www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis

Relational Mechanics

A. K. T. Assis

University of Campinas, Brazil

1

Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727)

1687: Principia

2

2

21

r

mmGF

maF

=

=

Free fall in Newtonian mechanics

maF =

mamg =

22 8.9s

m

R

GMga ===

3

Free fall in Newtonian mechanics

maF =

mamg =

22 8.9s

m

R

GMga ===

4

However, this is not a two-body problem. There

are also stars and galaxies around the Earth.

2

21

r

mmGF =

5

Newton in the Principia

“Theorem 30: If to every point of a

spherical surface there tend equal

centripetal forces decreasing as

the square of the distances from

these points, I say, that a

corpuscle placed within that

surface will not be attracted by

these forces any way.”

0=F

2

21

r

mmGF =

6

“Theorem 31: The same things supposed as above,

I say, that a corpuscle placed without the spherical

surface is attracted towards the centre of the sphere

with a force inversely proportional to the square of

its distance from that centre.”

2r

mMGF

gg=

7

Free fall in Newtonian

mechanics:

amFF iE =+ *

amR

MmG i

E

gEg=+ 0

2 2

E

gE

i

g

R

GM

m

ma =

8

Free fall in Newtonian

mechanics:

amFF iE =+ *

amR

MmG i

E

gEg=+ 0

2

===

==

22

8.9

1

s

mg

R

GMa

m

m

m

m

E

gE

Leadi

Leadg

Corki

Corkg

Galileo: cork and

lead fall together.

Therefore:

2

E

gE

i

g

R

GM

m

ma =

9

All bodies fall freely with

the same acceleration

in a gravitational field.

An alpha particle moves with

half of the acceleration of a

proton in an electric field.

Therefore, inertia seems to be connected with

gravitation and not with electromagnetism. 10

amF i=Newton’s 2nd law of

motion:

11

The free fall acceleration of 9.8 m/s2 is the

acceleration of the apple relative to what?

amF i=Newton’s 2nd law of

motion:

Newton in the Principia:

“Absolute space, without relation to

anything external, remains always

similar and immovable.”

12

The free fall acceleration of 9.8 m/s2 is the

acceleration of the apple relative to what?

Newton’s bucket experiment

22

2r

gz

=

13

Newton’s bucket experiment

22

2r

gz

=

14

According to Newton, the concavity depends on the

angular rotation of the water relative to absolute

space, that is, relative to empty free space.

• “The principles of mechanics can be so

conceived, that even for relative rotations

centrifugal forces arise.”

• “Try to fix Newton’s bucket and rotate the

heaven of fixed stars, and then prove the

absence of centrifugal forces.”

Ernst Mach in The Science of Mechanics, 1883:

15

16

What would be the shape of

the water if it were possible to

let the bucket at rest on a table

while the distant stars and

galaxies rotated together once

a second around the axis of

the bucket?

17

What would be the shape of

the water if it were possible to

let the bucket at rest on a table

while the distant stars and

galaxies rotated together once

a second around the axis of

the bucket?

“What is to be expected

along the line of Mach’s

thought? A rotating

hollow body must

generate inside of itself

a Coriolis field, and a

radial centrifugal field

as well.”

Einstein, The Meaning of Relativity, 1922:

18

“What is to be expected

along the line of Mach’s

thought? A rotating

hollow body must

generate inside of itself

a Coriolis field, and a

radial centrifugal field

as well.”

Einstein, The Meaning of Relativity, 1922:

19

However, according to

general relativity

(Lense-Thirring effect):

Relational Mechanics

and Implementation of

Mach’s Principle with

Weber’s Gravitational

Force

A. K. T. Assis

(Apeiron, Montreal)

20

Available in PDF at:

www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis

Postulates of Relational Mechanics:

+−−=

22

2

22 1

631

ˆ

c

rr

c

r

r

rmmHF ggg

The sum of all forces acting on any body

is always zero in all frames of reference.

21

Weber (1804-1891) in 1846:

Coulomb (1785):2

0

21ˆ

4 r

rqqF

=

Ampère (1822): ),,(ˆ

4 221

0

f

r

rIIF =

Faraday (1831):

dt

dIMemf −=

22

Weber (1804-1891) in 1846:

Coulomb (1785):2

0

21ˆ

4 r

rqqF

=

Ampère (1822): ),,(ˆ

4 221

0

f

r

rIIF =

Faraday (1831):

dt

dIMemf −=

Weber’s hypothesis: vqId

1222112

0

21 1ˆ

4akvvk

r

rqqF ++=

23

Weber’s Force:

+−=

22

2

2

0

21

21

ˆ

4 c

rr

c

r

r

rqqF

dt

drr =

2

2

dt

rdr =

s

mc 8

00

1031

==

24

Properties of Weber’s Electrodynamics

• In the static situation (dr/dt = 0 and d2r/dt2 = 0) we recover

the laws of Coulomb and Gauss.

