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Running Head: PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 1
Perceptions of Crime and Safety in Green Bay
Matthew D. Machnik
University of Wisconsin-Green Bay
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 2
Perceptions of Crime and Safety in Green Bay
Over the course of my internship with the Green Bay Police Department [GBPD], I was
able to participate in a number of interesting and enlightening experiences. These included riding
with officers, learning how the police department is run, and being able to witness the interaction
between law enforcement and mental illness. A consistent theme that emerged across all of my
experiences was how the citizens of Green Bay perceive crime rates as well as safety. This was
especially true in regard to the data analysis work that I performed over the course of the
semester. The analysis was done on data obtained from surveys, known collectively as the citizen
confidence surveys, which were designed to assess citizens’ perceptions of both crime and
safety. It was interesting to see how the work of the police department influences these
perceptions, and, furthermore, how these perceptions are connected to scientific research and
theory.
On the first day of my internship, I had a meeting with Michelle Arneson, who is a crime
analyst for the GBPD, and Bill Bongle, who is a newly promoted captain in the GBPD, and is
one of the creators of the citizen confidence surveys. They had done a preliminary review of the
results of the survey, and had noted several interesting trends that were present. Over the course
of the meeting, they explained these trends to me, which laid the groundwork for much of the
analysis work I would do throughout the semester.
One of the trends involved perceptions of crime rates. Specifically, although incidences
of crime have been showing a significant overall decline, respondents seemed to believe that the
crime rate was actually increasing. In addition, Bill and Michelle explained to me that
respondents reported feeling much safer in their homes than they did in their surrounding
neighborhoods, and that they felt even less safe in other parts of Green Bay. Thus, one of the
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 3
main goals intended for analyzing the data was to look for reasons why people felt this way.
Though I explained to them that finding a perfect source of causality is difficult, I asserted that I
would try my best to give them the information they desired.
After the meeting, I immediately went home and began to peruse the literature pertaining
to the trends that Bill and Michelle had described. One article, authored by Ackerman et al.
(2001), made use of a number of polls and other social surveys regarding the concerns of the
American public, and used them to make comparisons between the public’s perceptions of crime
and their actual prevalence rates. What the researchers found was that, despite a consistent
nationwide drop in crime rates, the individuals who were surveyed felt that the rate of crime was
steadily increasing (Ackerman et al., 2001). Equally intriguing was the finding that the majority
of the survey respondents felt that this increase in crime was happening within a close proximity
to them, such as in their neighborhoods (Ackerman et al., 2001). Thus, based upon the results
obtained by Ackerman et al. (2001), it would seem that the city of Green Bay is not alone in this
dilemma.
After finding this out, I brought the article to the next meeting with Bill and Michelle. I
hoped that it could serve as a means of trying to find a solution to the issue, such that efforts
could be undertaken to reduce the degree of citizens’ misperceptions. After sharing the
information, we sat and brainstormed about what could be contributing to this problem. While a
number of good points were raised about possible contributors, such as racial stereotypes and
forming overgeneralizations about crime following certain events, one idea in particular seemed
to be the most plausible. Specifically, we discussed the influence of the media over people’s
perceptions of crime and safety.
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 4
For us, this certainly made sense. As the speed with which people throughout the world
can move information increases, it would seem that having the media providing a constant
stream of information about crime happening throughout not only the country, but also the
world, may be exposing people to more information than they would have had access to
previously. It was proposed that this could cause people to make overgeneralizations about the
prevalence of crime, which, in turn, could subsequently cause viewers to feel less safe.
Upon reading over some of the research regarding this topic, it would seem that there is
evidence supporting a strong connection between the media and perceptions of crime and safety.
For example, Ackerman et al. (2001) noted that the surveys, which led to the conclusion that
there is a mismatch regarding actual versus perceived crime rates, were administered during a
time when a number of high profile crime stories were commanding the television airwaves.
These events were fairly prominent, and included the Oklahoma City bombings, Menendez
brother’s murder trial, as well as others (Ackerman et al., 2001). Thus, while the relationship was
only hypothesized, it certainly seems possible.
Further research, though not finding a strong causal link between the two, would suggest
that portrayals of crime related incidents in the news can possibly influence viewers’ perceptions.
