Post on 09-Aug-2020
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 213 editor@iaeme.com
International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET)
Volume 10, Issue 10, October 2019, pp. 213-225, Article ID: IJCIET_10_10_023
Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/ijciet/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=10&IType=10
ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316
© IAEME Publication
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION
OF DIFFERENT AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES IN
MALAYSIA FOR BIO CHAR PRODUCTION
Anwar Ameen Hezam Saeed, Noorfidza Yub Harun* and Mohamed Mahmoud Nasef
Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS,
32610 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author Email: noorfidza.yub@utp.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Biomass materials are effective raw materials for biochar production. The
conversion of biomass materials to biochar can be primarily converted by both
thermochemical and direct combustion methods. Understanding the nature of these
biomass components is important for the overall efficiency of the process of
converting biomass materials to the desired biochar. The objective of this research is
to perform physiological and chemical characterization of prevalent agricultural
residues in Malaysia. The physical and chemical characteristics of biomass samples
were analyzed using CHNS, TGA, FTIR, XRF and XRD analysis. The thermal
degradation behavior in inert environment of rice husk, coconut coir and Kenaf
collected locally were studied. The samples with particle size range between 0.5 to 1
mm were subjected to thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) from room temperature to
650 ° C under a nitrogen atmosphere at constant heating rate of 20 ° C / min. Among
all the samples, rice husk showed the highest silica content of 82.50%, while the
coconut coir showed the highest content of lignin, making it the most effective raw
material to produce biochar. Elemental analysis showed that Kenaf had the highest
ash content (16.3%), while coconut coir had the lowest ash content (9.3%).
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) result for all samples have presented into three
degradation stages: moisture release, hemicellulose-cellulose degradation, and lignin
degradation. The results showed that in the first stage of moisture release, all biomass
samples degraded between 30 and 150 °C. Kenaf showed the highest mass loss (65%),
while rice husk showed the lowest mass loss (45%) in the second stage of
hemicellulose cellulose degradation. The lignin in all biomass samples gradually
degraded from 370 °C to 650 °C in the third region (lignin degradation). This study
provides an important basis for understanding the underlying thermochemistry behind
degradation reactions.
Keywords: Biochar, Characterization, Lignin, Rice husk, Kenaf core, Coconut coir,
Silica, Thermal analysis
Anwar Ameen Hezam Saeed, Noorfidza Yub Harun and Mohamed Mahmoud Nasef
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 214 editor@iaeme.com
Cite this Article: Anwar Ameen Hezam Saeed, Noorfidza Yub Harun and Mohamed
Mahmoud Nasef, Physicochemical Characterization of Different Agricultural
Residues in Malaysia for Bio Char Production. International Journal of Civil
Engineering and Technology 10(10), 2019, pp. 213-225.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=10&IType=10
1. INTRODUCTION
Biomass is a renewable resource and refers to any material having recent biological origin,
such as plant materials, agricultural crops, and even animal manure. According to National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), biomass can be defined as any plant-derived organic
matter. Biomass available for energy on a sustainable basis includes herbaceous and woody
energy crops, agricultural food and feed crops, agricultural crop wastes and residues, wood
wastes and residues, aquatic plants, and other waste [1].Biomass can be considered as a
promising source of renewable energy in Malaysia due to its abundantly available from many
resources including cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin which are inexpensive and sustainable
[2].Malaysia produced approximately 480,000 tons of rice husks and 3,176,593.2 tons of
straw [3]Malaysia is a prominent feature of rice producers. Due to the development of new
technologies in the agricultural industry. Rice husk (RH) is the waste of rice fields after the
harvest season. Due to low density of the rice husks, the RH treatment may cause problems
due to the bulkiness. The chemical composition of rice husks is 38% cellulose and 18%
cellulose, hemicellulose and 22% lignin, and contains a large amount of silica, which makes it
a good basis for biochar production [4]. Kenaf is a very versatile plant that can provide many
valuable by product for consumers and industries. As such, kenaf is widely used in the
production of pulp, paper and cardboard as in fiber reinforced composite, natural fuels,
cellulose product, absorbent agent and animal feed. Kenaf exhibits low density, high
absorbent, non-abrasiveness during processing, high specific mechanical properties and
biodegradability [5]. Coconut coir is a residue in the processing of coconut and is available at
minimal cost. It is rich in lignin (16-45%), hemicellulose (24-47%) and pectin (2%) content
and those features are enough to be used un biochar production[6].Biochar is a carbon-rich
charcoal formed by pyrolysis (thermal decomposition) of organic biomass or agricultural
residues and used as a soil amendment [7]. It consists of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen
(O), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S) and different proportions of ash. It is mainly used to improve soil
nutrient content and absorb carbon from the environment [8].Its highly porous structure
makes it an attractive option for soil improvement because It increases soil water holding
capacity by increasing the total surface area of the soil [9].
