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Greek alphabet
Type Alphabet
Languages Greek
Time period ~800 BC to the present[1]
Parent
systems
Proto-Sinaitic alphabet
Phoenician alphabetGreek alphabet
Child
systems
Gothic
Glagolitic
Cyrillic
Coptic
Armenian alphabet
Old Italic alphabet
Latin alphabet
ISO 15924 Gr ek, 200
Direction Left-to-right
Unicode
alias
Greek
Unicoderange
U+0370U+03FF(http://www.unicode.org/charts
/PDF/U0370.pdf) Greek and Coptic,
U+1F00U+1FFF
(http://www.unicode.org/charts
/PDF/U1F00.pdf) Greek Extended
Greek alphabet
Alpha Nu
Beta Xi
Gamma Omicron
Delta Pi
Epsilon Rho
Zeta Sigma
Eta Tau
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Greek alphabet is the script that has been used to write the
Greek language since at least 730 BC (the 8th century BC).[2]
The
alphabet in its classical and modern form consists of 24 letters
ordered in sequence from alpha to omega. The Greek alphabet was
derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, from which it differsby being the first alphabet that provides a full representation of one
written symbol per sound both for vowels as well as consonants.
The Greek alphabet in turn is the ancestor of numerous other
European and Middle Eastern scripts that follow the same structural
principle, among them Cyrillic and Latin.[3]
The Greek alphabet reached its classical form around 400 BC, with
some details, including the use of diacritic marks, becoming fixed
only during the following centuries of the Hellenistic and Roman
period. The sequence of letters has remained unchanged since then
up to the present day, although the sound values of individualletters have changed considerably due to phonological changes
between ancient and modern Greek. While it was originally written
with only a single, majuscule form for each letter, the Greek
alphabet developed a second set of letter forms, the minuscule
letters, during the Middle Ages, resulting in the modern system of
uppercase and lowercase forms.
In addition to being used for writing Greek, both ancient and
modern, the letters of the Greek alphabet are today used as
technical symbols and labels in many domains of mathematics,
science and other fields.
1 Description
2 History
2.1 Letter names
2.2 Number notation
3 List of letters
3.1 Obsolete letters
3.2 Variant forms4 Digraphs and diphthongs
5 Diacritics
6 Use of the Greek script for other languages
6.1 Antiquity
6.2 Middle Ages
6.3 Early modern
7 Derived alphabets
8 Greek in mathematics
9 Greek encodings
9.1 ISO/IEC 8859-7
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Theta Upsilon
Iota Phi
Kappa Chi
Lambda Psi
Mu Omega
History
Archaic local variants
Ligatures (, , ) Diacritics
Numerals: (6) (90) (900)
In other languages
Bactrian Coptic Albanian
Scientific symbols
Book Category Commons
Dipylon inscription, one of the oldest
known samples of the use of the Greek
alphabet, ca. 740 BC
9.2 Greek in Unicode
9.2.1 Combining and letter-free diacritics
9.3 Encodings with a subset of the Greek alphabet
10 See also
11 References and Notes
12 Bibliography
13 Further reading
14 External links
In its classical and modern form, the Greek alphabet contains 24 letters.
They are named, in order, as follows: alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon,
zeta, eta, theta, iota, kappa, lambda, mu, nu, xi, omicron, pi, rho, sigma,
tau, upsilon, phi, chi, psi, omega. The 24 capital letters (upper-case
symbols) are: , , , , , , , , , , , ,, , , , , , , ,, , , . The 24 minuscule symbols (lower-case letters) of the Greek
alphabet (in order) are: , , , , , , , , , , , ,, , , , , (),,, , , , . Before the 24-letter alphabet, three of the original Phoenicianletters had been in use before the alphabet took its classical shape: the letter(san), similar to (sigma) denoting the same phoneme /s/; the letter(qoppa), which was redundant with (kappa) for /k/; and (digamma), whosesound value was /w/. A system of diacritics on some letters was added during
the Hellenistic period. Today the diacritics exist in two orthographic variants:
the traditional ("polytonic") system and a simplified ("monotonic") one that
has been in official use for Modern Greek since the 1980s.
Main articles: History of the Greek alphabet and Archaic Greek
alphabets
The Greek alphabet emerged in the late 9th century BC or early 8th century BC[4] Another, unrelated writing system,
Linear B, had been in use to write the Greek language during the earlier Mycenean period, but the two systems are
separated from each other by a hiatus of several centuries, the so-called Greek Dark Ages. The Greeks adopted the
alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, a member of the family of closely related West Semitic scripts. The
most notable change made in adapting the Phoenician system to Greek was the introduction of vowel letters.