This connection was explored further by Duffy, Wake, Burrows, and Bremner (2008), after it
was noticed that citizens of London reported a similar discrepancy between actual and perceived
crime rates. Specifically, British citizens also reported thinking that crime rates were increasing,
despite a general decline in crime (Duffy et al., 2008). In addition, it was reported by Duffy et al.
(2008) that this misperception had such a significant impact on respondents, that they reported
decreased perceptions of personal safety. Thus, when comparing the current situation in Green
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 5
Bay with the results of research studies (e.g., Ackerman et al., 2001; Duffy et al., 2008) it would
seem that the problem of public misperception is occurring at a cross-cultural level.
In an attempt to better understand this phenomenon, Duffy et al. (2008) made use of a
wide variety of information, including public surveys, crime statistics, and media reports. One of
the public surveys used in the research evaluated what British citizens believed was the most
important issue facing their country (Duffy et al., 2008). It was reported that, between July of
2007, and August of 2007, crime went from being the third most important issue in Britain to the
first (Duffy et al., 2008). It was noted by the researchers that, during that point in time, media
outlets across the country were continually reporting on the shooting of an 11 year-old boy
named Rhys Jones (Duffy et al., 2008). Therefore, it was proposed that the extensive coverage of
the boy’s death led to an overall increase in concern about crime (Duffy et al., 2008).
Given the tragedy involved with the boy’s story, it can certainly be understood how
people would be moved to use the event as a means of suggesting that crime is a prominent
issue. Yet, when looking at the overall crime statistics from the time, their overall rates were
decreasing (Duffy et al., 2008). Not to belittle the unfortunate death of a child, but when it is
considered that the event was a statistic among a regular decreasing trend of crime, it would
certainly seem possible that, when the tragic circumstances surrounding his death were
magnified by constant media exposure, the media can play an important role in how viewers
perceive crime.
This notion was further explored by Duffy et al. (2008), who, in a review of the pertinent
literature, found that a consistent negative bias used by the media when reporting events can lead
viewers to misperceive the issue. Furthermore, the researchers made note of how newspapers
began to make generalizations about crime following the death of Rhys Jones (Duffy et al.,
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 6
2008). Specifically, they had begun to report the event as a signal that crime was rampant, and
that England was facing an inevitable decline in safety (Duffy et al., 2008). When combined with
the negative bias and overgeneralizations made by the media regarding the boy’s death, the
researchers propose that this type of media coverage can create a gap in the perceptions of
individuals, such that they may believe that the rate of crime rates are increasing, when they are
actually decreasing (Duffy et al., 2008).
While Bill, Michelle, and I were discussing the possible influence of the media, Bill
described a situation in which he had personally taken steps to reduce the negative impact of the
media. He explained that, several years ago, a movement was undertaken to make the area
surrounding Broadway Street near downtown Green Bay safer and more hospitable. During this
process, a police operation led to a significant number of arrests regarding a prostitution ring
being run in the area. The next day, Bill went down to the Press-Gazette to speak with the
individual in charge of reporting the incident. While he did not ask that the story be changed, he
did ask them to present the story in a more positive light. The reporter agreed, and the story
about the prostitution ring was released as a positive story about police success, rather than a
negative story depicting the area as being rife with crime that should be avoided.
Research would suggest that the method used by Bill to present events in a more positive
light can lead to increased feelings of safety. Specifically, by relating media reports to ratings of
safety, Duffy et al. (2008) found that individuals reported increased feelings of safety following
stories of police success in fighting crime. The method undertaken by Bill to provide viewers
with more positive portrayals of police-related events may be especially effective, since, in the
survey administered by the GBPD, television was consistently rated as being the top method for
communicating information regarding police activities (Machnik, 2011). Therefore, it would
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 7
seem that if the GBPD were to continue to be presented in a positive light, these portrayals could
reach a large number of people, and could result in increased feelings of safety.
For the remaining duration of my internship, much of my work involved the analysis of
the results of the citizen confidence survey. In order to better understand citizens’ perceptions, I
used the data to find which of the different items included in the survey had a significant
influence on safety. This involved comparing things such as perceptions of crimes, prior
victimization, and police priorities with safety. Over the course of the analysis, I made thorough
notes regarding my findings, and I eagerly brought them to the police station to present them.
