Post on 28-Aug-2018
Improve Memory for School Learning with Mnemonic Instruction
Tom Scruggs, Ph.D.
University Professor Emeritus
George Mason University
These materials were developed, implemented and supported in part from a grant: from the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences
(Grant No. R324A070199-07) .
Please note some pictures were removed because of copyright restrictions.
Memory
Memory for semantic (verbally-based) content is critical for all aspects of school success.
Vocabulary
Facts
Procedures
Content area knowledge
For example:
What countries were associated with the Central Powers in World War I?
What is the hardness level of crocoite according to the Mohs scale?
What are the five classes of vertebrates?
What was the Zimmerman note?
What is the definition of radial symmetry in invertebrate animals? Provide examples.
What are the three sections of the earth?
What is nonpolar covalent bonding?
Memory and Students with Disabilities
However, students with disabilities may exhibit deficits in several aspects of memory (e.g., Bauer, 1977; Brainerd, Kingma, & Howe,
1986; Ceci, 1984; Laws et al., 2015; Swanson et al., 2004):
Short term memory
Working memory
Long term memory
Everyday memory
Spontaneous use of learning strategies
Swanson et al. (2004), p. 60-61
“Readers with LD, as a group, are distinctly disadvantaged compared to their peers when they are required to memorize verbal information. [They] have difficulty remembering familiar items such as letters, words, and numbers and unfamiliar items that can easily be named and stored phonetically in memory.”
Consequences
As a consequence, many students with disabilities exhibit performance deficits on school tasks and academic tests.
What are General Techniques for Improving Memory?
Increase Attention.
Promote External Memory.
Enhance Meaningfulness.
Use Pictures.
Minimize Interference.
Promote Active Manipulation.
Promote Active Reasoning.
Increase the Amount of Practice.
Teach “Meta-Memory”
What Are Effective Mnemonic Strategies?
Strategies that make Unfamiliar Information more:
Concrete
Meaningful
Familiar
Memorable
Most Effective Techniques
Mnemonic strategies
Keyword method
Pegword method
Letter strategies, such as acrostics and acronyms
Other verbal elaborations
ranid
10 =
Mnemonic strategies
First described by the ancient Greeks; revived in the Middle Ages (see Yates, The Art of Memory, 1966)
Discussed by William James, Principles of Psychology (1890)
First employed experimentally by Atkinson (1975), for teaching Russian vocabulary to college students.
Employed in late 1970s with k-12 students (Pressley, Levin, & Delaney, 1982)
Employed with students with disabilities, 1983-present
Over 40 experiments, >2000 students
Effectiveness of Mnemonic Strategies: Overall Percent Correct Across Studies
Immediate and Delayed Effects
Mnemonic
Traditional
% C
orrect
The Keyword Method
Identify a similar sounding, familiar word (keyword) for the target word to be learned.
Create a picture of the keyword interacting with the to-be-remembered information
Show students they can retrieve the information by thinking of the keyword and what was happening in the interactive picture
Ranid (rain) frog
Carline (car) Witch
© Scruggs & Mastropieri
© Scruggs & Mastropieri
What does _______ mean?
Coltre
Bocca
Carline
Capra
Scarpe
Ranid
Why Do Mnemonic Strategies Improve Memory for Many Students with Learning
Difficulties?
• Mnemonic strategies minimize relative weaknesses of many students with learning difficulties
• Semantic memory • Spontaneous word retrieval • Prior knowledge • Spontaneous strategy use
• Mnemonic strategies maximize relative strengths of many students with learning difficulties
• Memory for pictures • Awareness of acoustic similarities • Ability to benefit from provided retrieval links • Associations with concrete, familiar information
Vocabulary Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities
Oxalis (ox) clover-like plant
Procedure
32 junior-high students with learning difficulties were seen individually
Students were assigned at random to condition, stratified by grade level.
16 students in the mnemonic condition, 16 students in the direct questioning condition.
