Post on 27-Jun-2020
Renewable Energy Technologies
For Small to Medium Sized Enterprises
Spring 2009 Strategic Sustainability Consulting
Lucinda F. Brown
Strategic Sustainability Consulting888 Station Street Herndon, VA 20170
1.202.470.3248
www.sustainabilityconsulting.com
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Table of Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 4
The Case for Renewable Energy .................................................................................................................. 5
Climate Change ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Supply and Demand ................................................................................................................................. 6
Controlling Price Fluctuations .................................................................................................................. 6
Regulatory Uncertainty ............................................................................................................................ 7
Stakeholder Expectations ........................................................................................................................ 8
What it Means to Go Green ......................................................................................................................... 9
What Path is Right For Your Organization? ............................................................................................... 10
Who? ................................................................................................................................................. 11
What? ................................................................................................................................................ 11
Where? .............................................................................................................................................. 11
When? ............................................................................................................................................... 12
Why? .................................................................................................................................................. 12
Follow Your Path ........................................................................................................................................ 13
Purchasing “Green Power” from the Utility Company ....................................................................... 13
Choosing to Install Distributed Power on Site ................................................................................... 13
Finding a Professional ........................................................................................................................ 14
Choosing the System that’s Right for You .......................................................................................... 14
Solar Power Opportunities ........................................................................................................................ 15
Solar Electric Systems ............................................................................................................................ 15
Putting PV to Work for You ................................................................................................................ 16
Solar Thermal Systems ........................................................................................................................... 17
Heating .............................................................................................................................................. 17
Water Heaters ................................................................................................................................... 18
Cooling and Air Conditioning Systems ............................................................................................... 18
Wind Technology ....................................................................................................................................... 19
Turbines ................................................................................................................................................. 19
Fuel Cells .................................................................................................................................................... 21
Fuel Cell Design ...................................................................................................................................... 21
Why Fuel Cells ....................................................................................................................................... 22
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) .......................................................................................................... 22
Geothermal Technology ............................................................................................................................ 23
Geothermal Heat Pumps ................................................................................................................... 23
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Geothermal Hot Water ...................................................................................................................... 24
Putting It All Together ............................................................................................................................... 25
Qualitative Considerations .................................................................................................................... 25
Your End Use ..................................................................................................................................... 25
Your Region ....................................................................................................................................... 25
Your Locality ...................................................................................................................................... 25
Your Site ............................................................................................................................................ 26
Your Size ............................................................................................................................................ 26
Mix and Match ................................................................................................................................... 26
Financing Your Renewable Energy System ............................................................................................ 26
Future Issues .............................................................................................................................................. 27
Developing Technologies ....................................................................................................................... 27
Research ................................................................................................................................................ 28
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................. 29
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................................ 30
Energy Explained ................................................................................................................................... 30
Appendix B ‐ Additional Resources ............................................................................................................ 31
General Renewable Energy Links ....................................................................................................... 31
Fuel Cells ............................................................................................................................................ 32
Geothermal ........................................................................................................................................ 33
Solar ................................................................................................................................................... 33
Wind .................................................................................................................................................. 33
Incentives & Grants ........................................................................................................................... 34
Calculators: ........................................................................................................................................ 34
Endnotes .................................................................................................................................................... 35
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“I ask you to consider joining me in building a movement thatgoes beyond the political to the personal, that views the
existential threat of global warming as a chance to change theway we treat ourselves and the planet that aspires to have
1 billion active participants across the earth.”1
By: Adam Werbach
Introduction
Have you noticed? Something seems to have changed about the way we view environmentalism! Everyone seems to have jumped on the bandwagon be they hunters or vegetarian, labor unions or CEOs, the “greatest generation” or “generation next”. Channel surf through the TV commercials and you can’t miss it. Businesses across all sectors understand: GREEN IS THE NEW GOLD! Why?
Climate change can no longer be ignored
Increasing prices coupled with diminishing supplies make fossil fuels less attractive every day
Short term savings at the expense of long term prosperity has proven disastrous to businesses throughout the world
Regulatory measures loom on the horizon creating new uncertainties
Stakeholders of all stripes have begun looking at sustainability criteria, including the size of your carbon footprint as they make decisions that affect your business
With all these influences at play, this is a great time for your business to consider switching to renewable energy to supply power to your organization! Whether you take incremental steps or a big leap, you have an opportunity before you, if you are ready to seize the moment. Investing in renewable energy to run your business will pay dividends long into the future.
In the following pages, you will learn everything you need to know to begin working with your facilities planners to implement renewable energy technologies and make sustainability an integral part of your strategic plan.
The Case for Renewable Energy
“Observations show that warming of the climate is unequivocal.
The global warming observed over the past 50 years is due primarily to human‐induced emissions of heat‐trapping gases. These
emissions come mainly from the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas), with important contributions from the clearing of forests, agricultural practices, and other activities.”i
U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP)
June, 2009
Global Temperature and Carbon Dioxideii
Climate Change Man’s ever increasing thirst for electicity created by burning fossil fuels has changed the world’s climate. Hundreds of physical and biological processes have changed, creating what experts increasingly characterize as a new mass extinction!iii In June of this year, the U.S. Global Change Research Program issued a report stating “Over the past 30 years, temperatures have risen faster in winter than in any other season, with average winter temperatures in the Midwest and northern Great Plains increasing more than 7ºF.”iv Businesses, like the individuals that run them, have an opportunity to change all this.
The bottom line: Because, in the US, 98% of our CO2 emissions come from getting 85% of our energy from fossil fuelsv, switching to renewable energy to power our progress is nothing short of a moral imperative.
CLIMATE CHANGE EXPLAINED
Scientists concur – climate change is causing icecaps to melt, sea levels to rise and extreme weather events to disrupt our lives.
Over millennia organic matter fossilized, sequestering carbon deep underground.
Somewhere around the industrial revolution, people began harvesting these carbon rich resources – gasoline, methane and propane – to fuel economic expansion.
When burned, the carbon in these “fossil fuels” reacts with the oxygen in our air to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) – the same byproduct of our own breathing process.
Due to a difference in wavelengths, CO2 allows light energy from the sun to enter our atmosphere, but doesn’t let all of radiant heat energy back out.
A warmer atmosphere retains more water vapor resulting in a phenomenon known as the “greenhouse effect”.
The gradual but definitive increase in global temperatures is causing the earth’s climate to change.
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Supply and Demand Even absent climate change, the world has only a finite supply of fossil fuels – anywhere from 40 to 200 years by most accounts. vi It takes 500 millions of years to create these fuels and in 3 to 8 short centuries the supply will have disappeared! vii
Despite the limited supply of fossil fuel resources, demand continues unabated:
In the US, electricity consumption has doubled since the arrival of personal computers.viii
As countries like India and China develop their economies ever larger numbers of people will need energy in the future. ix
At this point, experts anticipate energy demand to accelerate – increasing between 45% and 100% by the year 2030.x
The bottom line: As time progresses, the world will have no choice: use renewable power or shut down!
Controlling Price Fluctuations Between 1998 and 2008, crude oil prices climbed from $12.52 a barrel to $129.03xi before heading back down. Every day the price changes again. A roller coaster ride of political unrest and natural disasters has made accurate financial planning extremely difficult for businesses like yours. With roughly 24% of a typical business’s budget consumed by energy related expenses,xii fluctuations of this magnitude can spell disaster. However, by converting your business to renewable energy, you can expect consistent power supplies during peak demand, lower utility bills, reduced operating and maintenance expenses – all at a stable price. If you responded to recent surges in energy prices by raising your own prices, you are not alone.
According to the National Federation of Independent Business (NFIB):xiii
At least one third of small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs), when confronted with unforeseen large increases in energy costs, raise prices too.
Another third either absorbs the expense or cuts back of business investment.
Only one quarter of SMEs take measures to conserve energy!
Decreasing: natural resources per capita, social and ecological diversity, cultural
identity, time to respond to crisis
Increasing: population, social and environmental laws and regulations, cost
of non‐compliance, demand for corporate citizenship
Time
The Natural Step Funnel
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These approaches may get you through momentary shocks. But, remember the
basic premise of “price elasticity of demand”? When prices go up, demand goes down and profits drop. So, if you
absorb the expense you lose – if you pass it on you lose too!
If, instead, you consider the entire life cycle of your energy costs – both capital expenditures AND cash flow – you will
find the investment in renewable energy technologies to be very sound business
strategy.
The bottom line: Depending on the technology, incentives available in your region and the price of fossil fuels, once
you have recuperated your costs, you will have dramatically lower operating expenses than your competitors!!
Regulatory Uncertainty In 2008, ten Northeast states instituted a “cap & trade” system aimed at reducing CO2 emissions.xiv California has pending
legislation as well – and other regions may follow suit. Until federal action (perhaps as early as this year)xv, the
developing patch work of legal constraints may adversely affect your business –
particularly if you have energy intensive operations.
The bottom line: Proactively switching to renewable energy will help your
organization avoid the legal nightmare of different regulations everywhere you
operate.