Biochar is a by-product of carbon generated by a biomass thermochemical method called
pyrolysis. It has many applications, for instance, it can be used as a soil modification to
enhance soil health, store carbon in the soil and enhance soil properties by burying it in the
field. In addition, biochar may also slow the release of carbon into the atmosphere, enabling
carbon stabilization to degrade to carbon dioxide. Furthermore, the bioenergy produced by the
pyrolysis method is a prospective replacement for fossil fuels [10]. Biochar recently is used
as bio adsorbent because bio char had the same characteristics of activated carbon for
example high surface area, large pore volume , environmental stability ,generous functional
group and high resources recovery [11].
Agricultural waste is a fiber-rich product suitable for the preparation of biochar. Instead of
abandoning agricultural waste such as rice husks, sawdust, coconut coir and kenaf without
using them. Preparing biochar from agricultural waste is a better option and saves resources.
Solid products (biochar) can also be used as soil amendments to improve soil fertility. On the
other hand, biochar is an organic materials that is ideal for removing metals or dyes [12].The
Physicochemical Characterization of Different Agricultural Residues in Malaysia for Bio Char
Production
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 215 editor@iaeme.com
composition of plant biomass varies from species to species. In general, plants are made from
about 25% lignin and 75% carbohydrate or sugar. The carbohydrate moiety consists of several
sugar molecules linked together by long chains or polymers [13]. Additionally , higher
calorific value, silicate index, elemental analysis, thermogravimetric analysis (TG) and
differential thermogravimetric analysis (DTA) analysis were also evaluated [14]. FTIR study
of all feedstock samples was also carried out. These studies have allowed us for the first time
to compare the structural characteristics of those feedstocks. The information collected will
better know their potential as a biochar feedstock for the platform. Thermogravimetric
analysis (TG) and differential gravimetric analysis (DTA) of feedstocks provide data on the
thermal decomposition curves of the parts that can be used to monitor physicochemical
modifications that happen during the pre-treatment phase. This method also helps to evaluate
the amount of volatile and fixed carbon. Cellulose's crystallinity is generally estimated using a
value of CrI determined by an X-ray diffraction pattern. Crystallinity is a key feature of the
cellulose matrix, as irregular cellulose can be hydrolyzed more slowly than crystalline
cellulose.
Crystallinity may lead from a more filled framework of cellulose in the biomass, leading
in greater chemical and thermal stability. Fourier Transform Spectroscopy (FTIR) is a
commonly used instrument for qualitative and quantitative determination of the chemical
composition of biomass and of the crystalline characteristics of biomass. The most significant
characteristic of the fuel is the calorific value. Determines the energy value of the fuel. It can
be determined experimentally using a bomb calorimeter, or it can be calculated based on the
ultimate and/or approximate results of the Dulong equation. The physicochemical
characteristics of biomass are important. Affect the choice of technology and determine the
feasibility of the entire methods [15]. Researchers recorded on the research of features of
pyrolysis the impacts of minerals current in biomass and biomass on the properties of
pyrolysis, the distribution of the product and the properties of different biomass. Designed to
evaluate the physicochemical characteristics of some agricultural residues through
biochemical and petrochemical processes to evaluate biochemical potential [16]. However,
this study of research seeks to evaluate the physicochemical potential of some Malaysian
agricultural residues to evaluate biochar potential through physicochemical characterization.