According to a definition used by some modern authors, this feature makes Greek the first "alphabet" in the narrow
sense,[3]
as distinguished from the purely consonantal alphabets of the Semitic type, which according to this
terminology are called "abjads".[5]
Greek initially took over all of the 22 letters of Phoenician. Five of them were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the
glide consonants /j/ (yodh) and /w/ (waw) were used for [i] (, iota) and [u] (, upsilon) respectively; the glottal stopconsonant // ('aleph) was used for [a] (, alpha); the pharyngeal // (ayin) was turned into [o] (, omicron); and theletter for/h/ (he) was turned into [e] (, epsilon). A doublet of waw was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (,digamma). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal // (heth) was borrowed in two differentfunctions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (, heta) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as anadditional vowel letter for the long // (, eta) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually, a seventhvowel letter for the long // (, omega) was introduced.
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Main article: Greek numerals
Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical Ionian system, the first nine letters of the alphabet stood
for the numbers from 1 to 9, the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 10, from 10 to 90, and the next nine letters
stood for the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. For this purpose, in addition to the 24 letters which by that time made
up the standard alphabet, three of the obsolete letters were revived: wau/digamma () for 6, koppa () for 90, and arare Ionian letter for /ss/, today called sampi ( ), for 900. This system has remained in use in Greek up to the present
day, although today it is only employed for limited purposes, similar to the way Roman numerals are used in English.
The three extra symbols are today written as , and respectively.
Below is a table listing the Greek letters, as well as their forms when romanized. The table also provides the equivalent
Phoenician letter from which each Greek letter is derived. Pronunciations transcribed using the International Phonetic
Alphabet.
The classical pronunciation given below is the reconstructed pronunciation of Attic in the late 5th and early 4th
century BC. Some of the letters had different pronunciations in pre-classical times or in non-Attic dialects. For details,
see History of the Greek alphabet and Ancient Greek phonology. For details on post-classical Ancient Greek
pronunciation, see Koine Greek phonology.
Letter
Corresponding
Phoenicianletter
Name Transliteration1 Pronunciation
NumericvalueEnglish
AncientGreek
MedievalGreek
(polytonic)
ModernGreek
AncientGreek
ModernGreek
ClassicalAncient
Greek
ModernGreek
Aleph Alpha a [a] [a] [a] 1
Beth Beta b v [b] [v] 2
Gimel Gamma () g gh, g, y [] [], [] 3
Daleth Delta d d, dh [d] [] 4
He Epsilon e [e] 5
Zayin Zeta z [zd, dz,z] (?)
[z] 7
Heth Eta e, i [] [i] 8
Teth Theta th [t] [] 9
Yodh Iota () i [i] [i] [i], [] 10
Kaph Kappa () k [k] [k], [c] 20
Lamedh Lambda () l [l] 30
Mem Mu / m [m] 40
Nun Nu / n [n] 50
Samekh Xi x x, ks [ks] 60
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'Ayin Omicron o [o] 70
Pe Pi p [p] 80
Resh Rho r, rh r [r], [r] [r] 100
Sin Sigma s [s] 200
Taw Tau t [t] 300
Waw Upsilon / u, y y, v, f [()],[y()]
[i] 400
origin debated
Phi ph f [p] [f] 500
Chi ch ch, kh [k] [x], [] 600
Psi ps [ps] 700
'Ayin Omega o, o [] [o] 800
For details and different transliteration systems see Romanization of Greek.1.
Obsolete letters
Digamma orwau () was the continuation of Phoenician waw, denoting the sound /w/. It stood in the sixthposition in the alphabet, after. It dropped out of use because the sound /w/ became mute during the archaicand classical era. It remained in use as a numeric sign denoting the number six. In this function, its shape in
uncial and cursive writing changed to "", until in medieval Greek handwriting it was conflated with anaccidentally similar ligature sign for "". The symbol "", both in its function as a numeral continuing that ofdigamma and in its function as a ligature, is today called "stigma".
San (), shaped like a modern M, was a continuation either of Phoenician sin or tsade (the exact relationshipbeing unclear), and was used as an alternative to sigma in writing the sound /s/ in some dialects. It was replaced
by standard sigma during the classical period. Its position in the alphabet was after pi.