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Stakeholder Expectations Gathering concern for energy security, coupled with the mainstreaming of climate change awareness and now the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act has created a sea change in conventional wisdom. Every stakeholder has an awareness of the need to “green” our lives, for example:
Investors – Three main sustainability indices now include 11% of US companies – having grown 18% just in the last two years. With these companies outperforming the market, investing in renewables will help attract scarce capital during tight economic times.xvi
Consumers – Regardless of their motivations – anywhere from benign support to a belief in the moral imperative for action – customers increasingly choose truly “greener” options.xvii
Suppliers – In many cases, remaining on the list of preferred suppliers requires complying with ever more stringent environmental standards – such as using renewable energy to run your business.xviii
Employees – Increasing companies find, recruiting and keeping qualified employees, requires taking sustainability seriously.xix This includes turning to renewable energy technologies.
The bottom line: Whether pragmatism or conviction drives your action, turning to renewable energy to power your organization is personal to you and your business. Regardless of your angle, making this environmentally friendly business decision will provide you the opportunity to improve your bottom line.
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What it Means to Go Green Whatever the driving force, investing in clean, renewable energy will be an integral part of staying successful in this competitive business environment. It seems the conventional wisdom shares this view – going “green” to make “green” has become the new paradigm. But if you plan to take part in this trend don’t mistakenly view “renewable” and “clean” energy as a marketing issue alone. What has come to be known as “greenwashing” will damage your brand – perhaps irreparably. And customers are readily skeptical about empty marketing campaigns.xx
By definition, renewable energy resources replenish themselves at a rate as fast as or faster than society’s ability to deplete them. Also, when defining “clean” energy you must include the full life cycle of the fuel. So, while nuclear power plants may not emit green house gases, their spent fuel takes millions of years to decompose. Fossil fuels may not leave hazardous waste in the same way, but their emissions accumulate in the atmosphere. While capturing and sequestering GHG emissions may seem like an option – the US may have only 900 years worth of capacity.xxi
So, with all this in mind, get ready to take the plunge!
Photovoltaic
Ren
ewable
Most of our
energy comes from the sun,
And negatively impact our
environment,
SECONDS
Solar Thermal
MINUTES
Wind HOURS SOUND
Hydropower
sooner…
DAYS TO WEEKS HABITAT – damming related
Biomass less…
EMISSIONS – can be carbon neutral MONTHS TO YEARS
Coal, Oil and Natural Gas
Non Ren
ewable
… or later
…or more
HEAVY GHG – “clean coal” only stores GHG underground (US capacity may last about 900 years)
MILLIONS OF YEARS
Uranium (Nuclear Fission
Energy) …or never
RADIOACTIVE WASTE – half life of thousands to millions of years
ELEMENTAL
(Geothermal – sourced from the earth’s core – falls in the range of Solar Thermal/Wind/Hydro in renewability)Adapted from Alliance to Save Energy’s Renewability Worksheet B
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What Path is Right for Your Organization? Ready, set… WAIT!! Before you take any action, step back and evaluate your particular circumstances. Make sure you fully understand your environmental impacts as they stand today. Then ask yourself where you want to go, strategically, with this decision to adapt renewable technology. Knowing these two things, will tell you a lot about the steps you should take to successfully implement renewable energy in your organization. After all, if you don’t know where you are and you don’t know where you want to end up, how can you possibly choose the best way to get there? Sit down and ask yourself the five “W” questions: Who? What? Where? When? and Why?
KNOW YOURSELF Plan your strategic vision around the reality of who YOU are!
(This is just a sampling of questions; tailor this to your own circumstances)
Who will make the decisions and implement the strategy for your organization?
How knowledgeable are they?
Are they committed to the process?
What are the energy needs of your organization?
How much energy do you use and on what?
When do you use power and how reliable do you need your service to be?
What do you use power for – office equipment, hot water, HVAC, lighting, etc.?
Where do you do business and what are the specifics of your location or locations?
What renewable resources are readily available in your area of the country?
What are your site specific energy issues – are you already on the grid or are there auxiliary locations where you need to bring in power?
Do you own or lease the property? When should you make the change to renewable energy?
Have you already fully implemented energy efficiency measures throughout your organization?
Are you about to make changes to your facilities or have you just completed renovations? Why do you want to make this move?
Are you looking to turn to renewable energy because you and your organization believe it is the right thing to do?
Are you looking to invest in a hedge against future reliability and price fluctuations associated with fossil fuel dependence?
Are you looking to get in front of emissions legislation that may come?
Are you looking to respond to the demands of your stakeholders – possibly even get ahead of the curve?
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Who? Perhaps you are the sole decision maker in your organization or maybe you report to a board of directors and stockholders. As with any business decision, you want to make sure you bring these players along on your journey. Likewise, you want to make sure your facilities managers have the knowledge they need to successfully implement your decisions. This means, you may need to educate the people around you as you learn the ropes yourself.
What? Are you in an energy intensive business requiring power 24/7 or you go under? Or can you just move next to the window should the power go out? To clearly understand the energy needs of your organization you should consider conducting an energy audit. You can contact your local energy utility to arrange an audit (usually free, but somewhat limited in scope), or consider using an independent Energy Auditor. They are easy to find (try searching Google for “energy auditor” and “[your city]”). These professionals will usually do a more complete analysis of your building, its HVAC systems, lighting, and other energy sinks. They can also point you toward ways you can save money while making your organization more energy efficient. (By the way, before meeting your auditor, be sure to obtain documentation of your energy consumption for the previous fiscal year – your monthly electric and natural gas bills should have this – so you can calculate the total energy usage and spending for your company. This will give you a baseline to measure your progress.)
Where? Does your area have sun year round? Is your region optimal for installing a geothermal heat pump? Depending on where you operate, some renewable energy sources make more sense than others. In addition, many regions of the country offer tax incentives for clean technology. Long‐term benefits make sense in areas with rebates, especially solar rebates. In cities like Austin it is a “done deal”; however, in some places in the U.S. it may not make sense financially.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY BY THE
NUMBERS
Energy efficiency is the
quickest, cheapest, cleanest
way to minimize your
organization’s carbon
footprint. Remember, any
energy consumption
reductions you make now
will be realized over the
entire lifecycle of the
building. And, after all,
WASTE IS WASTE,
RENEWABLE OR NOT!!
Many buildings could
cut energy costs by 30%
through investments in
improved efficiency.
Asset values typically
rise $3 for every $1
invested in energy
efficiency.
On average in the
United States, each
MWh of electricity
saved translates to
more than 1200 pounds
of greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions
avoided.
(Sources: International Energy Agency & Environmental Defense Fund)
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On a more local level, if your site has no power on site already, it might cost substantially less money to start with renewable energy and skip using the utility company all together! Oh, one more thing! Make sure you find out what expertise your local contractors have in the technologies you are considering. Local installers are necessary for upkeep and repair of any system (even conventional ones). Having local companies nearby for annual maintenance is absolutely essential.
When? If you have fully implemented energy efficiency measures throughout your organization, you be ready to take the next step. Whether to approach your switch incrementally or make a large capital outlay depends on my factors particular to your organization. If you have recently replaced your major building systems, you might want to wait for a while. Under this scenario, turning to Renewable Energy Certificates might be the right approach for you. On the other hand, if you are contemplating a move in the near future, you will want to get going now since many new tax incentives built into the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act will expire in 2016.xxii But you should know, you will probably need to extend the timeline for paybacks. Most owners want a return in 2 to 4 years, but the adequate time frame is usually more like 10 to 15 years.
Why? If your goal is to create the image of green because you think it might market well, there are other, less expensive ways to achieve this goal – ones that won’t destroy your brand when people think you’re “green washing” them. However, if you have made a real strategic commitment to become a sustainable organization, implementing renewable energy will happen relatively easily for your organization. Every small decision you make will have that sustainable choice built in.
GREEN POWER OPTIONS Competitive Electricity Markets – In some parts of the country, customers have the option to choose their utility carrier. In markets without utility monopolies electricity prices are lower overall and renewable providers can build a larger customer base. The resulting economies of scale result in lower end user prices. Green Pricing – Utility companies in nearly every state offer customers the option of paying a small premium (about 1 ½¢to 6¢ per kWh) to ensure the utility derives an amount of electricity equivalent to their usage from renewable sources. Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) – For those areas without the option to purchase clean energy directly from the source, customers can choose to purchase RECs in the commodities market as a way of subsidizing carbon‐neutral renewable energy produced by other utility companies.
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Follow Your Path Once you have considered these fundamental aspects of your decision to turn to renewable energy, you will want to consider one more choice before investing in a new system. Do you want your energy store bought or homemade?
Purchasing “Green Power” from the Utility Company If your organization is not fully ready to install your own renewable power source, you can still green your energy consumption by purchasing it from your local utility company.
Happily, utility companies have begun to get the word on renewable energy and have begun expanding capacity! Many States have efforts in place to incorporate more renewable energy in their electric supply. As of 2007 32 states had enacted renewable portfolio standards (RPS) or other state mandates.xxiii With passage of the ARRA, the power sector is expected to expand renewable energy capacity further. The EIA now anticipates a previously projected increase of 73% will actually expand by 116%.xxiv
These instruments provide a business like yours with the means for buying renewable electricity to reduce your company’s carbon footprint without a large capital outlay. Depending on your locality, you could find a competitive electricity provider, green pricing from your existing utility or Renewable Energy Certificates in the marketplace.