RANID (rain) FROG
RANID FROG
79.5
31.2
0
20
40
60
80
100
%
correct
Experimental Condition
Results
Mnemonic
DirectQuestioning
Questions about Mnemonics
Also good for abstract information?
Do mnemonics hinder comprehension?
Can information/strategies be combined?
Do learners get confused over time?
How versatile are mnemonics?
Too much emphasis on facts?
Can students generalize mnemonic strategies to their own learning?
Vituperation abusive (viper) speech
Octroi (octopus) tax on goods
on entering town
Saprophytic feeding on decaying
(Sapro, the fighting tick) organic matter
Today’s Menu: Decaying organic matter
SAPRO, the Fighting Tick
SAPRO
The Pegword Method: For numbered or ordered information
One is bun
Two is shoe
Three is tree
Four is door
Five is hive
Six is sticks
Seven is heaven
Eight is gate
Nine is vine
Ten is hen
2nd class lever (shoe) wheelbarrow
fulcrum
effort
load
Pegword method
Can keyword method be combined with the pegword method for remembering numbers?
Participants
90 ninth graders students with learning difficulties 68 boys, 22 girls
Mean age 14 years, 9 mo.
Divided into relatively high vs. low comprehenders
Conditions: Mnemonic, direct questioning, free study
Materials
Content: hardness levels of minerals, according to the Mohs scale.
Mnemonic pictures included keyword representation of mineral name, pegword for hardness level.
Crocoite (crocodile) 2 (shoe)
Topaz (top) hardness 8 (gate)
Calcite (cow) 3 (tree)
Crocoite 2
Apatite 5
Calcite 3
Topaz 8
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
%
correct
Imm. Delay
Experimental Condition
Results
Mnemonic
Free study
Directquestioning
Multiple Attributes
Can students with learning difficulties learn multiple attributes -- e.g., hardness, color, common use -- with mnemonics?
Example: WOLFRAMITE: A black wolf at a door turning on a light bulb Black = mineral color
Door = hardness level #4
Light Bulbs = common use (from tungsten filaments)
Black in Color Hardness 4 (door)
Used for Light Bulbs
Wolframite (wolf)
Pyrite (pie) Hardness 6 (sticks)
Yellow color used for Explosives
© Plenum Publishing Corporation
Calcite (cow) hardness 3
Grey color used for Steel
Corundum (car) 9 (vine)
red color used for jewelry
Results
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
%
correct
Mnemonic DI Free Study
Hardness
Color
Use
Extended Mnemonic Instruction
Research Questions
Can students with learning difficulties learn using mnemonic strategies over several days without becoming confused?
Can color be used to symbolize information?
Participants, Procedure
64 students with learning difficulties, assigned at random in small groups to experimental or direct questioning conditions
Groups were taught dinosaur names, dinosaur attributes, and reasons for dinosaur extinction, over 3 days, in random order.
Ptero- (tire) winged
Saur (saw) Lizard
Wow! That’s a BIG broccoli!
Period – middle Eats – plants Specific – one of the biggest dinosaurs
© Scruggs & Mastropieri
© Scruggs & Mastropieri
Questions
What does ptero- mean?
What does saur mean?
What is a pterosaur?
What period did brachiosaurus live in?
Was brachiosaurus meat-eater or plant-eater?
What else do you know about brachiosaurus?
What was reason #6 for dinosaur extinction?
Results
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Mnemonic DI
Vocabulary
Attribute
Extinction
Effects Over Days
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 2 3
Mnemonic
DI
Curriculum Applications of Mnemonic Instruction
Can mnemonic strategies be applied to a chapter from a content area textbook?
Reconstructive Elaborations
Mimetic: Representational picture for concrete, familiar information (e.g., trench)
Symbolic: Symbolic picture for abstract, familiar information (e.g., foreign policy)
Acoustic: Keyword strategy for unfamiliar information (Zimmerman)
Letter strategies for list information
Developing Mnemonic Strategies
Prioritize most important information
Develop mnemonic strategies for difficult-to-remember information:
Keywords for unfamiliar information
Symbols for familiar, abstract information
Representative pictures for familiar information
Letter strategies for lists of information
Just a few for each class
Developing Mnemonic Strategies: Keywords
Brainstorm and discuss with others keywords for names of people, places, things. Use rhyming or internet dictionaries. Put problems aside to think about later.