During the meeting, I proceeded to go over the results of the data analysis. One of the
categories of comparison involved a number of items regarding what people believed the police
department should spend more, or less, time doing. This particular list included activities such as
enforcement of drunken driving laws, providing educational programs, and reducing minor
crimes. I hypothesized that determining which of them were associated with lower levels of
safety could be an indicator of how focusing on certain priorities could increase feelings of
safety. Though not provided in the executive summary, this analysis resulted in a number of
significant relationships. For example, spending more time investigating crimes, as well as
protecting personal property, was associated with higher levels of perceived safety.
When I presented this list to Bill, one of the results caused a momentary pause in the
discussion. Specifically, the data indicated that increased time spent patrolling on foot or bicycle
was associated with a greater level of perceived safety. This was surprising to him, as not much
of the patrol activity is devoted to patrolling on foot or bicycle. While, at the very least, bicycle
patrol was encouraged, it was not used very often. Though this was not explicitly stated, I
assumed that this was the case because patrolling on foot or bicycle seems relatively inefficient.
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 8
This is because it would seemingly take an officer a greater amount of time to get to a call if he
or she was needed. In addition, I suspected that it would likely take an officer longer to patrol a
certain area if on foot or bicycle, which could hypothetically increase the likelihood of missing
something important.
However, according to Bill’s explanation, this type of patrol is not without its benefits.
Specifically, it can allow for increased interaction with members of the public. This, in turn, can
lead to greater rapport with members of the community, and can possibly be a means of
gathering information regarding any problems that are present. Thus, while it might be relatively
inefficient when compared with car-patrols, foot-patrol may be one way in which the police can
work toward more positive public perceptions, and build better relationships with the
community.
Research conducted by Salmi, Voeten, and Keskinen (2000) would suggest that Bill’s
interpretation of foot-patrol activities is fairly accurate. The researchers conducted a study aimed
at comparing individuals’ perceptions of the police following either a foot-patrol or car-patrol
encounter (Salmi et al., 2000). They accomplished this by gathering participants’ histories of
encounters with the police, and then assessed their perceptions of those encounters using a
lengthy measure (Salmi et al., 2008). Specifically, they assessed the perceived public image and
visibility of the police, as well as any prior victimization (Salmi et al., 2008).
Upon analyzing the collected data, a number of significant findings were obtained. Most
importantly, it was found that, among participants who had encountered foot-patrol officers,
perceptions of the police tended to be more positive (Salmi et al., 2008). Specifically,
participants viewed the police as being friendlier, especially when the officer made an attempt to
stop and talk to them (Salmi et al., 2008). Conversely, participants who reported contact with
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 9
car-patrols reported having a less positive perception of the police, in that they viewed them as
being less friendly (Salmi et al., 2008). From these results, the researchers conclude that, in order
to form a greater rapport with the public, police officers should engage in more foot-patrol
related activities (Salmi et al., 2008). The researchers suggest that this does not necessarily mean
that officers should engage in full-time foot-patrol, but should rather spend more time out of their
vehicles and engaging the public (Salmi et al., 2008).
What makes the results of the study conducted by Salmi et al. (2008) even more
interesting is how they can be connected to the results of the data analysis. Within the citizen
confidence survey, respondents were asked to rate their most recent contact with the police
across a number of different characteristics. This included items such as professionalism, being
respectful, and providing impartial treatment. Respondents’ ratings on each of these items were
compared to their ratings of safety to determine if any significant relationships were present.
The results showed that the majority of the contact characteristics were significantly
related to perceptions of safety (Machnik, 2011). Specifically, as contacts were rated more highly
on each the characteristics, respondents’ perceptions of safety increased (Machnik, 2011). While
this information is certainly useful per se, when connected to the insights offered by Salmi et al.
(2008), a greater understanding of how perceptions of safety can be increased among the public
emerges.
Specifically, the results of Salmi et al. (2008) indicate that citizens develop more positive
perceptions of the police when encountered through foot-patrol activities. In addition, the results
of the data analysis suggest that positive contact ratings can result in increased perceptions of
safety (Machnik, 2011). Therefore, when combining both of these results, one could logically
conclude that increased perceptions of safety may result from foot-patrol related encounters with
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 10
the police. However, one must keep in mind that this contact does not necessarily need to be the
result of foot-patrol activities, but can be something as simple as officers taking time to step out
of their vehicles and engage the public (Salmi et al., 2008). With all of this considered, it would
seem that the results of Salmi et al. (2008) and Machnik (2011) provide a method that can be
used by police to increase public perceptions of safety. Specifically, if time is taken to step out of
the vehicle and engage members of the public, while conducting oneself in a professional and
respectful manner, this small act on the part of officers can lead to greater perceptions of safety
among the public.