Choosing to Install Distributed Power on Site Centralized power generated at a 500 to 3000 megawatt facility and delivered to the “grid” (see Appendix A THE ENERGY GRID EXPLAINED) then on to the consumer has always been an extremely inefficient way to power the economy – regardless of its greenness. Converting fuel to electricity is only about 30% efficient – the other 70% of the energy is lost in the form of heat (see Appendix A: Error! Reference source not found.). As the electricity travels over power lines (along the “grid”) another 9% of the converted energy becomes heat due to friction.xxv What a waste of resources!
Sure, as a consumer you only start paying for the power once it reaches your meter. But you can “trash pick” that wasted energy if you generate your power close to the point of use! This practice, known as combined heat & power or CHP, can be 80% efficient! If everyone did this, the US would burn 60% less coal.xxvi
The benefits derived from installing your own, on‐site power supply go beyond these important environmental economies, however. You can have base‐load power, peaking power, backup power,
UTILITY SCALE SOLAR
A Solar tree looks like a giant flower with a 15 ft stamen surrounded by 78 mirrors. Driven by a Stirling engine, the “trees” rotate with the sun.
The Distributed power tower uses mirrors to focus the sun’s rays on a boiler, creating steam which drives a generator. Natural gas can be used to power the plant when the sun isn't shining.
A Heliostat concentrator uses mirrors to focus the sun’s rays on an array of mirrors which focus sunlight on high‐efficiency solar cells to produce electricity.
Micro‐dishes are dinner‐plate‐sized mirrors that concentrate the sun on an efficient solar cell – compact enough to be installed near cities and plugged directly into the grid to relieve overloaded substations. (At present not marketed to individual customers.)
Ground‐mounted tracking photovoltaic systems rotate with the sun and provide utility‐scale electrical power.
Solar trough designs employ parabolic mirrors to heat tubes of synthetic oil, which in turn produce steam to drive electricity‐generating turbines.
Source: http://money.cnn.com/galleries/2007/biz2/0705/gallery.solar_tech.biz2/index.html
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remote power and improve power quality while meeting all your HVAC needs – whether your business connects to the grid or not!
Depending on the system you choose, your region and particular circumstances, the financial implications of implementing renewable energy for your organization will vary. But remember: While the return on a capital investment in renewable energy can take several years, your business will have substantially lower operating costs and a much smaller carbon footprint once you have broken even on your investment.
Finding a Professional Every jurisdiction has its own set of codes and regulations you will need to comply with when you go to add a small renewable energy system to your business. Hiring an expert to help you understand the regulations will help you decide what type of renewable energy system you are allowed to install and who installs it (you can find links to listings for contractors in your area in Appendix B:APPENDIX B ‐ ADDITIONAL RESOURCES).
Choosing the System that’s Right for You Congratulations! At long last, you have made up your mind and hired the best experts to assist you as you implement renewable energy to power your business.
The following sections are meant as a primer. Use them to gain a basic understanding of the important issues surrounding the renewable energy technologies you will likely encounter. Hopefully, you will come away with enough knowledge to know what to ask the professionals you will work with along the way.
Four technologies particularly lend themselves to on‐site power generation for small and medium sized businesses:
Solar (Solar Electric and Solar Thermal)
Wind
Fuel Cells
Geothermal You will find the possibilities even more extensive when you combine them to fit your particular needs. You may even find it unnecessary to purchase your power from the utilities ever again!
Getting Professional Advice When hiring a professional, you should always follow certain basic steps:
Look for a company with experience specific to the task they will perform
Verify the provider has the licenses and certifications to demonstrate their expertise
Get several references, and contact them all. Ask if they were satisfied with the work.
Contact the Better Business Bureau and ask about any complaints against the company.
Licensing & Certifications to look for:
Green Auditor – Sustainable business practices guidance
SSC Green Audit Certification
Energy Auditor – Energy efficiency guidance
Building Performance Institute (BPI) Accreditation
Renewable Energy Systems Contractor
State Licensed Master Electrician
North American Board of Certified Energy Professionals (NABCEP) Certification
Solar Rating & Certification Corp. (SRCC) Certification
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“A massive switch from coal, oil, natural gas and nuclear power plants to solar power plants could supply 69 percent of the U.S.’s
electricity and 35 percent of its total energy by 2050.”xxvii
Zweibel, Mason and Fthenakis, Vasilis Scientific American, January 2008
Solar Power Opportunities If, in the natural world, plants can convert the sun’s energy to fuel, why can’t we? What a boon that would be! After all, in ONE HOUR, the earth receives enough solar energy to power the entire world for ONE YEAR!xxviii Not only that, once you’ve paid for the equipment, THE ENERGY IS FREE!
So how can you take advantage of this opportunity?
Various technologies make it possible to put to use both the light and heat energy coming from the sun. Active systems use mechanical devices such as solar panels, mirrors and motors to convert the incoming radiant energy into the energy capable of powering our lives. Passive systems use various design principles such as orientation to the sun, air circulation and the thermal properties of building materials to obviate the need for electricity.
Currently, two main systems exist to harness solar power – solar electric or photovoltaic (PV) systems and solar thermal or concentrated solar power (CSP) systems. While CSP systems are mostly used for utility scale power generation, PV systems are perfectly adapted for distributed power situations such as yours.
Solar Electric Systems Solar Electric or photovoltaic systems require unobstructed south facing sun exposure for most of the day throughout the year. Installed at an angle so they can best collect the sun’s rays (not snow or debris that will block the light), the panels are not affected by severe weather – in fact colder weather can make them more efficient!xxix
Depending on whether your PV array is a series of flat panels, tubes or concentrators and what photovoltaic material is used, your solar collection system will take up an average of 220 square feet of space of roof space per kilowatt of power (ranging from 80 to 360 sq. ft.).xxx Since, according to the DOE/EERE Energy Savers Guide, a system supplying between one and five kilowatts of electricity will
Net Metering Explained When you produce more power than you can use at any given moment and your business is tied into the national electric grid, you can sell your excess electricity back to the utility company! Electric meters accurately register the amount of electricity that passes through them – in either direction. Under net‐metering, when you use the Utility’s power they debit your account the kW hours consumed. Then when you generate more power than you use, they credit the amount you supply back to your account. The purchase price and rollover arrangements vary by state. (Currently, 40 states have enacted some form of net metering legislation). For information on your location go to the Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE) at: http://www.dsireusa.org/library/includes/type.cfm?Type=Net&Back=regtab&CurrentPageID=7&EE=1&RE=1&Search=TableType
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suffice for a home or small business, you can expect to need no more than 1,800 sq. ft. of roof space to erect your system.xxxi
Other parts of a grid‐connected system will include the DC Disconnect, Inverter, AC Disconnect, Breaker Panel and Net Meter. If you need uninterrupted power and your system is operating off the grid, your system would also have a battery back‐up system (using the same kind of batteries as a golf cart) and possibly a hybrid generator.xxxii
Putting PV to Work for You Photovoltaic technology has been in use
for long enough; you undoubtedly use it already in many ways. Installing a full system will expand that use beyond your calculator, garden lighting or even the solar powered attic fan you may have previously put in place. You will actually generate electricity that your business can use to run the HVAC and lighting systems currently in place.
Given that, nationwide, 52% of commercial building energy is supplied by electricity; using PV technology to supply your electricity will have a dramatic impact on the power bills for your business.xxxiii Just how much power your PV array will generate depends on its cell design, the amount of sunlight it receives and the material used in manufacturing it. (For example, PV cells made of silicon typically yield 10% efficiency while thin film efficiencies are more like 7%.xxxiv) The Bottom Line: Adding a 5 kW photovoltaic system will range from $35,000 ‐ $45,000xxxv with operating and maintenance running at less than 1% of the installed costxxxvi (this comes to a cost of energy in the neighborhood of about 15¢ to 30¢per kWh)xxxvii. Once the current silicon shortage is remedied through artificial silicon these prices will drop substantially.
PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) TECHNOLOGY EXPLAINED
Photovoltaic (PV) technology converts LIGHT energy from the sun into electricity.
Protons in the sunlight hit a semi‐conductive light sensitive material (such as silicon) where they excite the resident electrons – a process known as the “photoelectric effect”.
Circuits channel the energy produced by the excited electrons generating direct current (DC) electricity.
Sandwiched between two surfaces and wired together into a module, each PV cell individually produces only a few watts of power – enough to power a calculator or watch.
Collectively, multiple modules comprise a PV array capable of producing enough electricity to power major building systems.
From the PV modules (or panels), the electricity travels to an inverter for conversion into alternating current (AC) then either gets stored in batteries or distributed for immediate use.
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Solar Thermal Systems While photovoltaic technology has gotten lots of press recently, the sun supplies energy in the form of heat as well as light. For centuries, the simple principles of conduction and convection have been put to work heating, drying and distilling water, but today the technology can also provide air conditioning to buildings – who knows what tomorrow with bring?
Heating Building solar thermal principles into the design of your building – either from the start or in a retrofit – will help reduced your needs for conditioning your space. The simplest such designs incorporate overhangs to block sun in summer but allow the winter sun to shine through the windows. More elaborate examples can actually eliminate the need for mechanical heating all together! Employing a passive solar principle called “thermo‐siphoning” can heat your building really well. The design includes a special chamber – open at the bottom – affixed to a south‐facing wall. Cool air enters at the bottom, becomes heated by the sun and rises to the top where it exits through vents directed inward. This kind of system requires no machinery because wind currents move the air naturally. The higher the temperature differential between input and output, the greater the updraft caused by this process of convection, so when the heat is needed most the system operates best. You can use systems based on these principles either to heat individual rooms or pre‐heat ventilated air. The Bottom Line: Costing about 10% more than a conventional building, you will probably recoup your investment very quickly because, according to Dan Charis, author of The Solar House: Passive Heating and Cooling, published by Chelsea Green in 2002,”every dollar you invest in energy efficiency will reduce the RE system cost by about 3 to 5 dollars”.xxxviii
SOLAR THERMAL TECHNOLOGY EXPLAINED Solar thermal technology captures the sun’s THERMAL energy for direct use
or for conversion into electricity.