2. METHODLOGY
2.1. Biomass Feedstock Preparation
Samples were cleaned to remove dirt, sand and unwanted material from the surface. Samples
were dried in an open environment for two days and then dried in an oven at 105 °C for 24
hours. Samples were grinding, sieving to one type of size which range from 500 -1,000 μm. It
then placed in an airtight container at room temperature prior to characterizations and
experiments. The agricultural residues selected as precursors for the preparation of biochar
were rice husk (RH), kenaf core (KC) and coconut coir (CC). These residues come from the
rice mill (Bota) and the kenaf is collected from kenaf plantation (Pahang).
Anwar Ameen Hezam Saeed, Noorfidza Yub Harun and Mohamed Mahmoud Nasef
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 216 editor@iaeme.com
Figure 1 Malaysian Agricultural Residues used for preparing biochar
Figure 2 Schematic diagram of physicochemical characterization of biomass
2.2. Raw biomass characterization
The selected agricultural biomass used for this study were characterized based on their
chemical, structural and textural characteristics. The proximate, ultimate and calorific value
analysis were carried out according to ASTM standard methods (ASTM E870-829).
2.2.1 Proximate and ultimate
Proximate analysis is the composition of the biomass in terms of moisture content, volatile
matter, ash content and fixed carbon. The moisture content analysis was carried out by using
electric Oven. The volatile matter and ash content analysis was carried out by using muffle
furnace at 950 °C. Then the amount of fixed carbon was calculated by using equation 1.
Ultimate analysis defines composition of biomass in terms of the hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen and sulphur contents. The composition was measured by using a CHN analyzer. CHN
analyzer measures the contents of total carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur in the biomass
and then oxygen content (wt. %) in the biomass sample was calculated by using equation 2.A
bomb calorimeter was used to measure the HHV of biomass samples.
F.C (wt. %) = 100 – {M.C + A.C + V.M} (wt.%). (Eq.1)
Physicochemical Characterization of Different Agricultural Residues in Malaysia for Bio Char
Production
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 217 editor@iaeme.com
O (wt.%) = 100 − {M.C + A.C + C + H + N} (wt.%). (2)
HHV(Mj/Kg) = 0.42*[(8080*%C) +[34500*(H%-(O%/8)] +2240*S]. (3)
where, O, M.C, A.C, C, H and N represent the oxygen content, moisture content, ash
content, carbon content, hydrogen content and nitrogen content respectively
2.2.2 FTIR
The functional groups on the surface of biomass show the biodegradability. The FTIR
spectroscopy will be conducted by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (model
NEXUS) to determine the functional groups attached to the surface of raw biomass and to
measure the changes in functional groups of the paralyzed samples during the pyrolysis
process.
2.2.3 TGA/DTA
The TGA pyrolysis of the biomass sample was carried out under a nitrogen (N2) atmosphere
at 150 ml / min. A biomass sample between 0.5 and 1.0 mg was pyrolyzed to a maximum
temperature of 700 °C. The sample was first heated to 110 °C and held for 30 minutes to
remove any moisture. Thereafter, the sample was separately heated at a rate 20 ° C / min until
it reached a maximum temperature. Experiment was repeated for each biomass. A graph of
mass loss versus temperature and a plot of mass loss versus temperature was plotted to
observe the degradation behavior of each type of biomass.
2.2.4 Mineralogy analysis
Mineralogy analysis were carried by using XRF and XRD analyzers. XRF analyzer was
determined the chemical composition of a sample by measuring the fluorescence (or
secondary) X-rays emitted by the sample as it is excited by the primary X-ray source while
XRD analyzer used to trace the presence of silica contents in all the samples. Calculating the
crystallinity index (CrI) of raw material samples according to empirical methods as given in
Eq. 4 proposed by Segal.
