Post on 11-Aug-2020
On-FarmWaterRecyclingasanAdaptationStrategyforDrainedAgriculturalLandintheWesternLakeErieBasin
On-FarmWaterRecyclingasanAdaptationStrategyforDrainedAgriculturalLandinthe
WesternLakeErieBasin
JaneFrankenberger,
Professor,AgriculturalandBiologicalEngineeringPurdueUniversity
LarryC.Brown,ProfessorStephanGunn,Post-Doctoral
ResearcherFood,Ag&BiologicalEngineering
TheOhioStateUniversity
BarryJ.Allred,ResearchAgriculturalEngineer;DebraGamble,Research
TechnicianUSDAAgriculturalResearch
Service,SoilDrainageResearchUnit
GLISAteammembersthatwereintegraltotheproject
William'B.J.'BauleClimatologist,UniversityofMichiganClimate
CenterGreatLakesIntegratedSciences+Assessments
GrahamSustainabilityInstitute
JeffAndresenProfessorofGeography
StateClimatologistforMichiganMichiganStateUniversity
ThisprojectwasfundedbyGreatLakesIntegratedSciences+Assessmentsthrougha2014GreatLakesClimateAssessmentGrant.
RecommendedCitation:
Frankenberger,J.,Allred,B.,Brown,L.,Gamble,D.,Gunn,S.,Baule,W.,Andresen,J.2016.On-FarmWaterRecyclingasanAdaptationStrategyforDrainedAgriculturalLandsintheWesternLakeErieBasin.In: Project Reports. D. Brown, W. Baule, L. Briley, E. Gibbons, and I. Robinson, eds. Available from the Great Lakes Integrated Sciences and Assessments (GLISA) Center.
Forfurtherquestions,pleasecontactJaneFrankenberger(frankenb@purdue.edu)
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ContentsExecutiveSummary..............................................................................................................................................................3
Introduction:Theneedforon-farmwaterstorageandrecyclingforclimatechangeresilience...................................3
Overviewofon-farmwaterrecyclingondrainedcropland..............................................................................................3
Siteswhereon-farmwaterrecyclinghasbeenimplemented...........................................................................................4
OHIOWRSISsites..............................................................................................................................................................4
Michiganirrigationponds................................................................................................................................................4
EssexCounty,Ontario,Canada........................................................................................................................................5
Quantifyingincreaseincropyieldbenefitsunderclimatechange...................................................................................6
ExaminingimpactsusingtheDRAINMODsimulationmodel.................................................................................................6
Stakeholderviewsonbarriersandopportunitiesforon-farmwaterrecycling..............................................................7
PotentialofthispracticefortheMidwest.......................................................................................................................7
Barrierstoaddress...........................................................................................................................................................8
Locationconsiderationsandsitingstrategies................................................................................................................8
KeyLessonsLearned............................................................................................................................................................8
Additionalquestionstobeansweredtomovethepracticeforward................................................................................9
Futurework..........................................................................................................................................................................9
References...........................................................................................................................................................................10
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ExecutiveSummaryThegoalofthisprojectwastobeginaprocessofanalyzingthepotentialforincreasingon-farmwaterstorageasaclimatechangeadaptationstrategy.Togainunderstandingoftheopportunitiesandbarrierstoon-farmwaterrecyclingintheGreatLakesregion,wetalkedwithdrainagecontractors,agencystaff,farmers,extensionspecialists,irrigationdealers,andfarmerswhohaveandhavenotinstalledon-farmwaterrecycling.WeusedhistoricyielddatatogetherwithclimateprojectionstoestimatepotentialyieldbenefitsthatcouldbeachievedbytheOhioWRSISwaterrecyclingsystemsunderexpectedfutureclimateconditions.Wehavesharedthisinformationatdrainageworkshops,scientificconferences,andmeetingsandaredevelopingfactsheetsdescribingthesesystemsthatprovideinformationthatwillbenefitproducerandagencydecision-makingaboutthisnewandpromisingpractice.