Collectors gather radiant heat from the sun (hitting the earth’s surface at a maximum of 1 kilowatt per square meter) either through absorption or concentrated reflection.
When molecules are heated, they spread out and transfer their heat to adjacent molecules, raising their temperature through conduction (i.e. heat is “contagious” when touched).
As the heated molecules take up more space than the cooler ones, they rise due to convection (i.e. heat rises) and concentrate at the top.
In solar thermal systems water, solar fluid or air transfers the heat through a series of pipes to provide usable energy.
Solar thermal technology can provide hot water, heating and even cooling to buildings as well produce electricity.
Passive solar thermal systems either use water directly heated by the sun or employ convection to heat and store hot water.
Active solar thermal designs employ pumps to circulate the transfer medium and heat exchangers for converting the heat to electricity.
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Water Heaters Historically, the most common use for solar thermal technology is to heat water. Many of these are passive systems employ the same thermo‐siphon principles discussed above. The design requires the water tank sit on top of the building, above the collector, where conduction heats the water and convection causes that hot water to rise. The hot water then gets siphoned from the top of the tank when ready for use. An alternative design with integral collector storage (ICS) has both the collector and storage combined.xxxix
These very economical systems require a structurally sound building because a full 40 gallon hot water tank weighs over 350lbs.xl Due to the time it takes to run the full cycle these simple systems make sense where small amounts of hot water will suffice, you have reliable and plentiful radiant heat or logistics permit the redundancy of multiple tanks.
Two active solar water heater designs – indirect and direct – use pumps to circulate water or an antifreeze solution through heat‐absorbing solar thermal collectors. In a direct system, the water used by building occupants to wash their clothes or bathe is the same water that is pumped through the solar collector. In an indirect system, an antifreeze solution is pumped through the solar heat collector. This warm solution is then used to indirectly heat the water used by building occupants.
Whether you use a passive or active system will depend on how much hot water you need and the temperature your application requires. Common applications for solar heated water include swimming pools, water in buildings, and even radiators or radiant space heat.
The Bottom Line: Solar‐powered water heaters range greatly in price. While small systems might range from $1,000 to $3,000 installed, a 56 ft.2 solar water heater might cost US $7,500. In some cases, with federal and state incentives, that number can be halved. With a payback period of more than 10 years, this sized system could save $230 a year. xli On average, according to the EERE, if you install a solar water heater, your water heating bills should drop 50%–80%xlii.
Cooling and Air Conditioning Systems Not only can thermo‐siphoning provide your space with heat, it can also provide passive cooling! Rather than channel the heated air into your conditioned space the solar chimney draws cool air – sometimes from underground through geothermal heat exchange – up through the interior space creating a cooling breeze. You can adjust the air flow by simply opening or closing windows.
Counter intuitively, the sun’s heat can actively power an air conditioning system! Through the use of an absorption chiller, these active systems capture the sun’s heat at one end of a closed loop system containing a refrigerant. Driven through the system by small motors, the refrigerant runs through a series of pipes, and condenses, creating temperatures as low as 44 degrees F.
The Bottom Line: A Solar thermal absorption cooling systems (STACS) will cost somewhere around $625/ton installed with a payback expected in 7 to 8 yearsxliii.
A solar chimney draws air through a geothermal heat exchange to provide passive home cooling. (Source: azsolarcenter.com)
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Wind Technology Wind is the OTHER solar power! Sun warmed air moves and this movement is wind. Harnessing this energy began with the Persians in 200 BC and has continued through the centuries. The Dutch have used windmills for six of those centuries to hold the Rhine River delta at bay. With people turning to renewable energy in modern times, wind turbines have become an important part of the US energy mix. In fact, today they supply 100% of Rock Port, Missouri’s energy needs!xliv
Turbines Wind generators produce alternating current (AC), so they need a device called a "rectifier" – either built‐in or as a separate component – to convert the turbine's AC output to DC for storage. Due to the mechanical design of turbines, when the wind blows, the gears turn. Thus when the system storage is full, a “load diverter” dissipates the energy as heat or sends the excess elsewhere (e.g. to heat water or run a fan) in order to protect the gears from damage. This device, together with a net‐meter, could send the excess current into the electrical grid – offsetting your electrical consumption at other times.
Although relatively easy to incorporate into your system, installing a wind turbine involves more than installing solar panels. The turbine needs to be mounted in an area free from obstructions to wind flow (nearby buildings, trees, etc.) so, as a general rule, the higher in the air you can get your wind turbine the more effective it will be.
A well located 12 volts system could inexpensively power your small to medium sized business. Given enough land area (such as the acreage owned by farms and ranches) your business could put your land to dual use. By installing a large scale system, you could potentially add wind farming to your portfolio and derive rental income from the utility companies.
WIND TECHNOLOGY EXPLAINED According to the Danish Wind Industry Association “About 1% to 2% of the energy coming from the sun is converted into wind energy. That is about 50 to 100 times more than the energy
converted into biomass by all plants on earth.”
When the sun heats the earth, it excites air molecules causing them to expand, become less dense and rise; the void is replaced by cooler, denser air.
This convective process converts thermal energy to the kinetic energy we call wind.
The earth’s rotation, variation in atmospheric pressure and irregularities in the earth’s surface all affect the flow patterns of the wind’s kinetic energy.
A wind turbine converts this kinetic energy to mechanical energy by driving a propeller (or rotor) affixed to a shaft (or axle) connected via gears to a motor – generating alternating current (AC) electricity.
The amount of energy transferred to the rotor depends on the density of the air, rotor area (calculated at the square of the blade length), and wind speed.
(Source: http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/wres/index.htm)
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This might make more sense than you think. First, larger systems cost less per kilowatt installed than smaller systems. Second, wind generators require relatively little maintenance beyond annual visual check‐ups to ensure the propeller blades haven't been damaged. If you have located the turbine in a good spot it's very unlikely to be damaged by any flying debris.
Generally speaking, wind energy makes sense as a primary source of power in the north central plains states, throughout coastal Alaska or off shore. In other regions, with less reliable intermittent supply, wind power makes more sense as a way to supplement other renewable energy sources.
While wind is a cost‐effective alternative energy it does have a number of problems. Given their height, turbines are subject to lightning strikes and have high mechanical fatigue failure rates. They do not function well, if at all, under conditions of heavy rain, icing conditions or very cold climates, and are noisy and cannot be insulated for sound reduction due to their size and subsequent loss of wind velocity and power. In addition, many people – considering them eye soars – have fought to keep them out of their communities.
The Bottom Line: A 5 kW turbine with a 100’ tilt‐up tower costing $55,000 could produce between 6,000 and 8,000 kW of electricity annually with blades measuring 2.5 meters. A 20 kW turbine with 14 meter blades, costing $80,000 ($4 per watt) might produce 20,000 to 25,000 kW of electricity in a year. xlv (A 5kW system’s a cost of energy would likely come in at about 4¢ to 6¢per kWh)xlvi.
Know Your Wind Before choosing a system, take wind measurements for a several consecutive months to develop an accurate picture of average and maximum wind speeds
Low Wind Speeds–Installations where wind speeds are below 15mph either have longer rotor blades or a larger number of short, wide blades to maximize power drawn from minimal wind
High Wind Speeds – Installations where winds reach 20mph or more require more durable construction, and will have narrow, relatively short blades to minimize potential rotor damage
Directionality – Strong winds usually come from a particular direction, drawing a schematic of observed wind speeds and direction (sort of a meteorological fingerprint) will help you determine the placement of your turbine.
Location – Site your turbine in an area free of obstacles like trees and buildings and high in the air where the wind can be 5‐10 times stronger than at ground level.
Base
There are four main parts of a wind turbine: the base, the tower, the nacelle and the rotor (hub and blades assembly). The base acts as an anchor that supports the entire assembly so it doesn't fall over, the tower supports the nacelle and rotor and contains the electrical conduits, the nacelle contains the electric generator that makes the electricity, and the rotor assembly converts the energy of the wind to rotational motion.
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A Single Fuel Cell – produces about 1 volt of electricity (Source: National Fuel Cell Research Center)
Fuel Cells Much of the public dialogue concerning fuel cells focuses on their use in the hydrogen‐powered cars of the future. And while most experts agree these vehicles won’t become available for five to 10 years, stationary fuel cells – a technology that has existed since the early 19th century – are commercially available and being deployed today. Today, over 2500 fuel cell systems power office buildings, apartment complexes and hospitals worldwide. In grid‐tied systems, they provide supplemental power and backup assurance to fulfill 24/7 power needs. In addition, they can be installed as grid‐independent generators for sites inaccessible by power lines.xlvii
Fuel Cell Design A single fuel cell produces only about 1 volt of power. These single cells, linked together form a "stack" that produces the needed voltage to run electrical systems. Configured either in series or in parallel, these stacks usually contain at least 50 cells and can have the voltage, current, and power tailored to fit the needs of the particularly system.xlviii The five fuel cell designs all include electrodes and an electrolyte sandwiched
FUEL CELLS EXPLAINED Fuel cells electrochemically convert a fuel's energy directly to electricity without the interim
step of combustion thus making them non polluting and highly efficient.