Crl (%) = [(l002 – l18)/ l002] (4)
where CrI is the crystallinity index, (I002) is the highest peak intensity (002) at an angle
of diffraction and (I18) is the intensity diffraction for irregular cellulose.
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Proximate and Ultimate Analysis
Proximate and ultimate analysis were performed to study the properties of each biomass
feedstock. The moisture contents of the three biomasses shown in Table 1 were quite high,
probably due to the lower surface area to volume ratio resulting in a lower evaporation rate.
Therefore, these materials have a higher water storage capacity [17]. As shown in Table 1,
coconut coir was observed to have the highest volatile matter, which was 69.7 wt.%, followed
by kenaf, which was 64.2 wt.%. Therefore, the high volatile matter in coconut coir and kenaf
suggests that it may not be the preferred as solid fuel [18]. It can be clearly seen that kenaf
contains the highest ash and the content is 16.3 wt.% which is considerably much high
compared to rice husks and coconut coir which will result in low biochar quality. Therefore,
high levels of ash will have a negative impact on HHV. Typically, biomass with high
volatility produces large amounts of bio-oil and syngas, while fixed carbon increases biochar
production by thermochemical processes. The primary element discovered in the ultimate
analysis is the elementary composition of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Moreover, during
combustion, carbon and hydrogen are oxidized to form carbon dioxide and water,
respectively, through an exothermic reaction. The content of carbon and hydrogen adds
strongly to elevated yields of biochar, while the content of oxygen usually decreases biochar
Anwar Ameen Hezam Saeed, Noorfidza Yub Harun and Mohamed Mahmoud Nasef
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 218 editor@iaeme.com
quality. Other elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur were nearly comparable in all
biomasses. The highest O / C ratio shows the greater polarity and abundance of functional
surface groups containing polar oxygen in biochar. The greater the proportion, the more
functional groups that are polar. Furthermore, these groups may actively participate in
growing biochar porosity. The higher H / C ratio shows the good biochar’s aromatic and
stability. Table 1 Physicochemical properties of biomass
As shown in Table 2, It can be clearly seen that lignin content is high in coconut coir
compare to the other two biomasses whereas lignin yields contribute to the bio-char
production while cellulose and hemicelluloses contribute to the bio-oil production yield [19].
Table 2 Chemical Composition of lignocellulosic raw materials (% dry weight)
Figure 3 Ultimate analysis of rice husk, kenaf and coconut coir
01020304050
Rice Husk Kenaf coconut coir
Co
mp
osi
tio
n %
Biomass
Ultimate analysis
carbon oxygen Hydrogen nitrogen sulfur
Physicochemical Properties Lignocellulosic biomass
Rice Husk Kenaf Coconut coir
Proximate Analysis (wt.%)
Moisture Content 9.4 8.35 9.5
Volatile Matter 62 64.2 69.8
Ash content 13.2 16.32 9.3
Fixed carbon 15.4 11.13 11.4
Proximate Analysis (wt.%)
Carbon 37.8 39.2 42
Hydrogen 4.73 5.12 4.85
Nitrogen 0.45 0.35 0.42
Sulfur 0.17 0.22 0.13
Oxygen 43.5 45.6 40.5
O/C 1.15 1.11 1.04
H/C 0.125 0.13 0.115
(HHV) (MJ/Kg) (Calculated) 11.8 12.5 13.9
(HHV)(MJ/Kg) (Experimental) 12.7 13.4 14.6
Lignocellulosic
biomass Hemicellulose Cellulose Lignin Reference
Rice Husk 27.3 34.10 17.90 [20]
Kenaf 29.7 75.5 22.1 [21]
Coconut coir 11 46 43 [22]
Physicochemical Characterization of Different Agricultural Residues in Malaysia for Bio Char
Production
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 219 editor@iaeme.com
Figure 4 Proximate analysis of rice husk, kenaf and coconut coir.
