Prepared byPrepared byPeter James D. CortazarPeter James D. Cortazar

Human Behavior in OrganizationHuman Behavior in OrganizationDr. Neri S. Pescadera Dr. Neri S. Pescadera

Dean, Graduate School of ManagementDean, Graduate School of ManagementPamantasan ng Lungsod ng MaynilaPamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

JOB DESIGN, PARTICIPATION,

AND WORK ARRAGEMENTS

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How can job design How can job design improve worker well-improve worker well-being and workplace being and workplace

performance?performance?

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Reducing Occupational Reducing Occupational StressStress

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If you can’t take the If you can’t take the heat…heat…

– – Traditionally, organizations have (at least Traditionally, organizations have (at least implicitly)implicitly)

maintained that it is the individual’s maintained that it is the individual’s responsibility toresponsibility to

manage his/her stress levelsmanage his/her stress levels

– – Employee assistance programmesEmployee assistance programmes

––Weight and alcohol reductionWeight and alcohol reduction

––Gyms and exerciseGyms and exercise

– – Counseling servicesCounseling services

– ‘– ‘In house’ doctors and dentistsIn house’ doctors and dentists

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Reducing Occupational Reducing Occupational StressStress

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Work DesignWork Design

The way work processes are The way work processes are structured and managed, dealing with structured and managed, dealing with issues such as:issues such as:

– – Scheduling of workScheduling of work

– – Job designJob design

– – Interpersonal aspects of workInterpersonal aspects of work

– – Management styleManagement style

– – Organizational characteristicsOrganizational characteristics66

The Standards target 6 main working The Standards target 6 main working conditions:conditions:

– – DemandsDemands

– – ControlControl

– – SupportSupport

– – RelationshipsRelationships

– – RoleRole

– – Change (i.e., promoting effective Change (i.e., promoting effective changechange

management and management and communication)communication)

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Job DesignJob DesignA major cause of effective job A major cause of effective job performance is performance is job designjob design..

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Job DesignJob Design

Job designJob design – process by which managers – process by which managers decide individual job tasks and authoritydecide individual job tasks and authority

Job redesignJob redesign – process by which managers – process by which managers reconsider what employees are expected to reconsider what employees are expected to dodo

Why? Because it increases Why? Because it increases organization effectiveness, organization effectiveness, efficiency and worker motivationefficiency and worker motivation

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Initial Step--Job Initial Step--Job AnalysisAnalysis

Determines:Determines:– Job Specification: Experience, Job Specification: Experience,

education, i.e. qualificationseducation, i.e. qualifications– Job Description: Tasks and Job Description: Tasks and

responsibilitiesresponsibilities Job RangeJob Range Job DepthJob Depth Job RelationshipsJob Relationships

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Job Design and Quality of Work Job Design and Quality of Work Life (QWL)Life (QWL)

Quality of work life (QWL) Quality of work life (QWL) Studies Studies – Believed that satisfied workers would Believed that satisfied workers would

be more productivebe more productive– Tested in the coal minesTested in the coal mines– Attempted to enhance the dignity Attempted to enhance the dignity

(physical and emotional well-being) of (physical and emotional well-being) of all workers by eliminating dissatisfiersall workers by eliminating dissatisfiers

– Productivity increases were not Productivity increases were not significant. significant.

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Job Design and Quality of Work Job Design and Quality of Work Life (QWL)Life (QWL)

Indicators of quality of work life include:Indicators of quality of work life include:– Accident ratesAccident rates

– Sick leave usageSick leave usage

– Employee turnoverEmployee turnover

– Number of grievances filedNumber of grievances filed

Improvement was noted in these indicators, Improvement was noted in these indicators,

but it didn’t make the workers work harder. but it didn’t make the workers work harder.

However, they were more satisfiedHowever, they were more satisfied

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Job Design and Quality Job Design and Quality of Work Life (QWL)of Work Life (QWL)

The continuing challenge to The continuing challenge to management is to provide for management is to provide for QWL and to improve QWL and to improve production, quality, and production, quality, and efficiency through efficiency through revitalization of business and revitalization of business and industryindustry

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Conceptual Model of Job Conceptual Model of Job Design and Job Design and Job PerformancePerformance