Introduction:Theneedforon-farmwaterstorageandrecyclingforclimatechangeresilienceAgricultureintheGreatLakesregionhasbenefitedhistoricallyfromregularprecipitationpatterns.Therelativelysteadyprecipitation,coupledwithsoilswithgoodwater-holdingability,hasallowedagricultureintheregiontobecomehighlyproductiveandasubstantialcontributortotheregion’seconomy.However,predictedshiftsintemperatureandprecipitationpatternstowardswarmerandwetterwintersandsprings,agreaterfrequencyofintensestormsthroughouttheyear,andmoresevereandlongerdroughtsinthesummersuggestthepotentialfordecreasedcropyieldsinthefutureunlesswaysarefoundtoprovideadditionalwatertocropsduringthegrowingseason,whilealsobeingabletoquicklyremoveexcesssoilwaterwhenconditionsarewet.
Subsurface(tile)drainageiswidelyusedincropproductioninthisregion,removingexcesswater,particularlyinthespring,toenabletimelyfieldoperations(Figure1).Whileexcesswaterneedstobedrainedinthespringandotherperiodsofexcessiveprecipitation,cropsindrainedareasalsoexperiencestressfromlackofwaterduringthedriersummermonthsatthepeakofthegrowingseason.Thissuggeststhatstoringdrainagewateronthefarmandrecyclingitthroughirrigationduringsummer,whencropsexperiencewaterdeficit,willbecomemoreandmorebeneficialasthepatternofexcesswaterattimesanddroughtatothertimesisexacerbatedbyclimatechange.
Figure1:Installationofdraintile,afeatureofcroplandacrosstheGreatLakesregion.
Thegoalofthisprojectwastoadvanceon-farmwaterrecyclingasanadaptationstrategy,byanalyzingdatafromhistoricalresearchsitesfromtheperspectiveofclimatechange,identifyingopportunitiesforthispracticetobeimplementedmorewidelyintheregion,andprovidingoutreachtostakeholdersintheregion.
Overviewofon-farmwaterrecyclingondrainedcroplandOn-farmwaterrecyclingisthepracticeofcapturingwaterdrainedfromfieldsduringhigh-flowperiods,storingitinapondorreservoir,andirrigatingitontocropslaterintheseason.Whenthispracticecapturestiledrainagewater,wearecallingitdrainagewaterrecycling,apracticethathastwomajorbenefits:
• Itwillimprovewaterqualitybecausedrainedwater,thattypicallycontainsnitrateandphosphorus,isdivertedintothewaterstoragepond.StoringthewaterandrecyclingitontocropspreventsitfromcausingwaterqualityproblemssuchasalgaebloomsinLakeErieorhypoxiaintheGulfofMexico.
• ItwillincreasecropyieldsbecausealthoughprecipitationintheMidwestisgenerallyplentiful,itdoesnotoccurexactlywhenneededbythecrop.Tiledrainageoccursmostlyinthespring,whilecropwateruseinmid-tolatesummermayresultinperiodswheninsufficientwaterisavailable.
Drainagewaterrecyclingcanbeaclosed-loopsystemwherethedrainedwaterfromafieldisrecirculatedontothesamefield,orwaterdrainedfromonefieldcanbeused
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toirrigateadifferentfield.Irrigationmaybethroughsubirrigationthatraisesthesoilwatertablebyfloodingthesubsurfacedraintiles,sprinklersystemssuchasacenterpivot,orothertechnologies(Figure2).
Siteswhereon-farmwaterrecyclinghasbeenimplementedTheOhioWetlandReservoirSubirrigationSystem(WRSIS)siteswerethefocusofthisprojectandaredescribedbelow.WealsomadeanextensiveefforttoidentifyothersiteswheredrainagewaterrecyclinghadbeenimplementedintheGreatLakesregiontobetterunderstandthepotential.Thesesitesarealsodescribedbelow.WeidentifiedandvisitedsitesinthreelocationsintheGreatLakesBasin:Ohio,Michigan,andOntario.Wehadexpectedmoresuchsitestohavebeenimplementedbutfoundthatbarrierstoimplementationareextensiveandnoteasytoovercome.