3.2. Mineralogy Analysis
Figure 5 shows the XRD patterns of rice husk, Kenaf and coconut coir biomass materials.
Two crystallization peaks were found in this analysis. The crystallization peaks were found
between 14.5 and 17 and the second crystallization peak was found between 20.6 and 22.8,
confirming the presence of cellulose to crystallize into the atrium. However, the difference in
peak intensities observed with rice husk, kenaf and coconut coir biomass materials were due
to the polycrystalline structure, depending on the amount of cellulose present in the biomass
material. The crystallinity index (CrI) is measured by the ratio of the main crystal plane (002)
of 22.8° and the amorphous intensity of 17° of 2θ. The biomass material obtained by X-ray
diffraction as given in Fig 5, and Equation 4 estimates the quantitative crystallinity.
Table 3 summarizes the CrI of different biomass materials. The peak at I002 of several
samples determined by the peak intensity method indicate the presence of crystalline material
in the feedstocks, and the higher CrI is mainly due to the smaller amount of irregular material,
for example hemicellulose and lignin. It has been reported in the literature that the strong
crystalline arrangement of cellulose hinders enzymatic hydrolysis, resulting in lower yields of
fermentable sugars and ethanol. The highest and lowest CrI were found in Kenaf (40%) and
coconut coir (28%), respectively. This suggests that kenaf is less sensitive to enzymatic
digestion than other feedstocks, and coconut coir may be more easily digested by enzymes
[23]. The CrI and DTA (Tmax) of cellulose are reported in the same order, as CrI increased
the Tmax of biomass cellulose is increased. However, in this study, the results obtained from
Figures 5 and 6 as described above indicate that in some cases the CrI and the highest
temperature follow the reverse order.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Rice Husk Kenaf coconut coir
Co
mp
osi
tio
n %
Biomass
Proximate analysis
Moisture Volatile matter Ash Fixed carbon
Anwar Ameen Hezam Saeed, Noorfidza Yub Harun and Mohamed Mahmoud Nasef
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 220 editor@iaeme.com
Table 3 Crystallinity index and TGA (weight loss%)
Figure 5 X-ray diffraction pattern of the rice husk, kenaf and coconut coir biomass materials.
Figure 6 DTA of the rice husk, kenaf and coconut coir biomass materials
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
10 20 30 40
Pea
k I
nte
nsi
ty (
a.u
.)
Diffraction Angle 2θ (°)
Rice Husk
Kenaf
Coconut Coir
2θ=17
2θ=22.8°
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 200 400 600
1st
der
ivat
ive
wei
ght
loss
(%
/C)
Temperature (C)
Kenaf
Stag
stage
stage
stage
Lignocellulosic biomass Rice Husk Kenaf Coconut coir
Crl(%) 35.84 40 28
T Max (cellulose, C°) 245 252 248
T Max (Hemicellulose, C°) 220 222 228
TGA Stage Mass Loss %
Stage 1 7.7 5.7 7.7
Stage 2 14 17.7 19
Stage 3 42 40 38
Stage 4 60 61 64
Physicochemical Characterization of Different Agricultural Residues in Malaysia for Bio Char
Production
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 221 editor@iaeme.com
According to the XRF results of the rice husk powder, it was observed that elemental
silicon (Si) was present at approximately 68.70%, followed by potassium (K) at 11.90%, and
all other elements were less than 5%. The elements of ruthenium, rubidium and copper are
present in an amount of less than 0.09%. In the case of oxide compounds, the proportion of
silica was found to be as high as about 82.5%, followed by potassium oxide (K2O - 5.45%)
and rubidium oxide have the lowest oxide content of 0.01% (Table 4). Due to its high silica
content in rice husks, it can be an economically viable raw material to produce silicates and
silica. Biochar and bio silicon from high silicon-containing biomass can be made into high
value-added porous carbon and silicon materials, such as silica/carbon nanoparticles,
mesoporous silica/carbon, with many chemical and biological properties. It can be used to
produce porous structure biochar which can be reactive for adsorption process.