Job contextJob contextSocial Social setting setting

differencesdifferences

Job contentJob content Job analysisJob analysis Job designJob designJob Job

performanceperformancePerceived job Perceived job

contentcontent

Job Job requirementsrequirements

Individual Individual differencesdifferences

JobSpecification

JobDescription

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Job DesignJob Design

Job design attempts to:Job design attempts to:– identify the needs of employees and the organizationidentify the needs of employees and the organization– remove obstacles in the workplace that frustrate those needsremove obstacles in the workplace that frustrate those needs

Job rangeJob range– Number of tasks a person is expected to perform while doing a jobNumber of tasks a person is expected to perform while doing a job– The more tasks required, the greater the job rangeThe more tasks required, the greater the job range

Job depthJob depth– Degree of influence or discretion that an individual possesses to Degree of influence or discretion that an individual possesses to

choose how a job will be performedchoose how a job will be performed

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Designing Job Range:Designing Job Range:

Job RotationJob Rotation Moving individuals from one Moving individuals from one

job to anotherjob to another Individual completes more Individual completes more

job activities because each job activities because each job includes different tasksjob includes different tasks

Involves increasing the Involves increasing the range of jobs and the range of jobs and the perception of variety in job perception of variety in job contentcontent

Job RotationJob Rotation Moving individuals from one Moving individuals from one

job to anotherjob to another Individual completes more Individual completes more

job activities because each job activities because each job includes different tasksjob includes different tasks

Involves increasing the Involves increasing the range of jobs and the range of jobs and the perception of variety in job perception of variety in job contentcontent

Job EnlargementJob Enlargement Increasing the number of Increasing the number of

tasks for which an individual tasks for which an individual is responsibleis responsible

Increases job range, but not Increases job range, but not depthdepth

Job EnlargementJob Enlargement Increasing the number of Increasing the number of

tasks for which an individual tasks for which an individual is responsibleis responsible

Increases job range, but not Increases job range, but not depthdepth

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Designing Job Depth: Designing Job Depth: Job EnrichmentJob Enrichment

The practice of increasing discretion The practice of increasing discretion individuals can use to select individuals can use to select activities and outcomesactivities and outcomes

Increases job depth and accordingly Increases job depth and accordingly fulfills growth and autonomy needsfulfills growth and autonomy needs

Theory of motivation is the impetus Theory of motivation is the impetus for designing job depth (job for designing job depth (job enrichment)enrichment)

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Designing Job Depth: Designing Job Depth: Job EnrichmentJob Enrichment

Managers can provide employees with Managers can provide employees with greater opportunities to exercise greater opportunities to exercise discretion by making the following discretion by making the following changes:changes:– Direct feedbackDirect feedback– New learningNew learning– SchedulingScheduling– UniquenessUniqueness– Control over resourcesControl over resources– Personal accountabilityPersonal accountability 1818

Job Characteristic Job Characteristic TheoryTheory How can we design a job that How can we design a job that

motivates people?motivates people?– Asked people that were clearly Asked people that were clearly

motivated by a job, what were the motivated by a job, what were the motivating characteristicsmotivating characteristics

– What do you think are the What do you think are the motivating characteristics? Are they motivating characteristics? Are they all equal?all equal?

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Skill Variety

Task Identity

Task Significance

Skill Variety

Task Identity

Task Significance

AutonomyAutonomy

FeedbackFeedback

ExperiencedMeaningfulness

of Work

ExperiencedResponsibility forOutcomes of Work

Knowledge ofActual Results ofWork Activities

High InternalWork Motivation

High-qualityWork Performance

High Satisfactionwith Work

Low Absenteeismand Turnover

High InternalWork Motivation

High-qualityWork Performance

High Satisfactionwith Work

Low Absenteeismand Turnover

Job Characteristics

Personal and WorkOutcomes

Employee’s GrowthNeed Strength

Employee’s GrowthNeed Strength

Critical Psychological States

The Job Characteristics The Job Characteristics ModelModel

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Job Characteristics Job Characteristics TheoryTheory

Task Variety + Task Identity + Task Significance

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X Autonomy X Feedback

Job Motivation Potential equals

The higher the score, the higher the motivating potential and therefore the higher the productivity

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Key Characteristics to Key Characteristics to AddressAddress

Task varietyTask variety.. The extent to which The extent to which you or your team members are given you or your team members are given the opportunity to perform a variety of the opportunity to perform a variety of tasks and use different skillstasks and use different skills

Task significanceTask significance.. The degree to The degree to which your or your team’s work is which your or your team’s work is valued and has significance for both valued and has significance for both internal and external stakeholders of internal and external stakeholders of the organizationthe organization