Create pictures using, e.g., drawing, internet, clip art, photos from magazines, help from student artists.
Remember to:
Minimize non-essential information
Be sure keywords and referents are interacting
Develop a plan to review, and test effectiveness of strategies
Acronym: First letters of a list of words or phrase form a word:
HOMES: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior (North American Great Lakes)
Acrostic: First letters of words in a phrase represent a list
“My very educated mother just served us noodles” = Mercury, Venus… etc.
Acronyms and Acrostics
Be sure words are familiar enough that a single letter will prompt retrieval (e.g., “F” = “France”).
Brainstorm different possibilities
Try the letters in different arrangements (when appropriate), or using synonyms.
Generally, acronyms are more useful than acrostics
Developing Mnemonic Strategies: Acronyms and Acrostics
Content Area: World War I
Key Content
Allied Powers
Central Powers
William Jennings Bryan
US Policy
Lusitania
Zimmerman note
Trench warfare
George M. Cohan
Keyword/strategy
“Allied Van”
“Central Park”
“Lion”
“Uncle Sam”
“Lucy”
“Swimmer”
“Trench”
“Cone”
© Scruggs & Mastropieri
© Scruggs & Mastropieri
World War I test:
What countries were in the Allied Powers?
What countries were in the Central Powers?
Who was William Jennings Bryan?
What was the Lusitania?
What was the Zimmerman note?
What was trench warfare like?
Who was George M. Cohan?
Participants, Procedure
30 8th – 10th graders with LD
Mean reading GE = 5.2
Students stratified by grade level and assigned at random to mnemonic or control condition.
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
Number
correct
Results
Mnemonic
Traditional
Longer-Term Applications
Can mnemonic strategies be applied to units of curriculum in classroom instruction over time?
Effectiveness of Mnemonic Classroom Instruction
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
WWI 20x 30s WWII
Unit
Percen
t correct
M-T-M-T
T-M-T-M
Effectiveness of Mnemonic Classroom Instruction
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
WWI 20x 30s WWII
Unit
Percen
t co
rrect
M-M-M-T
T-T-T-M
Concerns about Mnemonic Instruction
Focuses on “mere facts”
Doesn’t improve comprehension or “higher order” objectives
Too hard to develop
“Spoon feeds” students who should learn to learn independently
Trivializes content
Is just a memory “trick,” not real learning
Comprehension-fostering activities lead to better memory
Other Research Applications
Vertebrate and invertebrate animals
Geology and earth history
SAT vocabulary
Elementary and secondary social studies
Chemistry
Elementary reading vocabulary
Martinet strict (Martian) disciplinarian
Don’t say a word – sit still
and pay attention!!
Rockefeller (rock) oil industry
Maryland (marriage) Annapolis (apple)
What are core electrons?
Electrons close to the nucleus
If your partner is correct, go to
If your partner doesn’t know the answer, review the strategy.
Strategy: Think of the word ‘apple core’ for core and ‘veil’ for valence. Then think of this picture of
“The (apple) core electrons orbiting around the nucleus with the “veil”ence electrons orbiting farther
out from the nucleus around the core electrons. This will help you remember that CORE
ELECTRONS are close to the nucleus, have higher energy levels and are more stable.
Then ask: What is the strategy to remember CORE ELECTRONS ?
Then ask again: What are core electrons?