OHIOWRSISsitesInnorthwestOhio,researchersdevelopedasysteminthelate1990scalledWRSIS,whichincludedaconstructedwetlandandwaterstoragereservoir(Figure3).Runoffandsubsurfacedrainagefromcroplandwerecollectedintothewetlandforpartialtreatmentofnutrientsandsedimentandecologicalbenefits(SmileyandAllred,2011;Allredetal.2014a))beforebeingroutedtoastoragereservoiruntilneededtosubirrigatethecropsduringdrypartsofthegrowingseason(Figure4).Allredetal.(2014)showedthattheincreaseincornyieldover13yearsaveraged19%overall,witha27%increaseindryyears.Thesoybeanyieldincreasewas12%overalland23%indryyears.Yielddatafromthesesystemswereusedto
analyzethepotentialcropyieldbenefitsunderfutureclimatechangeinthisproject.(See“Quantifyingincreaseincropyieldbenefitsunderclimatechange”)
Figure3:TheOhioWRSISWetlandReservoirSubirrigationSystem(WRSIS)components.
Figure4:WetlandReservoirSubirrigationSystematVanWertCounty,Ohio.
MichiganirrigationpondsInMichigan,specialtyandothercropsareoftenirrigated.Becauseofinadequategroundwaterinsomeregions,aswellaslimitationsongroundwaterwithdrawaltopreventadverseimpactsonstreams,somegrowershaveimplementeddrainagewaterrecycling.Theirpurposewastoensureareliablewatersupplyforcropirrigationwherewellsalonewouldnotbereliable.WevisitedseveralsitesintheSaginawBayarea,wheresuchpondshadbeen
Figure2:Adrainagewaterrecyclingsystemsconsistsofdrainageintothepond(topleft),whichisirrigatedontoafield(right)
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installedbyMichiganValleyIrrigation.On-farmstoragereservoirsaslargeas30to50acre-feet(40,000to60,000m3)havebeenexcavatedtoprovidestorageforirrigationwater(Figure5).Thefarmerswithwhomwediscussedthesepondsbelievetheyareprofitable,andmoresuchpondsarebeingbuilt.TheirrigationdealerestimatedthathisfirmhasworkedwithfarmerstoinstallaboutthreedozenofthesepondsintheSaginawBayarea.
Costsforthesepondshavebeenmorethan$100,000,butinsomecasesthecosthasbeenreducedbyleveragingresourcesandopportunities.Atonefarm,thepondwasoriginallyaborrowpitforaroadconstructionprojectthroughthefarmer’sproperty,whichresultedinaverycost-effectiveinstallation.Otherfarmerswereabletosellthesandexcavatedfromthepond,whichprovidedanadditionaleconomicbenefit.Wearenotawareofanysystematicstudyoftheseon-farmstoragereservoirs,andarediscussingpossiblegrantapplicationswithengineers
atMichiganStateUniversitytoimproveourunderstandingofhowthesystemswork.
EssexCounty,Ontario,CanadaInsouthwestOntario,wevisitedsiteswhereresearchersattheHarrowResearchStationhaveconductedresearchonwaterrecyclingfornearly25years(Druryetal.,1996,2009;Tanetal.,1993;2007).
On-farmwaterrecyclinghasalsobeenusedbytomatofarmersintheareabecausegroundwaterwasinsufficienttoensureirrigationthroughoutthesummer.Manyfarmersconstructedlargestorageponds,similartothoseinMichigan,around2005to2010,.Wewereabletodiscussthesystemwithonetomatofarmerwhotoldusthattheirrigationsystemhadworkedwellandthepondisstillused.However,agroupoffarmersintheareaeventuallyformedacooperativetobuildalargeirrigationpipefrom
Figure5:Drainagewaterrecyclingponds(top)justafterconstruction,and(bottom)afterseveralyearsofuse,showingthedrainagepumpingstructureintoitaswellastheintakefortheirrigation.
Figure6:On-farmwaterrecyclinginOntarioincludespondsattheWhelanExperimentalFarm,Woodslee,Ontario(top)andapondattheEssexCountyDemonstrationFarmconstructedwithamorenaturalshapeforaesthetics(bottom).
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LakeErietoensuresufficientwaterquantities,makingthepondunnecessary.Wealsodiscussedtheseon-farmpondswithanengineerattheEssexRegionalConservationAuthority,whowasresponsibleforpermittingtheseponds.Conclusionsfromvisitingallthesesitesaresummarizedin“ExaminingimpactsusingtheDRAINMODsimulationmodel.”