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Key Characteristics to Key Characteristics to AddressAddress

Task identityTask identity.. The degree to The degree to which your or your team which your or your team completes a whole and separate completes a whole and separate piece of work and has control over piece of work and has control over most of the resources necessary most of the resources necessary to accomplish its objectivesto accomplish its objectives

AutonomyAutonomy. The degree to which . The degree to which you or your team are allowed to you or your team are allowed to make your own decisionsmake your own decisions

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Key Characteristics to Key Characteristics to AddressAddress

Feedback.Feedback. Extend to which Extend to which you or your team receives you or your team receives feedback from the job or the feedback from the job or the supervisorsupervisor

Growth Need StrengthGrowth Need Strength. Extend . Extend to which an individual to which an individual

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Problems associated with job Problems associated with job designdesign

Unless lower-level needs are satisfied, people will not respond to opportunities to satisfy upper-level needs

Job design programs may raise employees’ expectations beyond what is possible

Job design may be resisted by labor unions who see the effort as an attempt to get more work for the same pay

Job design efforts may not produce tangible improvements for some time after the beginning of the effort

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Job Design:Job Design:Key Characteristics to Key Characteristics to AddressAddress

Self-management.Self-management. Refers to the team’s Refers to the team’s ability to:ability to:– set its own objectivesset its own objectives– coordinate its own activitiescoordinate its own activities– resolve its own internal conflictsresolve its own internal conflicts

Participation.Participation. The degree to which all The degree to which all members of the team are encouraged and members of the team are encouraged and allowed to participate in decisionsallowed to participate in decisions

How do teams provide an opportunity to improve How do teams provide an opportunity to improve motivation? motivation? Hint: Use the Job Characteristics TheoryHint: Use the Job Characteristics Theory

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Alternative Work Alternative Work ArrangementsArrangements

Flexible work Flexible work arrangements arrangements include:include:– Job sharingJob sharing– FlextimeFlextime– TelecommutingTelecommuting– Virtual teamsVirtual teams

Flexible work Flexible work arrangements arrangements include:include:– Job sharingJob sharing– FlextimeFlextime– TelecommutingTelecommuting– Virtual teamsVirtual teams

Benefits to Benefits to companies of flexible companies of flexible work programs:work programs:– Higher recruitment and Higher recruitment and

retention ratesretention rates– Improved moraleImproved morale– Lower absenteeism and Lower absenteeism and

tardinesstardiness– Higher levels of Higher levels of

employee productivityemployee productivity

Benefits to Benefits to companies of flexible companies of flexible work programs:work programs:– Higher recruitment and Higher recruitment and

retention ratesretention rates– Improved moraleImproved morale– Lower absenteeism and Lower absenteeism and

tardinesstardiness– Higher levels of Higher levels of

employee productivityemployee productivity2727

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REFERENCES:

Parker, S., & Wall, T. (1998).  Job and Work Design, Organizing Work to Promote Well-Being and Effectiveness.  Thousand Oaks, California, Sage Publications. (Paperback text available in POLY/CUNY bookstore) 

 Campion, M.A. & Medsker, G. J. (1992).  Job Design.  In G. Salvendy (Ed.), Handbook of

Industrial Engineering (2nd. Ed.). New York: Wiley, (1992).  Aronoff, S., & Kaplan, A., (1995) Workplace Diagnostics. In Total Workplace

Performance: Rethinking the Office Environment  (pp. 307-356).Ottawa, Canada, WDL Publications. 

 Cascio, W.F. (2000). Managing a virtual workplace.  Academy of Management

Executive, 14 (3), 81-90.  Selected Chapters from:  Becker, F. & Steel, F. (1995) Workplace by Design. California: Jossey-Bass. Making space for teamwork (Chapter 5); Creating a healthy

environment (Chapter 6); and, Supporting remote work (Chapter 7).  Mathieu, J.,  Maynard, M.T.,  Rapp, T., & Gilson, L.  (2008).  Team Effectiveness 1997-

2007: A Review of Recent Advancements and a Glimpse Into the Future . Journal of Management, 34: 410-476.

 Parker, S. K., & Ohly, S. (2008). Designing motivating work. In Kanfer, R., Chen, G., &

Pritchard, R. Work motivation: Past, present and future. A SIOP Frontier Series volume. Lawrence Erlbaum.

End of PresentationEnd of Presentation

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