Koppa () was the continuation of Phoenician Qoph and was used in some dialects to denote the retractedallophone of /k/ before back vowels. Like digamma, it remained in use as a numeral sign after it had become
obsolete as an alphabetic letter. It is used for the number 90, reflecting its original position in the alphabet
between pi and rho. In uncial and cursive handwriting its shape changed to . In its numeral function it is
today displayed as .Sampi ( ), of unknown origin, was a short-lived addition used for writing a consonant /ts/ or /ss/ in some Ionic
forms of Greece, and then remained in use as a numeral for 900. It may have been a continuation of san,
although in its numeral position it did not continue the position of the latter but was placed at the end, after
omega. In later handwriting its shape changed to and it is today displayed as . Its modern namesampiprobably refers to its shape ("()", i.e. "like a pi").
Variant forms
Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval minuscule handwriting. While their use in
normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings
in Unicode.
The symbol ("curled beta") is a cursive variant form of beta (). In the French tradition of Ancient Greektypography, is used word-initially, and is used word-internally.The letter epsilon can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped ('lunate epsilon', like a
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semicircle with a stroke) or (similar to a reversed number 3). The symbol (U+03F5) is designated specificallyfor the lunate form, used as a technical symbol.
The symbol ("script theta") is a cursive form of theta (), frequent in handwriting, and used with a specializedmeaning as a technical symbol.
The symbol ("kappa symbol") is a cursive form of kappa (), used as a technical symbol.The symbol ("variant pi") is an archaic script form of pi (), also used as a technical symbol.The letter rho () can occur in different stylistic variants, with the descending tail either going straight down or
curled to the right. The symbol (U+03F1) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as a technicalsymbol.The letter sigma, in standard orthography, has two variants: , used only at the ends of words, and , usedelsewhere. The form ("lunate sigma", resembling a Latin c) is a medieval stylistic variant that can be used inboth environments without the final/non-final distinction.
The capital letter upsilon () can occur in different stylistic variants, with the upper strokes either straight like aLatin Y, or slightly curled. The symbol (U+03D2) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as atechnical symbol.
The letter phi can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped as (a circle with a vertical
stroke through it) or as (a curled shape open at the top). The symbol (U+03D5) is designated specificallyfor the closed form, used as a technical symbol.
Further information: Greek orthography
A digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the
written letters in sequence. The orthography of Greek includes several digraphs, including various pairs of vowel
letters that used to be pronounced as diphthongs but have been shortened to monophthongs in pronunciation. Many of
these are characteristic developments of modern Greek, but some, such as (pronounced [o], then [u]) and (pronounced [e], then [i]), were already present in Classical Greek. None of them are regarded as a letter of thealphabet.
During the Byzantine period, it became customary to write the silent iota in digraphs as an iota subscript (, , ).
Main article: Greek diacritics
In the polytonic orthography traditionally used for ancient Greek, vowels can carry diacritics, namely accents and
breathings. The accents are the acute accent (), the grave accent (), and the circumflex accent ( or). In AncientGreek, these accents marked different forms of the pitch accent on a vowel. By the end of the Roman period, pitch
accent had evolved into a stress accent, and in later Greek all of these accents marked the stressed vowel. The
breathings are the rough breathing (), marking an /h/ sound at the beginning of a word, and the smooth breathing (),marking its absence. The letter rho (), although not a vowel, always carries a rough breathing when it begins a word.Another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis ( ), indicating a hiatus.
In 1982, the old spelling system, known as polytonic, was simplified to become the monotonic system, which is now
official in Greece. The accents have been reduced to one, the tonos, and the breathings were abolished.
The Greek alphabet has been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages.[6]
For some
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languages, additional letters were introduced.
Antiquity
Most of the alphabets of Asia Minor, in use c. 800-300 BC to write languages like Lydian and Phrygian, were
the early Greek alphabet with only slight modifications as were the original Old Italic alphabets.
Some Paleo-Balkan languages, including Thracian. For other neighboring languages or dialects, such as Ancient
Macedonian, isolated words are preserved in Greek texts, but no continuous texts are preserved.
Some Gaulish inscriptions (in modern France) use the Greek alphabet (c. 300 BC).The Hebrew text of the Bible was written in Greek letters in Origen's Hexapla.
The Bactrian alphabet adds the letter Sho and was used to write the Bactrian language under the Kushan Empire
(65-250 AD).[7]
The Coptic alphabet adds eight letters derived from Demotic. It is still used today, mostly in Egypt, to write the
Coptic language. Letters usually retain an uncial form different from the forms used for Greek today (compare
with the forms of the Latin letters used in Gaelic script).