QuantifyingincreaseincropyieldbenefitsunderclimatechangeToquantifyyieldincreasesfromon-farmwaterrecyclingthatcouldbeexpectedunderfutureclimatechange,historicaldatawereassembledfromthe12-yearstudyofWRSISinstalledatthreesitesinnorthwestOhiodescribedindetailinAllredetal.,2013and2014;andsummarizedinTable1.
Table1:SummaryofthethreeOhioon-farmrecyclingsites.Allsiteswereinacorn-soybeanrotation.
Site Location Sizeofsubirrigated;controlfield
(ha)
Dominantsoiltype
DefianceCounty
41.33N,84.43W
2.2;8.1
PauldingClay
FultonCounty
41.60N,83.98W
8.1;8.1
NappaneeLoam
VanWertCounty
40.88N,84.56W
12.2;6.1
HoytvilleClay
Historicalprecipitation,temperature,andsolarradiationdatawereanalyzedandusedtoderivePriestly-TaylorPotentialEvapotranspiration(PET),cropadjustedPET,andtoclassifyeachgrowingseasonintoquintilesofextremelydry,dry,nearaverage,wet,andextremelywet,andtheyieldincreasesusingon-farmwaterrecyclingweredetermined.FutureclimateprojectionsandamodeledhistoricalperiodfromtheNorthAmericanRegionalClimateChangeAssessmentProgram(NARCCAP;Mearnsetal.,2007)werealsoexaminedandbias-correctedtoevaluatethreemodeledprojectionsoffutureclimateoverNorthwesternOhioforthemid-21stcentury(2041-2070)..Futureclimatewerealsodividedintothequintilesbasedonhistoricaldata,showingthatthedistributionofgrowingseasonprecipitation,temperature,andsolarradiationareexpectedtoshiftfromhistoricpatterns.TheseshiftswilllikelyhavedramaticeffectsonPETpatterns.Thenewdistributionwasusedtoestimatetheexpectedyieldbenefitsunderthesameon-farmwaterrecyclingpractices.
Forcorn,theyieldincreasedbyanaverageof20%underhistoricalprecipitationand28-30%(dependingonthe
model)undermodeledclimatefor2041-2070(Figure7).Forsoybeans,theyieldbenefitincreasedfrom12-13%underhistoricalprecipitationto20-24%inthemodeled2041-2070climateTheincreaseinyieldbenefitswasexpected,butquantifyingitusinghistoricalrecordsprovidesusefulinformationforfarmers,contractors,andagencystakeholdersthatsupportsthegrowingusefulnessofstoringdrainagewater.Theseresultsarebeingdevelopedintoaresearchpaper,whichwillbesubmittedforpublication.
Examining impacts using the DRAINMOD simulation model ThehistoricalandfutureclimatedatasetsgeneratedintheanalysisdescribedabovewereusedinDRAINMODmodel,whichisthemostwidelyusedandinternationallyrecognizedmodeltopredictanddesignsubsurfacedrainagesystems(Skaggsetal.,2012).Annualsubirrigationanddrainagemanagement,aswellascropyieldsdocumentedinAllredetal.(2014)wereusedtosetup,calibrate,andvalidatethemodel.Soilhydraulicproperties(watercharacteristicdata,Green-Amptinfiltrationequationsparameters,upfluxvs.watertabledepth,volumedrainedvs.watertabledepth)werecalculatedusingthesoilutilityprogramofDRAINMODbasedonpedotransferfunctionparametersobtainedusingtheROSETTAsoftware(Schaapetal.,2001).Simulationsofthecontrolfieldwithdrainageonly,aswellasthesubirrigatedfieldwithcontrolleddrainage,werecompared.
Aftercalibration,DRAINMODsimulationswereconsideredtobeadequateandusedtofurtheranalyzethehistoricand
Figure7:Increaseinpercentcornyieldduetosubirrigrationunderhistoricalclimateandthreefutureclimateprojections.