Table 4 Chemical Oxide and elements Composition of biomass using XRF analysis
Chemical Oxide Composition
Chemical Elemental Composition
Formula Rice Husk
kenaf
Coconut coir
Formula
Rice
Husk
Kenaf
Coconut
Coir
SiO2 82.50 0.49 10.50 Si 68.70 n.d. 6.06
K2O 5.45 51.90 29.90 K 11.9 56.10 33.60
P2O5 4.52 4.21 5.94 P 4.89 2.08 3,19
CaO 2.14 16.10 7.62 Ca 4.47 14.12 7.06
SO3 1.66 5.87 2.03 Cl 3.92 21.5 14.70
Cl 1.48 17.30 11.60 Fe 2.62 0.73 24.24
Fe2O3 1.24 0.75 24.40 S 1.63 2.95 1.05
MgO 0.39 2.77 0.87 Cr 0.53 n.d. 1.23
Cr2O3 0.26 n.d. 1.18 Mn 0.49 n.d. 0.25
MnO 0.17 0.20 n.d. Ni 0.24 0.11 0.80
NiO 0.10 n.d. 0.68 Zn 0.13 0.27 5.39
ZnO 0.05 0.20 4.66 Ru 0.07 n.d. n.d.
MoO3 0.03 n.d. n.d. Cu 0.06 0.16 0.34
CuO 0.02 0.11 0.27 Rb 0.05 0.11 n.d.
Rb2O 0.01 0.04 1.610PPM Mg 0.26 1.75 0.89
3.3. TGA analysis
3.3.1 Biomass types effects
The results of the TGA analysis are shown in (a) and (b) of Figure 7, which show the weight
loss curve (TG) and derivative thermogravimetry (DTG) evolution curves as a function of
temperature, respectively, for heating at a fixed temperature. All biomass heating rates (20 ° C
/ min) and biomass particle size are between 0.5 and 1 mm. Generally, biomass pyrolysis can
be divided into three main stages: drying and evaporation of light particles (stage I),
volatilization of hemicellulose and cellulose (stage II) and decomposition of lignin (stage III).
Stage I happen at temperatures below 150 °C, stage II Start degassing from 150 to 375 ° C,
and finally stage III at temperatures above 400 ° C, which can be observed in Fig. 7. This may
be due to the evolution of water and light volatile compounds during the degradation of
biomass by pyrolysis in TGA [24].
Anwar Ameen Hezam Saeed, Noorfidza Yub Harun and Mohamed Mahmoud Nasef
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 222 editor@iaeme.com
Table 4 Thermal degradation of Rice husk, Kenaf and coconut coir
Figure 7 a) Thermogravimetric analysis and (b) Derived thermogravimetric analysis (20 ° C / min)
As shown in Figure 1 (b), It was observed that stage I (moisture evolution) in all biomass
samples occurred between 30 and 150 °C. Thus, it can be concluded that all biomass samples
have a similar pattern of moisture evolution in stage I. In detail, stage I was identified
between 25 and 121 °C for kenaf as indicated in Table 4 and has high mass loss (5.7%)
among other biomass samples in stage I. In addition, it directly reflects low moisture content
at 8.5 wt.% as indicated in Table 1. As shown in Figure 7(a), It was observed that kenaf
achieved the highest mass loss of 93 %, which might be due to high volatile matter. On the
Lignocellulosic
biomass Stage
T range
(°C) Mass loss
Residual
mass at 650
°C
I 30-110 7.7
Rice Husk II 200-295 14 26.8
III 300-650 42
I 30-110 5.7
Kenaf II 210-300 17.7 6.6
III 300-650 40
I 30-100 7.7
Coconut coir II 215-315 19 14.5
III 315-650 38
Physicochemical Characterization of Different Agricultural Residues in Malaysia for Bio Char
Production
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 223 editor@iaeme.com
other hand, the order of mass loss percentage in stage II can be ranked as follows: coconut
coir (19%), kenaf (17.7%) and rice husk (14 %). In general, lignocellulose is made up of three
major constituents: cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Cellulose is composed of β- 1,4
glucan chains associated with one another through extensive hydrogen bonding, whereas
hemicellulose is characterized by linear polymers and they are usually substituted with other
sugar side chains to prevent the formation of crystalline structures. Regarding lignin, it is a
phenolic polymer that essentially encases the polysaccharides of cell walls, producing a strong
and durable composite material resistant to enzymatic attack. In addition, from previous
studies done by researchers, it has been recognized that the lignocellulosic structure of
biomass can be qualitatively identified by means of DTG curve. Biomass is composed of
different components including moisture, extractives, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and
ash. These components degrade at different temperatures and thermal behavior.