Middle Ages
An 8th-century Arabic fragment preserves a text in the Greek alphabet.
An Old Ossetic inscription of the 10-12c AD found in Arxyz, the oldest known attestation of an Osseticlanguage.
The Old Nubian language of Makuria (modern Sudan) adds three Coptic letters, two letters derived from
Meroitic script, and a digraph of two Greek gammas used for the velar nasal sound.
Various South Slavic dialects, similar to the modern Bulgarian and Macedonian languages, have been written in
Greek script.[8][9][10][11]
The modern South Slavic languages now use modified Cyrillic alphabets.
Early modern
Turkish spoken by Orthodox Christians (Karamanlides) was often written in Greek script, and called
Karamanlidika.
Tosk Albanian was often written using the Greek alphabet, starting in about 1500[12]
. The printing press atMoschopolis published several Albanian texts in Greek script during the 18th century. It was only in 1908 that
the Monastir conference standardized a Latin orthography for both Tosk and Gheg. Greek spelling is still
occasionally used for the local Albanian dialects (Arvanitika) in Greece.
Aromanian (Vlach) has been written in Greek characters. There is not yet a standardized orthography for
Aromanian, but it appears that one based on the Romanian orthography will be adopted.
Gagauz, a Turkic language of the northeast Balkans.
Surguch, a Turkic language spoken by a small group of Orthodox Christians in northern Greece.
Urum or Greek Tatar.
The Greek alphabet gave rise to various others:[3]
The Latin alphabet, an offshoot of an archaic western form of the Greek alphabet
The Gothic alphabet, devised in Late Antiquity to write the Gothic language
The Glagolitic alphabet, devised in the Middle Ages for writing Slavic languages
The Cyrillic script, which replaced the Glagolitic alphabet shortly afterwards
The International Phonetic Alphabet contains many Latin and Greek letters.
It is also considered a possible ancestor of the Armenian alphabet, and had an influence on the development of the
Georgian alphabet.
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Main article: Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
Greek symbols are traditionally used as names in mathematics, physics and other sciences. Many symbols have
traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon () for an arbitrarily small positive number, lower case pi () for the ratio ofthe circumference of a circle to its diameter, capital sigma () for summation, and lower case sigma () for standarddeviation.
For the usage in computers, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in
RFC 1947.
The two principal ones still used today are ISO/IEC 8859-7 and Unicode. ISO 8859-7 supports only the monotonic
orthography; Unicode supports the polytonic orthography.
ISO/IEC 8859-7
For the range A0FF (hex) it follows the Unicode range 3703CF (see below) except that some symbols, like , ,
etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings it is equal to ASCII for 007F (hex).
Greek in Unicode
Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and
even many archaic forms for epigraphy. With the use of combining characters, Unicode also supports Greek philology
and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. However, Unicode still falls short in rendering the full
range of Greek letter forms. Most current text rendering engines do not support diacritics well, so, though alpha with
macron and acute can be representedas U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well: .
There are 2 main blocks of Greek characters in Unicode. The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF). This
block is based on ISO 8859-7 and is sufficient to write Modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and
Greek-based technical symbols.
This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Formerly most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking
Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of Unicode 4.1,
Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with no Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U+03E2
to U+03EF).
To write polytonic Greek, one may use combining diacritical marks or the precomposed characters in the "Greek
Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF).
Greek and Coptic[1]
Unicode chart (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0370.pdf) (PDF)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+037x ;
U+038x
U+039x
U+03Ax
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U+03Bx
U+03Cx
U+03Dx
U+03Ex
U+03Fx
Notes
1. ^ As of Unicode version 6.1
Greek Extended[1]
Unicode.org chart (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1F00.pdf) (PDF)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+1F0x
U+1F1x
U+1F2x
U+1F3x
U+1F4x
U+1F5x
U+1F6x
U+1F7x
U+1F8x
U+1F9x
U+1FAx U+1FBx
U+1FCx
U+1FDx
U+1FEx
U+1FFx Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 6.1
Combining and letter-free diacritics
Combining and spacing (letter-free) diacritical marks pertaining to Greek language:
combining spacing sample description
U+0300 U+0060 () "varia / grave accent"
U+0301 U+00B4, U+0384 ( ) "oxia / tonos / acute accent"
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Cook, B. F. (1987). Greek inscriptions. University of California Press/British Museum.
Coulmas, Florian (1996). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd..
ISBN 0-631-21481-X.
Daniels, Peter T; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press.