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potentialimpactsofsubirrigationoncropyields(Figure8).DRAINMODpredictscropyieldbyestimatingstressoncropsduetolackofmoisture(droughtstress),excessmoisture,anddelayinplantingduetoexcessmoisture.Droughtstressdecreasedsignificantlyundersubirrigation,from33cm-daysto1cm-day,whichisresponsibleforthestrongcropyieldbenefitsmeasuredatthissite.Stressduetoexcessmoistureincreased,however,whichdemonstratestheimportanceofmanagementinsuccessfullysubirrigatingcrops.Simulationshavealsobeenrunwitheachofthefutureclimateprojectiondatasets,whichshowincreasingbenefitsasthegrowingseasonclimatebecomeshotter.Theamountofwaterneededforsubirrigationtomaintainthewatertableatthedesiredlevelwillalsobecomegreater,whichsuggeststhebenefitofconstructingpondstostorewaterfromthespring.Theseresultsarestillpreliminarybutwillprovidethebasisforafutureresearchpaperexaminingbenefitsandmanagementstrategiesforsubirrigationunderfutureclimateconditions.
Stakeholderviewsonbarriersandopportunitiesforon-farmwaterrecyclingInadditiontothewaterrecyclingsiteswevisited,wecollectedfeedbackfrompeopleknowledgeableaboutMidwesternagriculturaldrainageonthepotentialofthispracticeandbarrierstobeaddressed.Thiswasnot
intendedtobeascientifically-validsurvey,butrathertoelicitgeneralreactions,concerns,andideas.
PotentialofthispracticefortheMidwestMostrespondentseasilyseethepotentialofon-farmwaterrecycling.Oneevenwentsofarastosay“Ifthiscanbedoneinsuchawaythatitisfeasible,thiscouldbethefutureofdrainage.”,andanotherrespondedthatthepotentialwas“tremendous.”However,theyalsopointedouttheconsiderablecosts,particularlyforthelandusedbutalsoinpondconstructionandirrigationcostssuchaspumping.ExampleresponsesontheoverallpotentialforthispracticeintheMidwestarebelow:
• “Ifarm800acres,havebeeninterestedintilewatercaptureandirrigationusefor25years.Everyyear,wecouldusesomesupplementalwaterinJuly-Aug.ItwouldalsosupplysomelateseasonNside-dress.”
• ”Ifyouaddupallthepotentialbenefits,cropinsurance,nutrientreductionetc.itmaypay.”
• ”Iamunsureaboutthefeasibility.Iunderstandtheprocessbutthinkitwillbehardtomotivate/convincefarmerstochangetheirpractices.”
• ”Asgrainpricesrise,thispracticewillrise.”• ”Thispracticecouldincreasecropyieldsby10-20%by
justirrigatingcorn-soybeansinthemonthofAugust
Figure8:Dailywatertabledepthwithandwithoutsubirrigation(redlines)simulatedusingDRAINMODforthreeyearsofthehistoricdata(1997-1999)attheFultonCountysite,showingtheimpactofsubirrigationduringthesummerperiodswhenitwasapplied.Precipitationanddrainflowarealsoincluded,withsubirrigationshownasnegativedrainflow.
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alone.Plus,wecouldutilizenitrogenfromdrainagewater.Thiswouldbeanexcellentapproachinresponsetoclimatechange.Earlier…weusedtogetadroughtyearoncein10years,butinlast10years,weareseeingmoreextremeevents.”
• “Limitedtoareasitwillfitinthelandscape,butifkeptopenenoughtoproviderecreationorirrigation,andNRCSorotherfundsavailable,wouldbeworthitforlandowners.”
BarrierstoaddressDrainagestakeholdersalsoprovidedwhattheyseeastheprimarybarrierstoimplementation.Responsesinclude:• “Dollars.Ifafarmercanseeachancethiswillbenefit
himfinanciallyhewilldoit.”• “Cost,liability,uncertainty,andskepticism.”• “Permits–EPAorstate”.(Plusmanysimilar
responses.)Itbecameclearthatinadditiontocosts,themajorbarrierthestakeholdersperceivedwasrelatedtopermits.Giventhisconcern,wehavebegunworkingwithregulatorstoclarifysituationsinwhichpermitswouldberequired.WeheldameetingwithUSDANaturalResourcesConservationServicestaffinIndiana,togetherwiththestatepermittingagencyandtheUSArmyCorpsofEngineers,tobegintoclarifypermitsneeded.Althoughthisissometimesperceivedasinsurmountable,permitsareregularlyissuedinthesesituations,andthewaterqualitybenefitsofon-farmrecyclingpondsmayoutweighotherconcernsinmanycases.