Hemicellulose degrades at a temperature lower than 350 °C, cellulose degrades between 250
and 500 °C, and lignin degrades at a temperature above 400 °C. Table 2 shows the results of
chemical compositions of the biomass samples determined by wet chemical method from the
study done previously. It has been seen that kenaf and coconut coir have much higher
cellulose content at 75 and 46 wt.%, respectively.
3.3. FTIR analysis
Figure 8 demonstrates a wavelength variety of 0 cm-1 to 4500 cm-1 of rice husk, kenaf and
coconut coir spectra. The 3400 and 3414 cm-1 absorption bands constitute O-H bonds and
hydroxyl hydrogen bond groups. The peak close 2900-1850 cm-1 reflects the stretching of the
methyl group-CH and-CH2 which confirms the existence of the elements of cellulose and
hemicellulose in the samples. In rice husks and coconut coir, peaks at 1546 cm-1 and 1535
cm-1 show C= O and C-O stretching, which is known for the organic ester bonding of
hemicellulose and lignin to coumaric acid. Absorption close to 1140-960 cm-1 shows that C-
O and O-H extend and represent polysaccharide cellulose, providing the particles with a
crystalline structure.
Figure 8 FTIR spectra of rice husk, kenaf and coconut coir
Anwar Ameen Hezam Saeed, Noorfidza Yub Harun and Mohamed Mahmoud Nasef
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 224 editor@iaeme.com
The result of FTIR analysis suggested that there are an appropriate functional group
(hydroxyl and carboxyl) which will help in producing recalcitrant biochar rich in carboxyl and
hydroxyl functional groups for a long-term heavy metal removal strategy in contaminated
water.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The chemical and physical characterization of all these agricultural waste materials shows that
rice husks, coconut coir and kenaf are prospective candidates for biochar production due to
their large content of cellulose and hemicellulose and are therefore valuable to the conversion
system. Although three of these biomasses were found to have lower calorific values, they
still showed good precursor for biochar production. The highest content of rice husks makes it
the material of choice for porous biochar production. Coconut coir has a high lignin content
and is suitable for thermochemical conversion to highly yield of biochar, which meets the
needs of biochar and its application in the adsorption process. This is the first systematic
report on the physical and chemical properties of three biomass residues in Malaysia. The
study provides the basis for future employment of biomass biochar. The effects of these
physical and chemical characteristics on thermochemical processes in biochar production are
underway.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Universiti Teknologi Petronas Malaysia for financing the
project under Yayasan UTP with grant code YUTP,01 53AA-E49.
REFERENCES
[1] Kumar, A., et al., A review on biomass energy resources, potential, conversion and policy
in India. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2015. 45: p. 530-539.
[2] Ahmad, A.L., et al., Microalgae as a sustainable energy source for biodiesel production: A
review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2011. 15(1): p. 584-593.
[3] Kudakasseril Kurian, J., et al., Feedstocks, logistics and pre-treatment processes for
sustainable lignocellulosic biorefineries: A comprehensive review. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2013. 25: p. 205-219.
[4] Afifah, A., et al., Effect of various water regimes on rice production in lowland irrigation.
Australian Journal of Crop Science, 2015. 9(2): p. 153.
[5] Nishino, T., et al., Kenaf reinforced biodegradable composite. Composites science and
technology, 2003. 63(9): p. 1281-1286.