It is also worth mentioning that the GBPD both encourages, and rewards, positive
encounters with citizens. The specific program that is used is referred to as the WOW awards.
When a citizen encounters a member of the police department, whether it is through the front
desk, records, or a uniformed officer, he or she can nominate the individual for an award. In
addition, the citizen is given the opportunity to give a description of his or her positive
experience. While this process serves as means of recognizing GBPD personnel who work to
ensure positive interactions with individuals with whom they come into contact, it can also serve
as a source of motivation for them to conduct themselves in a positive manner. When
considering the aforementioned benefits of positive encounters between the police and the
public, the motivation provided by the WOW awards can also serve as a means of increasing
feelings of safety.
Nevertheless, recognizing and encouraging positive encounters may not be a completely
sufficient means of changing citizens’ perceptions. Since one cannot typically predict when and
where crime will happen, it would seem necessary to ensure that the police are able to handle
day-to-day events efficiently. Doing so could be advantageous, since knowing that the police can
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 11
respond quickly in the event of an emergency may encourage feelings of safety and confidence
among the public. While simply hiring more officers may be effective means of accomplishing
this, it may not represent the most economical approach.
Instead, Bill explained to me that the GBPD addressed this problem by creating a
Community Police [CP] division. Within this division, a number of specialized officers are
employed to address chronic problems that are present across a number of areas. Having a
dedicated individual deal with these problems on a full time basis allows other patrol officers to
be more available to take calls when necessary. It was explained to me that this idea came about
when it was noticed that patrol officers were having to spend a significant amount of time
dealing with persistent problems that happened on a regular basis. In order to counteract this, the
city of Green Bay was divided up into a number of different areas, each of which was assigned
one or two CP officers who could address these issues. This, in turn, gave patrol officers more
time to devote to the sporadic and potentially more significant issues that arose, and they could
do so in a more quick and efficient manner.
In addition to making an efficient use of time and resources, this method of policing
seems to carry with it a number of other advantages. First, since each CP officer is assigned to a
specific, fixed area, he or she can gain a better understanding of the problems present. Second,
those who experience these persistent problems, such as landlords or businesses, can have a
familiar person to contact when issues arise. Both of these advantages can, in turn, ensure that
problems are dealt with effectively, and can increase rapport with the police department.
While there does seem to be a plethora of advantages to using this approach, Bill
explained to me that the GBPD will be taking it one step further. During one of our meetings, we
had to wait for another person to become available before we could start. Bill took this time to
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 12
explain the new policing strategy that will be used by the department starting in 2012. While
many of the familiar elements of policing will be retained, the GBPD will begin making
increasing use of information about crime, such as prevalence rates and locations of chronic
problems. By making use of this information, patrol officers will be able to make more efficient
use of their time by focusing their efforts on any issues that are identified. It was explained to me
on one of my ride-alongs that this can include things such as monitoring active drug houses, or
patrolling known problematic neighborhoods.
This particular method is known as information-led policing, and was explained to me in
greater detail by Michelle. Her role in this method is crucial, as it is largely her crime analysis
results that will contribute to directing the actions of officers. I sat in with her one day as she
worked, and she showed me the different methods used to obtain this information. These include
determining prevalence rates, keeping track of calls to a certain address, or determining locations
of chronic problems. By relaying this information to patrol officers, it will be providing a more
efficient and targeted approach to policing, which can result in a greater reduction in criminal
activity. This method was developed as an alternative approach to their current method of
policing, in which, aside from taking reported calls, patrol activities involve little direction. It
was noted that this targeted method of patrol should be advantageous, for, as Michelle stated,
“random patrols equal random results.” Thus, by using information to take the randomness out of
police activities, the GBPD hopes to see better results regarding reductions in crime.