LocationconsiderationsandsitingstrategiesWereceivedmanysuggestionsonsitingconsiderationsthatwillmakethepracticefunctionbetter.
• Thepracticeis“limitedbytopography.Totallyexcavatedstorageisexpensive.”
• “Limitedtoareaswheregoodgroundwateraquifersavailableforprolongeddryperiodsincasenotenoughdrainagewatertofillreservoir”
• “Inlandscapeshavingvariabletopography,sitereservoirsonhighestground.Havetopumpwateranyway,pumpintoreservoirandgravitysubirrigate.SitingreservoirsinlowgroundresultsineffectivewaterstorageduringApril-Juneexcessperiodonlyabovegroundlevelbecausegroundwatertableatornearlandsurface.Canusedeepexcavation,smallerfootprintstorageonhigherground.”
• “Ifthereisahighwatertablethepondwillfillnaturallysoanyextrawaterfromthetilewouldoverflow.”
• “Pumptilebaseflowintoreservoir—cheaperthanpumpinghighflows.”
• “Ditchescouldserveasalreadybuilt“reservoirs”,althoughtherewouldbechallengessuchaswaterbackingupinfields/tiles.”
• “Tosuccessfullysubirrigatemayrequireadditionallateralstoincreasedrainageintensity.”
KeyLessonsLearnedThestakeholderswithwhomwediscussedthispracticeunderstoodthatclimatechange,orincreasingclimatevariability,willleadtoincreasedneedforandbenefitsofpracticesthatenhancewaterstorageonthefarm.Thepotentialforthispracticewasviewedasverypositive,eventhoughmoststakeholderscorrectlyraisedquestionsaboutcostsinland,construction,andtime.
On-farmwaterrecyclingpondsarerareinthelandscapetoday,butafewexamplesexistintheGreatLakesregion.Theyhavebeenimplementedprimarilywherebothirrigationisneededforhighvaluecropsandgroundwaterisinadequatetoprovidetheratesneeded.Regulatoryconsiderationsrelatedtogroundwaterwithdrawalsimpactshavealsoplayedarole,althoughthatwasnotexploredindepthandmorestudyisneeded.
Cropyieldbenefitsofirrigationfrompondscanbeconsiderable.AttheWRSISsites,cornyieldincreasedbyanaverageof20%underhistoricalprecipitationandwasprojectedtoincreaseby28-30%(dependingonthemodel)undermodeledclimatefor2041-2070.Forsoybeans,theyieldbenefitincreasedfrom12-13%underhistoricalprecipitationto20-24%inthemodeled2041-2070climate.
Constructioncostscanbemorethan$100,000perpondbutcanbereducedbyopportunitiessuchassandoraggregateremovalorservingastheborrowpitforroadconstruction.Recreationaluseofthesepondsistheoreticallypossible,butwedidnotseethatasaco-benefitofthepondsweidentified.
Theon-farmeconomicbenefitswilldependonthepriceofthecrops,thespecificsoilsateachlocation,andotherconsiderations.On-farmwaterrecyclingsystemsaremosteconomicalinlocationssuchas:
• wherehighvaluecroplikeseedcornorspecialtycropsaregrown,asirrigationismorelikelytobeprofitable,
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• wheregroundwaterisinadequatetomeetirrigationneeds,
• wherecostsofexcavatingapondcanbeoffsetbyeconomicopportunitiesforthespoil,and/or
• whereapondisalreadyplannedorexists,forexampleduetoroadconstruction.
Off-siteeconomicbenefitstosocietybasedonthenutrientlossreductionarelikelytobeaddconsiderablevaluetothesystemsbutwerenotquantifiedinthisproject.Reducingphosphoruslossfromdrainedcroplandisacriticalandurgentneed,andon-farmwaterrecyclingisonetoolthatshouldbeincludedintheconservationtoolkit.Moreresearchisneededtoquantifythebenefitsandprovideabasisforpaymentsfortheseconservationpractices.