With no internal moving parts, fuel cells operate similarly to batteries except they produce rather than store electricity.
A fuel cell consists of two electrodes – an anode and a cathode – sandwiched around an electrolyte.
Hydrogen fed to the anode splits into one proton and one electron with the help of a catalyst.
A current collector conducts the electron from the anode to a separator plate where electrical connections harness its energy before disbursing it to the cathode.
The proton passes through a medium (different cell types use different mediums) called an “electrolyte” and travels directly to the cathode.
At the cathode, another catalyst rejoins the hydrogen molecule then combines it with the oxygen and forms a molecule of water.
A fuel cell system which includes a "fuel reformer" can utilize the hydrogen from any hydrocarbon fuel including natural gas, methanol, and gasoline.
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between two plates along with electrical connections and, perhaps, insulation. The content of the electrolyte determines the fuel cell type.xlix
Why Fuel Cells Fuel cells operate silently and reliably. With few moving parts, they have fewer instances of failure than mechanical generators. Located on site, these systems experience so few outages they can be configured to computer grade – providing 99.999+ percent uptime.l These systems can be used to provide primary or backup power for telecom switch nodes, cell towers, and other electronic systems that would benefit from on‐site, direct DC power supply. And if your business is near a landfill, wastewater treatment plant, or brewery the methane gas they produce could be a ready source of fuel cell power. In fact, several breweries have used untreated brewery effluent through anaerobic digestion, breaking down organic compounds to generate methane.li
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Fuel cells, like their mechanical generator counterparts, produce a significant amount of heat. Depending upon fuel cell or generator type and its design the fuel‐to‐electricity efficiency only ranges from 30% to 60%.lii By capturing that potential energy and using it to heat water – and by extension radiant heating – the total energy efficiency of fuel cell systems can approach 85 percent.liii CHP can also run an absorption chiller and bring operating costs down to 2 to 3 cents per kWh under some circumstances!liv
The Bottom Line: Current prices run at $4,500 per kw; as compared to a diesel generator at $800 to $1,500 per kw and $400 per kw for gas. DOE’s grants are targeted at reducing the cost to $400 per kilowatt.lv
Five Fuel Cell Types
Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC) or Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) – runs at low temperatures (usually around 80‐degrees Celsius), with 45% efficiency; requiring very pure hydrogen they are good for automotive, small stationary, and portable power applications.
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) – have an operating temperature of about 100‐220 degrees Celsius, and achieve 37‐42% efficiency; good for buses and stationary applications.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) – operates at 600‐700 degrees Celsius enabling combined heat and power (CHP) usage with more than 70% efficiency; well‐suited to large‐scale stationary applications, such as for powering buildings; high‐temperature fuel cells can use a wide range of fuels without using a "fuel reformer."
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) – at temperatures over 650 degrees Celsius, the SOFC can use hydrocarbon fuel directly, without reforming; generates both electricity and usable thermal energy thus making them appropriate for stationary power applications.
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) – one of the first modern fuel cells developed, an AFC system provided power for the Apollo space vehicle; operating at around 200 degrees Celsius an AFC requires pure hydrogen and pure oxygen as the reactants.
Source: http://www.usfcc.com/about/types.html
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Geothermal Technology While the sources of renewable energy we have discussed so far come, ultimately, from the sun, geothermal technology harnesses the heat generated at the center of the earth – where temperatures are hotter than the surface of the sun!lvi Until recently, geothermal electric plants have been built exclusively at the edges of tectonic plates where high temperature geothermal resources come close to the surface. In Iceland, for example, 95% of their energy comes from their abundant hot springs & geysers.lvii However, your system doesn’t need to access this kind of heat – you can take advantage of the naturally stable temperatures found just beneath the surface of the ground you are standing on right now.
Geothermal Heat Pumps Taking advantage of that close‐by source of constant 50 degree temperature, a 2,000 square foot well insulated home could be heated for just $1 a day! lviii Because of the need to access that space 15 feet below ground, the up‐front expenses will run quite high. However, you will likely recoup that investment within a few short years – then realize an annual return on investment of as much as 20%!lix As trenching methods evolve, this capital expense should become less and less significant.
With an average of 50% of an office’s electricity consumed by HVAC,lx investing
GEOTHERMAL TECHNOLOGY EXPLAINED Geothermal power (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat) is
power extracted from heat stored in the earth.
Heat from the center of the earth rises through conduction to the surface and is replenished by radioactive decay.
The earth’s 15 to 35 mile thick crust acts like an insulating blanket keeping the heat in such that just below the frost line the earth maintains stable temperatures between 50 and 60 degrees; geothermal heat pumps tap into this phenomenon.
The crust is comprised of several pieces (called tectonic plates) which come together along fault lines; heat escaping along these faults can be 300⁰ to 700⁰; utility scale “direct source” geothermal power taps into this source through deep drilling.
(Source: US Energy Information Agency http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/geothermal.html)
Geothermal Heat Pump with “slinky” ground loop heat exchanger (source: Andrew Engineering, ltd.)
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in an alternative to your conventional system will save “up to 44% compared to air‐source heat pumps and up to 72% compared to electric resistance heating with standard air‐conditioning equipment”.lxi According to Energy Star, geothermal heat pumps “are among the most efficient and comfortable heating and cooling technologies currently available”!lxii
Like fuel cells, GHP systems are very reliable. Continuously exposed to the elements, externally situated air‐sourced heat pumps should last about 15 years before needing to replace the compressor.lxiii Yet, since GHPs usually have no outdoor compressor, they tend to last 20 years or more– 30% longer than conventional systems. With the system components located inside and easily accessible maintenance can take place regardless of weather conditions – ensuring regular upkeep and greater longevity. lxiv
The underground pipe work constitutes most of the high capital costs (30% to 40% more in new construction – up to double for a retrofit) associated with ground‐source heat pumps. (This number can vary dramatically depending upon ground loop configuration, geographic location, contractor experience and market competition.) Properly installed, the pipe work carries warranties of up to 50 years and has a life expectancy of 200 years.lxv Thus, a full life cycle analysis will likely show the two systems have little or no substantive cost disparity.
The Bottom Line: You can expect your GHP to cost about $2,500 per ton of capacity while the initial cost of drilling will range from $10,000 to $30,000.lxvi Depending upon several factors such as system size, geographic location, available incentives and the cost of conventional fuels your payback period can take only a few years.lxvii
Geothermal Hot Water Once you have installed a GHP system, you can add a second, smaller condenser called a desuperheater to provide your facilities with hot water. You could potentially generate 60% of your hot water energy with this add‐on. Thus Geothermal Heat Pumps (GHP) (also called ground source heat pumps) provide an excellent opportunity to save money while reducing your carbon footprint. The Bottom Line: Each ton of desuperheater capacity will cost a few hundred dollars, installed, and provide 5‐8 gallons of hot water per hour. lxviii
Geothermal Heat Pumps Unlike conventional furnaces, heat pumps don't create heat they harvest it.
A heat pump is an air conditioner that can reverse the flow of its refrigerant.
When heating, it extracts heat from outside and delivers it indoors to a condensing coil (vice versa for cooling).
While heat is still present at 200⁰ below zero, heat pumps cannot harvest the heat below about 30⁰ F.
In colder weather, an auxiliary heat source takes over.
The colder it is outside, the more the back‐up heater runs and the less efficient the system becomes.
A geothermal or ground‐source heat pump cycles water through an underground piping loop to pre‐heat (or cool down) the pump's refrigerant.
Ground loop configurations include horizontal (large area available), slinky (medium area and depth available), vertical (depth required) and submerged (existing pond on site).
With the stable temperature of 50⁰ to 60⁰ found 10 ft below ground, the geothermal heat pump seldom needs power beyond that which runs the pump when working in A/C mode.
(Source: http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/home/heating_cooling/heating_cooling.html; http://www.geo4va.vt.edu/A2/A2.htm; http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/geothermal.html
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Putting It All Together Now that you have become familiar with each of the four main renewable energy technologies available for your facilities the question remains: How do you choose among them?
Qualitative Considerations Of course financial considerations will dominate your decision making process. But you will also need to consider other aspects of your particular business before you run the numbers.
Your End Use Based on the latest data from the EIA (2003 data published in 2008)lxix, the average office uses about half of its energy to power electrical devices such as lighting, computers and office equipment among other things. The balance of the bill goes to heating, ventilating and cooling the office space. Since most air conditioning systems in place today rely on electricity (nearly 88%)lxx, businesses in the Mid‐ or South‐Atlantic Regions will find cooling considerations predominate. If your office is in line with the national averages, you will have a greater impact on your carbon footprint by turning to such technologies as photovoltaic or fuel cells. Similarly, in areas such as the New England or the Rockies, heating – with natural gas fueling 56% of these systemslxxi – would benefit from the installation of geothermal heating.
