope”
Later, wealthier people became Christians
Societal divisions not important among Christians:
Paul said, “There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus.”
(Galatians 3:28)
Leadership in the Churches
Little organization at first
Leadership:
Presbyters = “elders”
Deacons = “those who
serve”
Episkopoi = “bishops,
overseers”
Authority of the Bishops
Authority over churches in cities, towns, country
Elected by congregation
Led worship
Supervised funds
Sacred Writings
By end of second century A.D.:
Orthodox canon was compiled
Included:
○ Old Testament, Gospels, Paul’s
Epistles
Creeds also important
What did it mean to be called a
Christian?
Originally:
Confess that Jesus is Lord
○ God’s Son, died for sin,
resurrected
Be baptized
Take Communion (Eucharist)
What did it mean to be called a
Christian?
By the end of the second century:
Jesus is Lord, baptism, Eucharist
PLUS:
○ Accept creeds
○ Accept authority of holy writings, bishops
Persecution
Roman Reaction to
Christians Romans saw Christians as sect; legal
protection
Romans soon saw differences in Christians:
Denied pagan gods; no emperor worship
“Isolated,” met in homes; network of churches
Misunderstood “love feasts” + Eucharist
Persecution
Claudius expelled them from Rome
Nero blamed them for fire in Rome
Eventually, “the name alone” was a crime
Trajan urged “moderation”—Christians acquitted: “Denounce Christ”
Diocletian initiated “Great Persecution”
Polycarp
A Christian bishop martyred for his faith
Rome as a Center of the Early
Church
Empire’s capital, center of communication
Jerusalem destroyed in 135 A.D.
Many Christians living in Rome
Peter and Paul = martyred in Rome
Peter = first bishop of Rome
Barbarian Invasions
Trouble in the East
Parthians
Broke free of Hellenistic kings
Established new kingdom, based on
Persian Empire
Sassanians
Seized control from Parthians
Took emperor Valerian prisoner;
he died in captivity
German tribes in the West and
North
Hunters, not farmers
Much drinking and fighting
Organized by clan and tribe
King surrounded by warriors, called “comitatus”
The Goths
Most aggressive of the Germanic tribes
Came from around Baltic Sea (southern
Russia)
Eastern Goths = Ostrogoths
Western Goths = Visigoths
Visigoths
Huns forced Visigoths
out of homeland
Visigoths asked for
permission to enter
Empire
Permission granted
Christianized, became
Roman allies
Broken Promises
Visigoths retained weapons; plundered Balkan provinces
Romans’ cruel treatment
“Trade your children for dogs” (ate dogs)
Valens attacked Goths and died
Theodosius gave land, autonomy; enrolled in army
The Franks and Alemanni
Other Germanic peoples in the west
Failing to secure Roman borders
Numerous and simultaneous attacks
Roman army not at its best
Training declined
Plague reduced number of soldiers
Recruited soldiers from slaves, gladiators,
barbarians, criminals
Economic Difficulties
Inflation
Coinage not worth as much
Higher taxes
Increased pay for soldiers
Shortage of Workers
Small, family-owned farms nearly wiped
out
Fewer crops produced
Piracy, robbers, poor roads = all
hampered trade
Changes in the Social Order
Senate filled with men who had served in
the army
New titles (class distinctions) developed
Honestiores
Senators, equestrians, municipal
aristocracy, soldiers
Had privileged position; lighter
punishments
Humiliores
Lower classes
Tied to land
Tied to jobs
Civil Disorder
Assassination of Commodus brought civil war
Later rulers gained power through military force
Yet, military primarily composed of mercenaries
Many from least civilized provinces
Others were Germans
The Fourth Century and Imperial
Reorganization
Diocletian introduced tetrarchy;
emperor became remote figure
Subjects prostrated selves, kissed
robe’s hem
Emperor addressed as dominus
(“lord”)
Right to rule seen as divine right
Use of secret police and spies
The Rural West
Cities began to shrink
Emphasis on farms, villas
Upper classes moved to the country
Only institution that provided unity: the
Church
The Byzantine East
Constantinople = center of culture and trade
Cities grew, commitment to Roman law
Christianity flourished; Eastern art became influential
Became the “New Rome”
Byzantines called themselves “Romans”
The Great Schism
A division between the East and the West
Preservation of Classical
Literature Works by classical authors reproduced (many
copies)
From perishable papyrus rolls to bound volumes
Divided long works into shorter versions
Like Livy’s History of Rome
Wrote commentaries; compiled grammar books
Christian Writers
Apologetics (a defense of the faith)
Poetry and Prose
Sermons
Hymns
Biblical commentaries
Jerome
Produced version of the
Bible in Latin
Called the Vulgate
Became the Bible used
by Catholic Church
Eusebius of Caesarea
Wrote idealized
biography of Constantine
Wrote Ecclesiastical
History
His most important
contribution
Presents a Christian view
of history
Saint Augustine
Bishop of Hippo in North Africa
Born at Carthage; trained as rhetoric teacher
Father pagan, mother Christian
Explored heresies before conversion
Skepticism, Neoplatonism, Manichaeism
Saint Augustine’s Work
Wrote two important books:
Confessions
City of God
Impacted the Church then
and now