Then ask: What else is important about CORE ELECTRONS? [Answers include: They have higher energy
levels than valence electrons]
Then ask: What are other characteristics of CORE ELECTRONS ? [Answers include: They are more stable
than valence electrons].
jettison throw overboard
jettison throw overboard
jettison (jet) throw overboard
Inclusive Mnemonic Instruction (Uberti, Scruggs, & Mastropieri, 2002)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Picture Definition Keyword
Instructional Strategy
Nu
mb
er
co
rrect
LearningDifficulties
Everyone else
Phonics mnemonics
“S” =
Not mnemonic
“a” =
Spelling: “He screamed ‘E-E-E’ as he ran by the cemetery”
E-E-E!!!
CEMETERY
Spelling Mnemonics
You can GAIN from a barGAIN.
The feMINIst wouldn’t wear a MINI skirt.
A principLE is a ruLE; a princiPAL is your PAL.
They will WED on WEDnesday.
It is VILE to allow special priVILEge.
Draw ALL the lines parALLel.
(Shefter, 1989)
tree door elf Math Facts: 3 x 4 = 12
7 X 8 = 56 Heaven’s gate holds “gifty” sticks
Mathematical procedures
Promoting Memory in the Classroom
Use mnemonic strategies throughout your teaching. Develop mnemonics for important content over time.
Show students how to use their memories better: Ask, “What would be a good way to remember that?”
Use self-talk to model: “How will I remember this? What does ‘thermic’ remind me of?”
Think about the sounds of words, and what they are related to (“Do you hear the ‘sip’ sound in ‘precipitation’?” “What does ‘truculent’ sound like?” “What rhymes with ‘heterotroph’?”)
Think about root words, synonyms, and etymologies
Think about personal contexts or experiences
Practice, practice, and think: “What is the answer?” “How did I remember it?”
Conclusions 1983-2015
Mnemonic strategies are extremely powerful techniques for improving learning and memory of school content for students with learning difficulties.
Mnemonics are extremely versatile, and can be adapted to a variety of content: English vocabulary, foreign languages, social studies, science, language arts, mathematics
Students can learn to create their own mnemonics, but teacher-provided mnemonics are more powerful
Students instructed mnemonically outperform controls on comprehension tests
In spite of the demonstrated benefits of mnemonics, these strategies are not widely used in schools
Mnemonics do not address all objectives in school learning; but what they do, they do very well.
For further information Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (2014). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective differentiated instruction (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Marshak, L., Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (2011). Curriculum enhancements for inclusive secondary social studies classes. Exceptionality, 19, 61-74.
Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., Berkeley, S., & Marshak, L. (2010). Mnemonic strategies: Evidence-based practice and practice-based evidence. Intervention in School and Clinic, 46, 79-86.
Fontana, J., Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E. (2007). Mnemonic strategy instruction in inclusive secondary social studies classes. Remedial and Special Education, 28, 345-355.
Terrill, C., Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (2004). SAT vocabulary instruction for high school students with learning disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39, 288-294.
Uberti, H.Z., Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (2003). Keywords make the difference! Mnemonic instruction in inclusive classrooms. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35, 3, 56-61.
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (2000). The effectiveness of mnemonic instruction for students
with learning and behavior problems: An update and research synthesis. Journal of Behavioral Education, 10, 163-173.
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (2000). Mnemonic strategies improve classroom learning and
social behavior. Beyond Behavior, 10(1), 13-17.
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1992). Classroom applications of mnemonic instruction: Acquisition, maintenance, and generalization. Exceptional Children, 58, 219-229.
Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., Brigham, F.J., Sullivan, G.S. (1992). Effects of mnemonic reconstructions on the spatial learning of adolescents with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 15, 154-162.
Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (1991). Teaching students ways to remember: Strategies for learning mnemonically. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (1990). The case for mnemonic instruction: From laboratory investigations to classroom applications. Journal of Special Education, 24, 7-29.
Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (1990). Mnemonic instruction for learning disabled students: What it is and what it does. Learning Disability Quarterly, 13, 271-281.
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1989). Reconstructive elaborations: A model for content area learning. American Educational Research Journal, 26, 311-327.
Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., Levin, J. R., & Gaffney, J. S. (1985). Facilitating the acquisition of science facts in learning disabled students. American Educational Research Journal, 22, 575-586.