Your Region Depending on your region of the country certain technologies make more sense than others. If you live in the Southwest, where the sun shines so much of the time, on average you might be able to generate as much as 6 kWh of electricity per square meter. In the Midwest, you could tap into utility scale wind or have abundant hydrogen supplies very close to home. And in the Northeast geothermal heat pumps present excellent opportunities for reducing your heating bills. (see: NREL maps)
Your Locality While living in a city may pose problems for wind turbine placement, the infrastructure of pure hydrogen maybe close at hand for stationary fuel cells, making these systems optimal. However, regardless of how sexy one technology may seem to you, it will not work if it doesn’t work! You want to make sure you can hire people who have a proven track record for success. You will want that person to work in your area so they are available to
Resources Available
US Solar Resource Map
US Wind Resource Map
US Hydrogen Potential Resource Map
US Geothermal Heat Pump Cost Effectiveness Map (Source: NREL)
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maintain your system and perform repairs as needed. And don’t forget, given enough competition, you will likely get better pricing for this substantial investment.
Your Site Once you have narrowed down your choices, you need to consider the geology of your land and the structure that sits on it. Whether you have a lot of land or just a little, geothermal can work for you, but installation costs will vary greatly depending on the pipe work. If you have a new building with a solid structure and ample sun, you have different issues than if you have an older building to retrofit. And if you are beginning construction on a site without utilities already delivered, you will want to look at whether the technology you have chosen will work in an off‐grid setting.
Your Size Some technologies are only available on a larger scale – although the market is rapidly changing. At the moment, if your organization is small, you will probably find solar and geothermal options work best for you. With larger facilities, the economies of scale associated with wind begin to make it more competitive in some regions. For larger companies with either multiple units in a localized area or one large building, combined heat and power from a fuel cell would be an excellent place to start.
Mix and Match All along we have looked at each technology in isolation. However, in reality the ideal solution for your organization will likely include some kind of hybrid system. If you have a geothermal heat pump you will still need electricity to run fans – solar or wind could but help with that. In fact, solar and wind often work well together because when the sun is no longer available at the end of the day the earth cools creating winds. So, you may have a system with all three! The wonderful thing about how all these technologies fit together? You can install them incrementally or with one master plan – what ever works for your budget and corporate strategy.
Financing Your Renewable Energy System Financing the capital expenditures necessary for any renewable energy system is a challenge for many. To assist in this effort federal, state and local governments have all – to varying degrees – begun to pitch in. The Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE) is an up to date resource listing all the opportunities. In addition, the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) works with business and others to increase the use of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies by offering financial assistance opportunities for their development and demonstration. (See Appendix B for contact information.) If your organization can’t take advantage of any of these incentives, you would rather not own and maintain a system or you lack the necessary financing; third party ownership might be the answer. Under this symbiotic arrangement, your business provides the real estate for the renewable energy system and the investor provides financing. The investor takes advantage of tax credits and benefits available for the system and sells the power produced by the system to you at rates that reflect the cooperative relationship. The size of many third party ownership arrangements are 100 kW or above but in some areas, they have become available for much smaller installations.lxxii
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Future Issues It seems as though carbon pricing will soon become a reality. But even if it doesn’t, investing in renewable energy today will stand you in good stead for many years to come. Some of the technologies we have discussed here will pay for themselves in a few short years. Others – while taking longer – will still provide stability in a constantly fluctuating fossil fuel market. All will help to immediately begin reducing your carbon footprint. Yet, you might rightly ask, what is coming that I should know about?
Developing Technologies Some interesting technologies are entering the market – but not yet viable for small to medium sized businesses. One fabulous example is a building under development in Dubai. David Fisher, an Italian/Israeli architect has designed a 59 story rotating building that will generate ten times the electricity it uses through wind turbines sandwiched between floors and solar panels situated on the roof.lxxiii
Another example exists in Ottawa, Canada. David Delaney built a bungalow style house in Ottawa, Ontario that gets 100% of its winter heat from its passive solar design. A thermal solar heat collector on its south‐facing wall feeds a heat store in the attic – comprised of a bed of small river stone one foot deep – that maintains room temperatures for up to seven days without sun! While the structure must be stronger than for conventional buildings, the only moving part in the system is a conventional ceiling fan.lxxiv
10% by 2020 According to two studies by the U.S. Department of Energy and the Union of Concerned Scientists, if the U.S. were to supply 10% of its electricity from renewables by 2020 the following would occur: Consumer savings: $22.6 billion to $37.7 billion in lower electricity and natural gas bills
Jobs: 91,220 new jobs—nearly twice as many as generating the electricity from fossil fuels
Economic development: $41.5 billion in new capital investment, $5.7 billion in income to
farmers, ranchers, and rural landowners, and $2.8 billion in new local tax revenues
Healthier environment: reductions of global warming pollution equal to taking from 25
million to 32 million cars off the road, plus less haze, smog, acid rain, mercury contamination,
and water use
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One company has begun selling an onsite waste to energy system. Fed once a day, the system can store 3 tons of municipal solid waste (MSW) shreds, dries, pelletizes, gasifies (zero emissions) and burns the waste to create synthetic gas. The system will cost around $850,000 and will produce 1.3 million kWh of power each year while cogenerating heat – a cost of about 15¢ per kWh.lxxv
Research As more and more businesses like yours turn to renewable energy technologies, the market continues to grow exponentially. That increased demand is driving prices down and innovation up. The way we power our lives in 20 years will look very different from today. In fact, it may well be that at some point, in the not so distant future, being the grid will become optional! Some of the technologies that may bring this about are fun to think about!
Today's flexible solar cells capture the sun's visible light, but not the invisible light. Paintable quantum dots (nanometer‐sized – one 25‐millionth of an inch – semiconductor four‐legged structures which capture infrared photons) will double the amount of power absorbed from the sun. The research in this area centers on producing the quantum dots, called tetrapods, to be reliably uniform.lxxvi
In working to develop artificial photosynthesis, researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) have combined a liquid catalyst with photovoltaic cells to achieve what they claim is a solar energy system that could generate electricity around the clock. It could do this by using excess solar energy to produce hydrogen and oxygen to power a fuel cell.lxxvii
The National Science Foundation is funding R&D on aerovoltaic systems that directly convert wind energy to electricity without the need for blades or a turbine – anticipated to produce twice the energy as solar panels today. No moving parts and no noise. Another example of a turbine‐less wind energy system is the windbelt that exploits the aeroelastic flutter of a string to move a magnet closer and farther from one or more electromagnetic coil(s) to create current (estimated to cost about $2 per watt).lxxviii
Whatever renewable energy technology you have your eyes on, you don’t need to wait for the future to act. Prices are coming down on proven technologies and many incentives are in place for a limited time. And you will not be alone. According to the EIA, by 2012, wind generation is expected to be more than twice that projected prior to passage of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) and geothermal capacity will reach 3.0 gigawatts rather than 2.6 gigawatts.lxxix
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“Smart businesses will emerge from this downturn stronger than their competition by focusing on their customers' changing energy and environmental needs, preparing for a
new policy landscape, and investing in tomorrow's clean technologies.”
Nicholas Eisenberger and Ted Grozierlxxx
Conclusion While technology is moving forward at break neck speed, don’t wait to get started. According to the State of Green Business 2009 report by USGCRP, the earlier we cut GHG emissions, the greater the effective reduction in climate change we will have. In fact, some changes could have an immediate change – in a matter of weeks to decades.lxxxi
Even without making the choice to switch, you may find the law will take the decision from your hands. A 2007 Supreme Court ruling – that GHG are appropriately regulated under the Clean Air Act – paved the way for the EPA decision in April to determine that emissions pose a threat to public health. The regulation of carbon now seems certain. This move seems likely to put pressure on Congress to move forward with some form of “cap‐and‐trade” legislation to create a national market for emissions trading.lxxxii All this takes place in the context of the coming UN Framework Convention on Climate Change set for the fall of 2009.lxxxiii With all this coming to a head, the time has come to move!
And why not? As you have seen from the discussion here, switching to renewable energy will help you cut operating costs and trim waste from your energy consumption. If you doubt the wisdom of such a move, you only need to look around. Many already see the writing on the wall and have begun to take action. Even in oil rich countries such as Dubai, renewable energy has moved to the forefront of business strategy. Dubai is building the first carbon emissions free city and will soon construct the largest solar power plant in the world – so large it will generate enough energy to power their entire country!lxxxiv
So, the need is urgent; the requirements are coming; and others have begun to move! Between 2007 and 2008, investment in clean energy more than doubledlxxxv – giving providers important expertise. The resulting drop in costs means opportunity so take the plunge! Whether you start incrementally, go all in or purchase “green power” from a third party – the time is right to put renewable energy to work for your organization!
No, renewable energy technologies alone will not turn your business into a truly sustainable enterprise. But neither can you become sustainable without it.