Elsie, Robert (1991). "Albanian Literature in Greek Script: the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth-Century Orthodox
Tradition in Albanian Writing" (http://www.elsie.de/pdf/articles/A1991AlbLitGreek.pdf) .Byzantine and Modern Greek
Studies15 (20). http://www.elsie.de/pdf/articles/A1991AlbLitGreek.pdf.Johnston, A. W. (2003). "The alphabet". In Stampolidis, N.; Karageorghis, V. Sea Routes from Sidon to Huelva:
Interconnections in the Mediterranean 16th - 6th c. B.C.. Athens: Museum of Cycladic Art. pp. 263276.
Kristophson, Jrgen (1974). "Das Lexicon Tetraglosson des Daniil Moschopolitis".Zeitschrift fr Balkanologie10:
4128.
Macrakis, Stavros M. (1996). Character codes for Greek: Problems and modern solutions (http://www.writingsystems.net
/systems/greek/languages.htm) . http://www.writingsystems.net/systems/greek/languages.htm. Includes discussion of the
Greek alphabet used for languages other than Greek.
Mazon, Andr; Vaillant, Andr (1938). L'Evangliaire de Kulakia, un parler slave de Bas-Vardar. Bibliothque d'tudes
balkaniques. 6. Paris: Librairie Droz. selections from the Gospels in Macedonian.
Miletich, L. (1920). "Dva blgarski ru kopisa s grtsko pismo".Blgarski starini6.Peyfuss, Max Demeter (1989).Die Druckerei von Moschopolis, 1731-1769: Buchdruck und Heiligenverehrung in
Erzbistum Achrida. Wiener Archiv fr Geschichte des Slawentums und Osteuropas. 13. Bhlau Verlag.
Sims-Williams, Nicholas (1997). "New Findings in Ancient Afghanistan the Bactrian documents discovered from the
Northern Hindu-Kush" (http://www.gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~hkum/bactrian.html) . http://www.gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~hkum
/bactrian.html.
Swiggers, Pierre (1996). "Transmission of the Phoenician Script to the West". In Daniels; Bright. The World's Writing
Systems.
Hansen and Quinn (1992). Greek - An Intensive Course, Second Revised Edition. Fordham University Press. -
especially noted for an excellent discussion on traditional accents and breathings, as well as verbal formation
Humez, Alexander; Nicholas Humez (1981).Alpha to omega: the life & times of the Greek alphabet. Godine.
ISBN 0-87923-377-X. A popular history, more about Greek roots in English than about the alphabet itself.Jeffery, Lilian Hamilton (1961). The local scripts of archaic Greece: a study of the origin of the Greek
alphabet and its development from the eighth to the fif th centuries B.C.. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-814061-4.
Macrakis, Michael S. (ed.) (1996). Greek letters: from tablets to pixels. [proceedings of an international
symposium held at the Institut Franais d'Athnes, Athens, June 710, 1995 (http://www.greekfontsociety.gr
/pages/en_publications1997.html) / Greek Font Society.]. New Castle, Delaware: Oak Knoll Press.
ISBN 1-884718-27-2. http://www.greekfontsociety.gr/pages/en_publications1997.html. Includes papers on
history, typography, and character coding by Hermann Zapf, Matthew Carter, Nicolas Barker, John A. Lane,
Kyle McCarter, Jerme Peignot, Pierre MacKay, Silvio Levy, et al.
Powell, Barry B. (1996).Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet. Cambridge University Press.
discusses dating, early inscriptions, and ties to origin of texts of Homer. ISBN 052158907XRuijgh, C. J. (1998). "Sur la date de la cration de lalphabet grec".Mnemosyne51 (6): 658687.
Unicode 5.1 (http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0370.pdf) Greek range
Examples of Greek handwriting (http://ellinikasimera.dartmouth.edu/resources/texts/shapes1.html)
Greek Unicode Issues (http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/unicode.html)
Unicode FAQ - Greek Language and Script (http://www.unicode.org/faq/greek.html)
Unicode 5.1 alphabetic test for Greek Unicode range (http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/greek.html)
Unicode 5.1 numeric test for Greek Unicode range (http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/ancient-greek-
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numbers.html)
Unicode 5.1 test for all Greek-related Unicode ranges (http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis//unicode
/unicode_stories.html)
Collection of free fonts: greekfontsociety.gr (http://www.greekfontsociety.gr/pages/en_typefaces1.html)
(Greek) Collection of free truetype polytonic fonts: enoriaka.gr (http://enoriaka.gr/index.php?option=content&
task=view&id=748)
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