• Action and reaction, conservation of linear momentum.

• Central force, conservation of angular momentum.

• It can be deduced from a velocity dependent potential

energy:

−=

2

2

0

21

21

1

4 c

r

r

qqU

• Conservation of energy: ( )

0=+

dt

UKd

25

• Ampère’s circuital law can be derivedfrom Weber’s force.

• Faraday’s law of induction can be derivedfrom Weber’s electrodynamics (seeA Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism,by J. C. Maxwell).

• It is completely relational. That is, itdepends only on r, dr/dt and d2r/dt2.Therefore, it has the same value for allobservers and in all frames of reference.It depends only on intrinsic magnitudes ofthe system, that is, on the relationsbetween the interacting bodies. 26

Weber’s Electrodynamics, A. K. T. Assis

(Kluwer, 1994, available at Springer) 27

Force exerted by a stationary spherical shell of mass M acting

on a test body m which is moving with acceleration a inside it:

+−−=

22

2

22 1

631

ˆ

c

rr

c

r

r

rmmHF ggg

28

Main calculation of Relational Mechanics:

0 Newton

=F

Force exerted by a stationary spherical shell of mass M acting

on a test body m which is moving with acceleration a inside it:

amF g

Mech. Relat. −=

2

2with

Rc

MH gg=

+−−=

22

2

22 1

631

ˆ

c

rr

c

r

r

rmmHF ggg

29

Main calculation of relational mechanics:

0 Newton

=F

Free fall in Relational Mechanics:

0* =+ FFE

0 2

=− amr

MmH g

gEg

g

2r

MHa

gEg

=

Gkg

NmHHog

==

−

2

211

*

2

107.6 4

with30

31

The previous slide presents the essence of Relational Mechanics.

We begin with the postulate that the sum of all forces acting on any

body is always zero. Then we deduce an expression analogous to

Newton’s second law of motion, namely:

0*

=− amF g

In this equation F represents the usual forces acting on the test

body. The expression –ma represents the gravitational force

exerted by the set of distant galaxies acting on the test body,

according to Weber’s law applied to gravitation. The mass

appearing here is the gravitational mass of the test body (that is, it

is not the inertial mass, as in Newtonian mechanics). The

acceleration appearing here is the acceleration of the test body

relative to the frame of distant galaxies (that is, it is not the

acceleration of the test body relative to absolute space, as in

Newtonian mechanics).

Weber’s gravitational

force exerted by a

spinning shell acting on a

particle moving inside it:

( )

++−= vramRc

MHF

g

gg2

22

32

Weber’s force has a real centrifugal

component and a real Coriolis component.

The bucket experiment according to

Newton and Relational Mechanics:

2

2

2r

gzNewton

=

33

The bucket experiment according to

Newton and Relational Mechanics:

2

2

2r

gzNewton

=

( ) 2

2

Mech. Relat.2

rg

z universewater −=

34

According to Relational Mechanics, the concavity

depends on the relative angular rotation between the

water and the set of distant galaxies.

Experimental test 1: What will be the acceleration of free fall when the test

body is surrounded by a stationary spherical shell of mass M?

35

Experimental test 1: What will be the acceleration of free fall when the test

body is surrounded by a stationary spherical shell of mass M?

24

2

3

2Mech. Relat.

2

102

then 10 and 1 If

:magnitude oforder

21

/ 8.9

−===

−=

===

Rc

GMkgMmR

Rc

GMga

smgaa EinsteinNewton

36

Experimental test 2: Consider a bucket at rest relative to the ground. We place a

spherical shell of mass M around the bucket. What will be the shape of the

water if only the shell rotates unformly around the axis of the bucket?

37

Experimental test 2: Consider a bucket at rest relative to the ground. We place a

spherical shell of mass M around the bucket. What will be the shape of the

water if only the shell rotates unformly around the axis of the bucket?

38

2

22

Mech. Relat.

2 with

2 Rc

GMkr

gkz ==

mzk

cmrsradmRkgM

2724

3

10 and 10then

10 ,/ 1 , 1 , 10 If

:magnitude ofOrder

−− ==

====

Conclusion

Postulates of Relational Mechanics:

+−−=

22

2

22 1

631

ˆ

c

rr

c

r

r

rmmHF ggg

= 0F

39

Main Results:

• Deduction of Newton’s 2nd law: F - m a = 0

• Deduction of the equivalence principle: mi = mg

• We show that the centrifugal and Coriolis forces

are real forces of gravitational origin exerted by

the set of distant galaxies.

• Quantitative implementation of Mach’s principle.

www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis

40