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Appendix B Additional Resources1
General Renewable Energy Links US Department of Energy: http://www.energy.gov/index.htm
o Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (http://www.eere.energy.gov/) has Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) facilitates the Federal Government's
implementation of sound, cost‐effective energy management and investment practices to enhance the nation's energy security and environmental stewardship: A Consumer’s Guide to Renewable Energy: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/index.html
Energy Savers provides extensive information on renewable energy for your workplace: http://www.energysavers.gov/your_workplace/
Energy Information Administration provides policy‐neutral data, forecasts, and analyses to promote sound policy making, efficient markets, and public understanding regarding energy and its interaction with the economy and the environment: http://www.eia.doe.gov/
International Energy Agency is an intergovernmental organisation which acts as energy policy advisor to 28 member countries in their effort to ensure reliable, affordable and clean energy for their citizens: http://www.iea.org/ o They have a good downloadable “Guide to Purchasing Green Power: Renewable Electricity,
Renewable Energy Certificates and On‐site Renewable Generation” from: http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2000/Renew_main2003.pdf
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is the nation's primary laboratory for renewable energy and energy efficiency research and development: o Renewable Energy primer: http://www.nrel.gov/learning/ o Dynamic Maps, GIS and Data Analysis Tools: http://www.nrel.gov/gis/maps.html
Lawrence Berkley National Laboratories (LBL) is a member of the national laboratory system supported by the U.S. Department of Energy through its Office of Science. It is managed by the University of California (UC) and is charged with conducting unclassified research across a wide range of scientific disciplines: http://www.lbl.gov/
o Energy Enduse Forcasting (EUF) information on commercial buildings: http://enduse.lbl.gov/Projects/CommData.html
Center for Resource Solutions (CRS) creates policy and market solutions to advance sustainable energy – http://www.resource‐solutions.org/index.php o Find ways to purchase renewable energy for your organization from the Green‐e program:
http://www.green‐e.org/base/re_products?cust=b
Renewable Energy Policy Project (REPP) does policy research to promote the development of renewable energy technologies: http://www.repp.org/
Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC) aims to accelerate the sustainable utilization of renewable energy sources and technologies in and through state and local government and community activities: http://www.irecusa.org/
Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21) is a global policy network that provides a forum for international leadership on renewable energy: http://www.ren21.net/
Union of Concerned Scientists brings sound science to some of the most critical environmental and global security challenges: http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/clean_energy_101/
1 Many of the entity descriptions have been taken directly for the “about us” section of their website. We have no intention of infringing on their copyrights in doing so.
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Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) provides multiple links for information on renewable energy: http://www.aresearchguide.com/energy.html
Metropolitan Partnership for Energy (San Antonio) has a good glossary of terms: http://www.mp4e.info/headlines/the‐energy‐glossary
Renewable Energy Technologies Companies2 is a CHP Partner Company with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Combined Heat & Power Partnership: http://www.airsourceheatpump.net/
ToolBase Services is the housing industry's resource for technical information on building products, materials, new technologies, business management, and housing systems. They have excellent information on each of the technologies discussed here: http://www.toolbase.org/TechInventory/ViewAll.aspx
Source Guides Buyer's Guides and Directories is an online information, communication, advertising and sales service provided by Momentum Technologies LLC ("MTT"). They offer a Directory of Renewable Energy Consulting Businesses in the World: http://energy.sourceguides.com/businesses/byB/serv/consult/consult.shtml
Fuel Cells Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies
Program (part of the Department of Energy Hydrogen Program) works with partners to advance the development and widespread use of hydrogen and fuel cells: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/
National Fuel Cell Research Center (NFCRC) was dedicated in 1998 by the U.S. Department of Energy and the California Energy Commission to accelerate the development and deployment of fuel cell technology, to provide an outreach to the market, to address market hurdles, and to provide leadership in the preparation of educational materials and programs throughout the country: http://www.nfcrc.uci.edu/2/Default.aspx
Fuel Cells 2000 is an activity of the Breakthrough Technologies Institute (BTI), a non‐profit [501(c)(3)] independent, educational organization that identifies and promotes environmental and energy technologies that can improve the human condition: http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/apps.html
California Stationary Fuel Cell Collaborative is a public‐private partnership working to advance the deployment of stationary fuel cells for distributed generation throughout the state of California: http://www.casfcc.org/2/StationaryFuelCells/FuelCellTechnologies.aspx
US Fuel Cell Council (USFCC) provides its members with an opportunity to help shape the programs, policies and practices needed to successfully commercialize fuel cell technology: http://www.usfcc.com/about/types.html
The Hydrogen Economy by National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Alternatives and Strategies for Future Hydrogen Production and Use, National Academy of Engineering, National Academy of Sciences (U.S.) can be found on Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=ugniowznToAC&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=operating+maintenance+stationary+fuel+cell+system&source=bl&ots=nv9ly3vPmO&sig=nt2MvC8W3ZVPhGvmozFMqIDRtgU&hl=en&ei=P74mSqW1LYS‐MrzxhYsF&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#PPA32,M1
2 We do not in any way endorse this company’s products or services however their site does provide extensive information on all the renewable energy technologies and is worth using as a resource.
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Geothermal Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Energy Savers Program has information on heating
and cooling with a good section on GHPs: http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/mytopic=12640
Energy Star: http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=geo_heat.pr_crit_geo_heat_pumps
Energy Research and Development Authority (New York State) has a clear and concise explanation of how a Geothermal System works, please see the website: http://www.nyserda.org/programs/geothermal/default.asp
California Energy Commission; Consumer Energy Center: http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/renewables/geothermal/index.html
International Ground Source Heat Pump Association (IGSHPA) is a non‐profit, member‐driven organization established in 1987 to advance ground source heat pump (GSHP) technology on local, state, national and international levels: http://www.igshpa.okstate.edu/
Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium: http://www.geoexchange.org/
International Ground Source Heat Pump Association (IGSHA): Http://www.igshpa.okstate.edu/geothermal/faq.htm
Popular Mechanics has one of the best primers on geothermal heating: http://www.popularmechanics.com/how_to_central/home_clinic/1274631.html?page=1
Solar American Solar Energy Society (ASES) is the nation's leading association of solar professionals &
grassroots advocates: http://www.ases.org/ o Find your local tour of homes and buildings to see how your neighbors are using solar energy
to reduce their monthly utility bills: http://www.ases.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158&Itemid=16
o Go Solar: How to get started with solar energy: http://www.ases.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=162&Itemid=7
Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) works to expand markets, strengthen research and development, remove market barriers and improve education and outreach for solar energy professionals: http://www.seia.org/
Solar Electric Power Association (SEPA) is a nonprofit membership organization, formed in 1992 as the Utility Photovoltaic Group. SEPA has more than 500 utility, electric service provider, manufacturer, installer, government, and research members. Their mission is to facilitate solutions for the use and integration of solar electric power by utilities, electric service providers, and their customers: http://www.solarelectricpower.org/
Build Its Solar is “The Renewable Energy Site for Do‐It‐Yourselfers” resource: http://www.builditsolar.com/index.htm o Download for free this very useful primer "Passive Solar Energy ‐‐ The Homeowner's Guide to
Natural Heating and Cooling" by Bruce Anderson and Malcolm Wells: http://www.builditsolar.com/Projects/SolarHomes/PasSolEnergyBk/PSEbook.htm
Learn where to find a solar tour in your area from the American Solar Energy Society:: http://www.ases.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158&Itemid=16
Wind Danish Wind Industry Association (DWIA) is a Danish non‐profit association whose purpose is to
promote wind energy at home and abroad: http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/wres/index.htm
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American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) is a trade and advocacy organization: http://www.awea.org/smallwind/ o Wind Power Expo sponsored by AWEA is a very large wind conference held annually:
http://www.windpowerexpo.org/
Incentives & Grants For a list of current pilot project financing opportunities from the Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy (EERE) see http://www1.eere.energy.gov/financing/business.html.
To learn more about available incentives the Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE) has a comprehensive list available on their website: http://www.dsireusa.org/
Smart Communities Network run by the National Center for Appropriate Technology provides information and resources about sustainable development and grant funding: http://www.smartcommunities.ncat.org/management/financl.shtml or
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Green Building: http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/tools/funding.htm
US Department of Agriculture (USDA) has a Rural Development Division offering Business and Cooperative Programs to empower rural America: http://www.rurdev.usda.gov/rbs/
o Rural Energy for America Program (REAP) provides funding under the Farm Bill: http://www.rurdev.usda.gov/rbs/farmbill/index.html
Calculators: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
o Green Power Partnership has a Green Power Equivalencies Calculator. It helps translate kilowatt‐hours (kWh) purchased into more understandable terms, such as an equivalent number of passenger vehicles, homes, or coal plants: http://www.epa.gov/greenpower/pubs/calculator.htm
o Clean Energy How clean is the electricity I use? ‐ Power Profiler: http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy‐and‐you/how‐clean.html
o EERE’s Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) has a series of energy cost calculators for lighting appliances and equipment: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/procurement/eep_eccalculators.html
Gil Friend is CEO of sustainability consulting firm Natural Logic. He has provided links to multiple carbon calculators at: http://www.squidoo.com/carboncalcs.