AdditionalquestionstobeansweredtomovethepracticeforwardAsweknewatthebeginningoftheproject,manyquestionsremainunanswered.Thisprojecthasprovidedinformationabouttheexpectedincreaseinyieldbenefitsunderfutureclimateconditions,andthesefindingswilllikelyencourageinterestinthepractice.Similaranalysesneedtobedonethroughouttheregion,andfutureanalyseswillbenefitfromthemethodsdevelopedintheproject.Designguidelinesandtoolsneedtobedevelopedtoguidedesignersinmakingdecisions.Costsareveryuncertainandwillneedtobeestimatedforvarioussituations.Examplequestionsthatdrainagestakeholdersraisedarelistedbelow.Thesequestionscaninformfuturestudiesandprojects.
1. Howlargedoesthepondneedtobetostorewaterforvariousrisklevels,forexampletosupplyneededirrigation8outof10years?Whatratioofdrainageareatostorageisneededtoaccomplishthis?
2. Howshouldsystemsbemanaged,andwhatmaintenanceisneeded?
3. Whatistheagronomicvalueofnutrients,bothNandP,thatcanberecycledtomeetcropneeds?
4. Istherepotentialforpaymentsforadditionalecosystemservicesorotherbenefitssuchasreducinggreenhousegasemissions,orreducingcropinsurancerisk?
Severalquestionsrelatedtodownstreamhydrologyhavebeenraised:5. Ifdownstreamflowisreducedduringsomeperiods,
whatwouldbetheimpactonaquaticecosystems?6. Towhatextentisdownstreamfloodriskreduced?
7. Whatisthepotentialforgroundwaterrecharge,bothintoandoutoftheponds?
Inadditiontotheseconcernsandquestionsaddressedbydrainagecontractorsandotherstakeholders,wehavegatheredtogetherotherquestionsfromfederalagencies,designengineers,andothers.
8. Howcanreservoirs/pondsystemsbedesignedtoenhancewildlifebenefits?
9. Whatotherenvironmentalconsiderationsshouldbetakenintoaccounttomaximizesocietalbenefits,especiallyifcost-shareisprovidedbyconservationagencies?
10. Whatsafetyconsiderationsneedtobeincludedifthereservoirisraised?
11. Whatisthelifeexpectancyofsuchponds?
Thislonglistofquestionsisdauntingbutnotsurprising,whenconsideringapracticethatcouldaffecttheagriculturallandscapeinsuchasignificantway.Answeringthemwillrequireadditionalresearch,on-farmdemonstrations,analyses,anddiscussionsinthefuture.Thisprojecthaslaidafoundationforunderstandingtheneedforandbenefitsofon-farmwaterrecycling,allowedforin-depthanalysisofhistoricaldataonthesesystems,andprovidedtheopportunitytoassessexistingsystemsandperceptionsofstakeholderswhohaveusedorconsideredthem.
FutureworkBecauseoftheneedtoansweradditionalquestions,weareverypleasedthatalarger,regionalefforthasbeenfundedbytheUSDANationalInstitutesofFoodandAgriculturetocontinuethiswork.Thatproject,called“ManagingWaterforIncreasedResiliencyofDrainedAgriculturalLandscapes”,whichwehaveshortenedto“TransformingDrainage”toconveythetransformationenvisioned
Figure9:On-farmwaterrecyclingresearchandoutreachwillcontinuethroughaneight-stateprojectfundedbyUSDA-NIFAthrough2020.Theprojectlogoprovidestheurlformoreinformation.
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(http://transformingdrainage.org),involveseightstates,fifteenresearchers,and$5millioninfunding.
TheprojectfundedbyGLISAprovidesanexcellentfoundationforthenewproject,throughthesynthesisofhistoricaldata,analysiswithfutureclimateprojections,thecultivationofnewpartnerships,anddevelopmentofoutreachstrategiesthatwillleadtomoreimpactincomingyears.
Acknowledgements
WewouldliketothankSteveMillerandLyndonKelleyofMichiganStateUniversityforarrangingvisitstotheMichigansites,NeilKriegerofMichiganValleyIrrigationinVassarMIforprovidinginformationonthesesystems,andBobandEdManteyofCaroMIforsharingtheirexperiences.WealsothankChinTanandTQZhangofAgricultureandAgri-FoodCanadainHarrow,Ontarioforprovidingatouroftheirextraordinaryresearchsitesaswellasanon-farmsysteminEssexCounty,andforsharinginsightsfromdecadesofresearchonthesesystems.
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