Work done by Innes, Abbot, Lowe, and Roberts (2009) gives further insight into this
method by detailing a case study done in England, and providing information regarding the
methodology they undertook. One of the advantages they propose to the information-led
approach is that it allows law enforcement to see the area from a citizen’s point of view (Innes et
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 13
al., 2009). They explain that this is an improvement over prior methods of policing, as it can lead
to a greater understanding of how certain issues can serve as a signal of problems to come (Innes
et al., 2009). Therefore, one of the underlying assumptions to this approach is that, by analyzing
crime, and seeking input from citizens, law enforcement agencies will gain access to information
that can provide insight into the situations happening at the neighborhood level (Innes et al.,
2009).
The researchers elaborate on this further by giving a detailed assessment of how this
method can benefit both law enforcement, as well as citizens. They propose that using this
method can help determine which of the events occurring at a neighborhood level have a
significant impact on citizens’ perceptions of safety (Innes et al., 2009). Therefore, collecting
information regarding citizens’ perceptions of events can provide a means of determining issues
that have the biggest impact on citizens’ experiences, and law enforcement can work to resolve
these issues before they become more problematic (Innes et al., 2009). In doing so, law
enforcement agencies will also be able make the most efficient use of their resources by ensuring
that their primary areas of prevention are having the greatest impact on neighborhood
perceptions (Innes et al., 2009). Thus, by identifying prominent issues in certain areas, and
subsequently working to resolve these issues in an efficient and organized manner, Innes et al.
(2009) propose that law enforcement can play an integral part in increasing perceptions of safety
at the neighborhood level (Innes et al., 2009).
A trial conducted by Innes et al. (2009) demonstrated how this approach can identify
problematic crimes that impact a community’s perceptions. Specifically, they detailed the
tensions that existed between two different neighborhoods, each of which had distinct ethnic
demographics (Innes et al., 2009). Upon interviewing members of each neighborhood, it was
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 14
determined that both groups were fearful of venturing into the other area (Innes et al., 2009).
Applying the information-led approach, the researchers identified certain crimes, such as racist
graffiti, that were related to feelings of anxiety and threat, and led to decreased perceptions of
safety (Innes et al., 2009).
While the efficacy of this approach in reducing crime was not examined, the researchers
do provide an example of how this information can increase the effectiveness of community
policing. For example, they propose that information regarding the racial tensions that are
present could be provided to community police officers to gain greater insight into how issues
are affecting the neighborhoods’ residents (Innes, et al., 2009). In addition, community officers
could gain knowledge pertaining to which crimes, such as the graffiti, have the greatest impact
over perceptions of safety, and can subsequently put greater emphasis on preventing these
crimes, thus ensuring that levels of perceived safety are increased or maintained (Innes et al.,
2009).
Given the description of information-led policing by Innes et al. (2009), it would seem
that there are two distinct types of information that are required for it to be effective. The first
involves analysis detailing items such as prevalence rates and crime location. In regards to the
GBPD, this work would be completed by Michelle, as it seems a significant amount of her job is
devoted to these issues. The second part of this method involves gathering information regarding
citizens’ perceptions of problems throughout the community. As Bill explained to me when
detailing this approach, the need for this type of information was why they chose to administer
the citizen confidence survey.
As per the request of the GBPD, I spent a significant amount of time working to find out
which of the survey items were closely related to ratings of safety, which included making
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 15
comparisons between perceptions of safety and crime. Upon doing a number of the analyses, I
brought my results to a meeting with Bill and Lieutenant Jeremy Muraski. The items that had a
significant impact on ratings of safety included a number of serious issues, such as armed hold-
ups, sexual assaults, and thefts of cars, but also included a number of minor offenses, such as
littering, graffiti, and poorly maintained properties (Machnik, 2011).
While all of these issues represent areas of concern, Jeremy explained to me how the
minor issues could play an important role in perceptions of safety. He explained that minor
crimes, such as graffiti and littering, can send a message of disorder to neighborhood residents,
and can also act as an invitation to more serious crimes. This is because, if left unattended, minor
issues can send a signal that neighborhood residents do not care about the upkeep of their area,
which can be perceived as a lack of willingness to address more serious ones. From this, he
suggested that it might be necessary to begin enforcing minor offenses more strictly in order to
prevent further disorder.