Hearth.com is owned by CHI Associates, an internet and hearth business consulting company. The site has many calculators, in particular this one allows you to estimate the amount of BTUs required to heat a room: http://hearth.com/articles/36_0_1_0_M7.html
RETScreen Clean Energy Analysis Software is a unique decision support tool developed with the contribution of numerous experts from government, industry, and academia. The software, provided free‐of‐charge, can be used worldwide to evaluate the energy production and savings, costs, emission reductions, financial viability and risk for various types of Renewable‐energy and Energy‐efficient Technologies (RETs). The software (available in multiple languages) also includes product, project, hydrology and climate databases, a detailed user manual, and a case study based college/university‐level training course, including an engineering e‐textbook. http://www.retscreen.net/ang/home.php
Find Solar is sponsored by the ASES. You can use their site to find a local contractor or to do a quick solar power calculation: http://www.findsolar.com/
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Sharp Electronics manufactures solar panels in the US. They have an excellent solar calculator that uses your zip code and current electric bill to create a solar system simulation: http://sharpusa.cleanpowerestimator.com/sharpusa.htm
Windustry promotes progressive renewable energy solutions and empowers communities to develop and own wind energy as an environmentally sustainable asset. They offer a downloadable spreadsheet to assist in performing cash flow modeling for community wind projects: http://www.windustry.org/your‐wind‐project/community‐wind/community‐wind‐toolbox/chapter‐3‐project‐planning‐and‐management/wi
Federal Renewable Energy Screening Assistant (FRESA) is building application screening tool: http://analysis.nrel.gov/fresa/
Endnotes i Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States, Thomas R. Karl, Jerry M. Melillo, and Thomas C. Peterson, (eds.). Cambridge University Press, 2009. June 17, 2009. http://downloads.globalchange.gov/usimpacts/pdfs/climate‐impacts‐report.pdf ii “Global Temperature and Carbon Dioxide: Global annual average temperature (as measured over both land and oceans). Red bars indicate temperatures above and blue bars indicate temperatures below the average temperature for the period 1901‐2000. The black line shows atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration in parts per million (ppm). While there is a clear longterm global warming trend, each individual year does not show a temperature increase relative to the previous year, and some years show greater changes than others.33 These year‐to‐year fluctuations in temperature are due to natural processes, such as the effects of El Niños, La Niñas, and the eruption of large volcanoes.” http://downloads.globalchange.gov/usimpacts/pdfs/climate‐impacts‐report.pdf iii http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/03/2/l_032_04.html
iv http://downloads.globalchange.gov/usimpacts/pdfs/climate‐impacts‐report.pdf
v US Energy Information Administration vi http://www.eoearth.org/article/Nuclear_Energy_and_the_Fossil_Fuels_ (historical)
vii ibid
viii http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/pdf/pages/sec1_5.pdf
ix China currently has approximately 130 million PC users and that number is expected to reach 931 million by the year 2020. See: The Climate Report http://www.theclimategroup.org/assets/resources/publications/Smart2020Report_lo_res.pdf, x http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/pdf/ieoreftab_1.pdf World Total Energy Consumption by Region, Reference Case, 1990‐2030 xi http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/mer/pdf/pages/sec9_3.pdf
xii http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cbecs/cbecs2003/detailed_tables_2003/2003set19/2003pdf/e02.pdf
xiii http://www.nfib.com/Portals/0/ProblemsAndPriorities08.pdf
xiv http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=conewsstory&refer=conews&tkr=NU%3AUS&sid=aPVldsTZ7V1w
xv http://www.nytimes.com/cwire/2009/02/25/25climatewire‐emissions‐bill‐needed‐to‐save‐our‐planet‐‐oba‐
9849.html xvi http://www.atkearney.com/images/global/pdf/Green_winners.pdf
xvii Strategies for the Green Economy – Opportuniteis and Challenges in the New World of Business. Makower, Joel
with exclusive market research by Cara Pike. McGraw Hill, US. 2009 xviii
Green to Gold – How Smart Companies Use Environmental Stategy to Innovate, Create Value, and Build Competitive Advantage. Esty, Daneil C., Winston, Andrew S. Yale University Press, New Haven. 2006. xix The Marlin Company’s 14 th Annual American Workplace Poll was conducted in May 2008 by Zogby
International, which surveyed 755 US workers. http://www.themarlincompany.com/MediaRoom/Releases/GoingGreen2008/GreenRelease.pdf
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xx http://blogs.harvardbusiness.org/leadinggreen/2008/07/claim‐greenness‐at‐your‐own‐ri.html
xxi http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/carbon_seq/refshelf/atlas/index.html
xxii http://www.recovery.gov/
xxiii http://www.eere.energy.gov/de/renewables_portfolio_standards.html
xxiv http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/stimulus/pdf/stimulus.pdf
xxv Natural Capitalism – Creating the Next Industrial Revolution. Hawkins, Paul; Lovins, Amory; Lovins, L. Hunter.
Back Bay Books/Little Brown & Company, New York. 1999. Page 121. xxvi http://gristmill.grist.org/story/2008/2/18/212538/864 xxvii
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=a‐solar‐grand‐plan xxviii
http://www.coolearthsolar.com/faq xxix
http://www.kwmanagement.com/Clean_Energy/renewable/photo.htm xxx http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/R/AE_roof‐mounted_solar_power_system.html
xxxi http://www1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/tips/
xxxii http://www.goldensolar.net/solar.html
xxxiii http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cbecs/cbecs2003/lighting/lighting1.html
xxxiv http://www.iea‐pvps.org/pv/materials.htm
xxxv http://www.costhelper.com/cost/home‐garden/solar‐panels.html
xxxvi http://www.dot‐com‐alliance.org/POWERING_ICT/pub/Solar_Photovoltaics.htm#OM
xxxvii http://peswiki.com/index.php/Directory:Cents_Per_Kilowatt‐Hour
xxxviii http://www.greenhomebuilding.com/QandA/solarheat/passive.htm
xxxix http://www.ncsc.ncsu.edu/information_resources/factsheets/SolarDHW.pdf
xl http://www.epsea.org/wtr.html
xli http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_hot_water
xlii http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/water_heating/index.cfm/mytopic=12860
xliii http://www.naturalenergytechnologies.com/resources/WEEC_Paper_Hinrichs.pdf
xliv http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_wind_power
xlv http://energyconcepts.us/?page_id=204
xlvi http://peswiki.com/index.php/Directory:Cents_Per_Kilowatt‐Hour
xlvii http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/apps.html
xlviii http://www.nfcrc.uci.edu/2/FUEL_CELL_INFORMATION/FCexplained/FC_Comp_Stack.aspx
xlix ibid
l http://www.nfcrc.uci.edu/2/FUEL_CELL_INFORMATION/FCexplained/FC_benefits.aspx li http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/apps.html lii http://www.wbcsd.org/DocRoot/N1QKViFsDC3gnSiUuRA6/OsakaGasCHP.pdf and http://www.nfcrc.uci.edu/2/FUEL_CELL_INFORMATION/FCexplained/FC_benefits.aspx liii http://www.nfcrc.uci.edu/2/FUEL_CELL_INFORMATION/FCexplained/FC_benefits.aspx
liv http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/17002/54314087.pdf?sequence=1
lv http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/powersystems/fuelcells/
lvi http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/geothermal.html
lvii ibid
lviii http://www.popularmechanics.com/how_to_central/home_clinic/1274631.html?page=1
lix ibid
lx http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cbecs/cbecs2003/lighting/lighting1.html
lxi http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/mytopic=12660
lxii http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=geo_heat.pr_geo_heat_pumps
lxiii http://www.cogeneration.net/air_source_heat_pumps.htm
lxiv http://www.popularmechanics.com/how_to_central/home_clinic/1274631.html?page=2
lxv http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/mytopic=12660
lxvi http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/home/heating_cooling/geothermal.html
lxvii http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/mytopic=12660
lxviii http://stampededrive.net/PDF/BuilderGuide3E.pdf
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lxix http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cbecs/cbecs2003/lighting/lighting1.html
lxx http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cbecs/cbecs2003/detailed_tables_2003/2003set9/2003pdf/set9.pdf
lxxi ibid
lxxii http://www.urbanecoelectric.com/index.html
lxxiii http://www.inhabitat.com/2008/06/09/rotating‐wind‐powered‐tower‐to‐begin‐construction‐in‐dubai/
lxxiv http://www.geocities.com/davidmdelaney/thermal‐cs/thermal‐crawl‐space‐1.html
lxxv http://www.ecoworld.com/blog/2009/01/21/onsite‐waste‐to‐energy/
lxxvi http://www.greentechgazette.com/index.php/solar‐energy/quantum‐dots‐may‐be‐key‐to‐cheap‐solar‐energy/
lxxvii
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.sciencedaily.com/images/2008/04/080428085757.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/04/080428085757.htm&usg=__W98OQ8IVjIhcNJvlIbLznJCW7mM=&h=371&w=300&sz=13&hl=en&start=20&um=1&tbnid=oliULiJkWkdPVM:&tbnh=122&tbnw=99&prev=/images?q=artificial+photosynthesis&hl=en&rlz=1T4DKUS_enUS252US252&sa=N&um=1 lxxviii
http://www.humdingerwind.com/#/wi_medium/ lxxix
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/stimulus/pdf/sroiaf(2009)03.pdf lxxx
“Use Green to Grow (Not Just Cut Costs)”. Eisenberger, Nicholas and Grozier, Ted for Leading Green. Copyright © 2009 Harvard Business Publishing. http://blogs.harvardbusiness.org/leadinggreen/2009/05/use‐green‐to‐grow.html lxxxi
http://downloads.globalchange.gov/usimpacts/pdfs/climate‐impacts‐report.pdf lxxxii
http://www.mgkflaw.com/ca‐200902/ca‐200902‐3.html lxxxiii
http://unfccc.int/2860.php lxxxiv
http://www.renewbl.com/2009/06/09/dubai‐turning‐to‐solar‐power.html lxxxv
http://www.worldchanging.com/greenbusinesscleantech.jpg lxxxvi
Wisconsin K‐12 Energy Education Program (“KEEP”), “Energy Education Concepts and Principles http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/wcee/keep/Mod1/Flow/Index.htm