[6] Conrad, K. and H.C. Bruun Hansen, Sorption of zinc and lead on coir. Bioresource
Technology, 2007. 98(1): p. 89-97.
[7] Xiao, X., B. Chen, and L. Zhu, Transformation, Morphology, and Dissolution of Silicon
and Carbon in Rice Straw-Derived Biochars under Different Pyrolytic Temperatures.
Environmental Science & Technology, 2014. 48(6): p. 3411-3419.
[8] Lehmann, J., Biological carbon sequestration must and can be a win-win approach.
Climatic Change, 2009. 97(3): p. 459-463.
[9] Srinivasarao, C., et al., Potassium release characteristics, potassium balance, and
fingermillet (Eleusine coracana G.) yield sustainability in a 27-year long experiment on an
Alfisol in the semi-arid tropical India. Plant and Soil, 2014. 374(1-2): p. 315-330.
Physicochemical Characterization of Different Agricultural Residues in Malaysia for Bio Char
Production
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 225 editor@iaeme.com
[10] Chaiwong, K., et al., Biochar production from freshwater algae by slow pyrolysis. Maejo
International Journal of Science and Technology, 2012. 6(2): p. 186.
[11] Bamdad, H., K. Hawboldt, and S. MacQuarrie, A review on common adsorbents for acid
gases removal: focus on biochar. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2018. 81:
p. 1705-1720.
[12] Abnisa, F., et al., Characterization of bio-oil and bio-char from pyrolysis of palm oil
wastes. BioEnergy Research, 2013. 6(2): p. 830-840.
[13] Sasmal, S., V.V. Goud, and K. Mohanty, Characterization of biomasses available in the
region of North-East India for production of biofuels. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012. 45:
p. 212-220.
[14] Ramiah, M.V., Thermogravimetric and differential thermal analysis of cellulose,
hemicellulose, and lignin. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 1970. 14(5): p. 1323-
1337.
[15] Suman, S. and S. Gautam, Biochar Derived from Agricultural Waste Biomass Act as a
Clean and Alternative Energy Source of Fossil Fuel Inputs. Energy Systems and
Environment, 2018: p. 207.
[16] Kan, T., V. Strezov, and T.J. Evans, Lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis: A review of
product properties and effects of pyrolysis parameters. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 2016. 57: p. 1126-1140.
[17] Omar, R., et al., Characterization of empty fruit bunch for microwave-assisted pyrolysis.
Fuel, 2011. 90(4): p. 1536-1544.
[18] Demirbas, A., Combustion characteristics of different biomass fuels. Progress in energy
and combustion science, 2004. 30(2): p. 219-230.
[19] Akhtar, J. and N.S. Amin, A review on operating parameters for optimum liquid oil yield
in biomass pyrolysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012. 16(7): p. 5101-
5109.
[20] Balasundram, V., et al., Thermal Characterization of Malaysian Biomass via
Thermogravimetric Analysis. Journal of Energy and Safety Technology (JEST), 2018.
1(1).
[21] Sarifuddin, N., H. Ismail, and Z. Ahmad, Effect of fiber loading on properties of
thermoplastic sago starch/kenaf core fiber biocomposites. BioResources, 2012. 7(3): p.
4294-4306.
[22] Jústiz-Smith, N.G., G.J. Virgo, and V.E. Buchanan, Potential of Jamaican banana, coconut
coir and bagasse fibres as composite materials. Materials Characterization, 2008. 59(9): p.
1273-1278.
[23] Bansal, P., et al., Multivariate statistical analysis of X-ray data from cellulose: a new
method to determine degree of crystallinity and predict hydrolysis rates. Bioresource
technology, 2010. 101(12): p. 4461-4471.
[24] Parthasarathy, P., K.S. Narayanan, and L. Arockiam, Study on kinetic parameters of
different biomass samples using thermo-gravimetric analysis. Biomass and Bioenergy,
2013. 58: p. 58-66.