Phonological Theory

Beijing Foreign Studies University

2008

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1. Development of phonology The phoneme theory Distinctive Features SPE (Chomsky & Halle 1968) Division of phonetics and phonolo

gy Integrated phonology Laboratory phonology

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Modules of study

Phonemes and allophones Syllables Stress Intonational and tonal phonology Prosody (metrical phonology) Phonological acquisition and cogni

tion Language impairment

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Phonology in Generative Grammar

Syntax

Phonetic Form Semantic Form

Generative Phonology

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Three stages of Generative Phonology Linear theories

SPE (standard theory): Chomsky, N. & Halle, M. 1968. The Sound Pattern of English. Harper & Row/MIT.

Natural Generative Phonology Natural Phonology

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Non-linear theories Lexical Phonology Autosegmental Phonology Metrical Phonology Dependency Phonology Government Phonology CV/VC Phonology Declarative Phonology

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Constraint-based theory Optimality Theory (OT): Prince, A.

& Smolensky, P. 1993/2002. Optimality theory: constraint interaction in generative grammar. ms. Rutgers University. 2004.2004. Published Published by Blackwell.by Blackwell.

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SPE Rule-based. Derivational: derivation from

underlying to surface form.

A B / X__Y

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OT Constraint-based. Development of generative

phonology. Very different way of

representation. Can be used for syntax and

acquisition studies. Aims at cognitive explanations.

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Constraints are universal. Languages differ in the ranking of

constraints. Constraints can be contradictory

and can be violated.

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Examples of derivational rules DEVOICING: A voiced obstruent becom

es voiceless after a voiceless obstruent. -INSERTION:ə Insert [ ] between two aə

djacent sibilants in the same word.

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Examples of constraints

*SIBSIB: sibilants cannot occur cnosecutively within a word.

*VOICEVOICE: consecutive obstruents must be identical in voicing within a syllable.

MAX-IO: deletion of segment is prohibited. DEP-IO: insertion of segment is prohibited. IDENT-IO: input segment and the correspon

ding output must be identical.

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2. Linear Phonology

Make the rules as general as possible.

Use “Distinctive Features” instead of individual sound segments when writing the rules.

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Distinctive Features

The idea of Distinctive Features was first developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds. Since then several versions have been suggested.

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Major class features consonantal (con): sounds produced with a

major obstruction in the oral cavity. approximant (approx): sounds made with a

n oral tract constriction which is less than that required to produce friction. Vowels, glides and liquids are [+approx], other s

ounds are [-approx]. Also known as syllabic (syl) to indicate that they

can form a syllable peak. sonorant (son): sounds produced with a voc

al tract configuration in which spontaneous voicing is possible. Obstruents (plosives, affricates and fricatives) ar

e [-son], other sounds are [+son].

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Vowel place features high: the body of the tongue is

raised from the neutral position. low: the body of the tongue is

lowered from the neutral position. back: the body of the tongue is

retracted from the neutral position. round: the lips are protruded. tense: sounds requiring deliberate,

accurate, maximally distinct gestures that involve considerable muscular effort.

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advanced tongue root (ATR): vowels made by drawing the root of the tongue forward, thus enlarging the pharyngeal cavity, tending to raise the tongue body, and tending to give the sound a more tense articulation, e.g. [i e o u]. [-ATR] sounds lack this gesture, e.g. [I E ç U

a A].

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Consonant place features labial (lab): Sounds that involve a constricti

on of the lips to give either a labial (labiodental) consonant or a rounded vowel/glide.

coronal (cor): produced with the blade or tip of the tongue raised from the neutral position. anterior (ant): defined only for coronal sounds.

An anterior ([+ant]) sound is made with a constriction at or forward of, the alveolar ridge. Posterior ([-ant]) sounds are produced behind the alveolar ridge.

The anteriors are the dentals and alveolars, the posterior sounds are the retroflex, palato-alveolar and palatal sounds.

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dorsal (dor): Sounds made by raising the dorsum (tongue body) towards the hard palate, the soft palate (velum) or the uvula. The dorsal consonants are the velars and uv

ulars. radical (rad): Sounds produced in the p

haryngeal or laryngeal (glottal) region, e.g.

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strident (strid): produced with a construction with greater noisiness. Stridency is only defined for fricatives and

affricates. Labiodentals, sibilants and uvular fricatives

/ affricates are [+strid]; all other fricatives/affricates are [-strid].

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Manner features continuant (cont): the primary constric

tion is not narrowed so much that airflow through the oral cavity is blocked. Plosives and nasal stops are [-cont], other s

ounds (including laterals) are [+cont]. nasal (nas): the velum is lowered which

allows air to escape through the nose. lateral (lat): the mid section of the tong

ue is lowered at the side.

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Laryngeal features

voice: the vocal folds vibrate. spread glottis (spread, or s.g.): the voca

l folds are spread far apart. Aspirated (voiceless) consonants, breathy o

r murmured voiced consonants and voiceless vowels/glides are [+spread]; other sounds are [-spread].

Also known as aspirated.

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Distinctive feature matrix for English consonants

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Now we can represent the rule that governs the unaspiration of /p/ after [s] in terms of features:

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Past tense forms in English stopped, walked, coughed, kissed,

leashed, reached stabbed, wagged, achieved, buzzed,

soothed, bridged steamed, stunned, pulled played, flowed, studied wanted, located, decided, guided

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The regular past tense form in English is pronounced as [t] when the word ends with a voiceless consonant, [d] when it ends with a voiced sound, and [ d] wheɪn it ends with [t] or [d].

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Plural rule

z / [-voice, +cons]______ (Devoicing) / 咝擦音 _____z (增音 ) z z 剩余位置

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Obligatory Contour Principle (OCP) Obligatory Contour Principle No identical adjacent autosegment

s. (Goldsmith 1976)

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3. Non-linear Phonology These theories began as a method

for representing prosodic features such the stress in complex words, so that their different levels of stress are represented not by linear orders but by a metrical grid:

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Later the method was extended to the representation of earlier linear rules.

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Plural rule (1)

[+cons] [+cons][-son] root [-son] plural

z

Laryngeal Laryngeal

[-voice] [+voice]

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Plural rule (2)

Ø X /X____________X

[-cons] [+cons] [+cons]

[+strid] [+strid]

[COR] [COR]

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Past tense rule (1)[+cons] [+cons][-son] root [-son] past

d

Laryngeal Laryngeal

[-voice] [+voice]

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Ø X /X__________X

[-cons] [+cons] [+cons]

[-cont] [-cont]

[-nas] [-nas]

Past tense rule (2)

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4. OT The ranking of the constraints is

represented by a “tableau”.

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Review of some constraints *VOICEVOICE: consecutive obstruen

ts must be identical in voicing within a syllable.

DEP-IO: insertion of segment is prohibited.

IDENT-IO: input segment and the corresponding output must be identical.

OCP: No identical adjacent autosegments.

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OT tableau for plural forms (1)

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OT tableau for plural forms (2) / / OCP DEP-IO *voice-voice IDENT(F)

a. [ ə ] *!

b. [ ] *!

c. [ ] *

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OT tableau for past forms (1)

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OT tableau for past forms (2) /wkd/ OCP DEP-IO *voice-voice IDENT(F)

a. [wkd] *!

b. [wkd] *!

c. [wkt] *

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Ranking of the constraints

OCP » DEP-IO » *voice-voice » IDENT(F)