While this scenario was only hypothesized by Jeremy, research would suggest that the
events described may be possible. Basing their work on theories similar to the one Jeremy
proposed, O’Brien and Wilson (2011) used a number of different studies to determine how
individuals form judgments of different neighborhoods, and provided implications based on their
results. The first study involved determining participants’ perceptions of residents’ lifestyles and
social dynamics by looking at pictures of high- and low-maintained neighborhoods, while the
second involved examining perceptions of trust ascribed to the individuals from those same areas
(O’Brien & Wilson, 2011). Finally, the third study took a closer look at specific elements
depicted in the photographs of the neighborhoods, such as the appearances of the windows, lawn,
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 16
and litter that was present, and assessed how these influenced participants’ perceptions of the
neighborhood (O’Brien & Wilson, 2011).
The results of the first study indicated that lower levels of neighborhood upkeep were
rated by participants as being linked to decreased social interaction between residents (O’Brien
& Wilson, 2011). In addition, the results of the second study indicated that participants ascribed
lower levels of trust to individuals from lesser maintained neighborhoods (O’Brien & Wilson,
2011). Finally, the results of the third study suggest that individuals form their perceptions of
neighborhood environments based on an overall assessment of its features, with their
maintenance quality being associated with the perceived level of social quality (O’Brien &
Wilson, 2011). Thus when taken together, the results suggest that individuals living in
communities where the physical structures are not well maintained are subject to outside
assessments of lower levels of trust, as well as lower perceived social quality (O’Brien &
Wilson, 2011).
The researchers provide an explanation for how these assessments are linked to
perceptions of safety and crime rates. Specifically, they reason that quality of the relationships
between neighborhoods is associated with crime rates, such that lower levels of social quality
can lead to less interaction when dealing with neighborhood issues (O’Brien & Wilson, 2011). In
addition, they propose that the findings provide evidence for how individuals can accurately
make judgments about the social quality of a neighborhood based on the maintenance of its
physical structures (O’Brien & Wilson, 2011). These two findings add credence to the theory
provided by Jeremy. Specifically, when minor issues, such as poorly maintained properties or
litter, are not enforced, the cooperation between neighbors will likely decrease. In addition,
neighborhood visitors may become cognizant of the lower level of social quality based upon low
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 17
levels of maintenance, which can serve as a means to invite more serious problems. Thus, it
would seem that Jeremy may be correct in suggesting that the GBPD may be required to enforce
minor infractions more strictly in the future, for doing so could have a significant positive effect
on neighborhoods where these issues are present.
In conclusion, my internship experience with the GBPD was overwhelmingly positive.
Not only did I have the opportunity to gain skills related to data analysis, but the information and
insights provided by the people I interacted with has given me a greater understanding of the
work necessary to reduce crime and maintain safety. These insights were even further expanded
upon when looking at the relevant literature, which added to the perceived complexity of law
enforcement activity. However, comparisons between my experiences and research seem to
indicate that the GBPD is taking the right steps to ensure that activities are carried out efficiently,
and an overall increase in perceived safety is achieved. I feel a great sense of gratitude for being
able to be a part of this learning experience, and I look forward to seeing the results of the new
developments at the GBPD.
PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 18
References
Ackerman, G. G., Anderson, B. B., Jensen, S. S., Ludwig, R. R., Montero, D. D., Plante, N. N.,
& Yanez, V. V. (2001). Crime rates and confidence in the police: America's changing
attitudes toward crime and police, 1972-1999. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare,
28, 43-54. Retrieved from http://www.wmich.edu/hhs/newsletters_journals/jssw/
Duffy, B., Wake, R., Burrows, T., & Bremner, P. (2008). Closing the gaps - crime and public
perceptions. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, 22, 17-44.
doi:10.1080/13600860801924899
Innes, M., Abbott, L., Lowe, T., & Roberts, C. (2009). Seeing like a citizen: Field experiments in
'community intelligence-led policing’. Police Practice & Research: An International
Journal, 10, 99-114. doi:10.1080/15614260802264545
Machnik, M. D. (2011). Green Bay Police Department Citizen Confidence Survey: Executive
Summary. Green Bay, WI: Author
Salmi, S., Voeten, M. M., & Keskinen, E. (2000). Relation between police image and police
visibility. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 10, 433-447.
doi:10.1002/1099-1298(200011/12)10:6<433::AID-CASP576>3.0.CO;2-Z
O'Brien, D., & Wilson, D. (2011). Community perception: The ability to assess the safety of
unfamiliar neighborhoods and respond adaptively. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 100, 606-620. doi:10.1037/a0022803