Grasslands and RangelandsNational Parks and Reserves

Land Use

MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS

• Almost half of the world’s livestock graze on natural grasslands (rangelands) and managed grasslands (pastures).

• We can sustain rangeland productivity by controlling the number and distribution of livestock and by restoring degraded rangeland.

MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS

• Overgrazing (left) occurs when too many animals graze for too long and exceed carrying capacity of a grassland area.

Figure 10-21

MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS

• Example of restored area along the San Pedro River in Arizona after 10 years of banning grazing and off-road vehicles. See the effects of creating a riparian zone

Figure 10-22

Case Study: Grazing and Urban Development in the American West

• Ranchers, ecologists, and environmentalists are joining together to preserve the grasslands on cattle ranches.– Paying ranchers conservation easements (barring

future owners from development).– Pressuring government to zone the land to prevent

development of ecologically sensitive areas.

Management of the American West

• Overexploitation of resources caused great damage to the American West– Poor farming practices, overgrazing,

farming arid lands• John Wesley Powell in the late 1800s called for

agencies to base management on science– Farming Western lands had to

account for arid conditions– His ideas were ignored, contributing

to failures such as the Dust Bowl of the 1930s

Parks and reserves• Reasons for establishing parks and reserves include:

– Monumentalism = preserving areas with enormous, beautiful or unusual features, such as the Grand Canyon

– Offer recreational value to tourists, hikers, fishers, hunters and others

– Protect areas with utilitarian benefits, such as clean drinking water

– Use sites that are otherwise economically not valuable and are therefore easy to protect

– Preservation of biodiversity

Federal parks and reserves began in the U.S.

• National parks = public lands protected from resource extraction and development– Open to nature

appreciation and recreation

– Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872

• The Antiquities Act of 1906 – The president can declare

selected public lands as national monuments

The National Park Service (NPS)• Created in 1916 to administer parks and

monuments– 401 sites (84 million acres)– Includes national historic sites, national recreation

areas, national wild and scenic rivers– 273.6 million visitors in 2013– 58 National Parks

– Overseen by the Department of the Interior

National Wildlife Refuges

• Begun in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt• 150 Million acres of land and water in 560 land refuge

sites• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administers refuges

– Management ranges from preservation to manipulation– Wildlife havens– Allows hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, photography,

education

Wilderness areas• Wilderness areas = area is off-limits to

development of any kind– Open to the public for hiking,

nature study, etc.– Must have minimal impact

on the land– Necessary to ensure that

humans don’t occupy and modify all natural areas

• Established within federal lands– Overseen by the agencies

that administer those areas

Not everyone supports land set-asides• Restriction of activities in wilderness areas

generated opposition to U.S. land protection policies– Some western states want resource extraction and

development• The wise-use movement = a coalition of

individuals and industries that oppose environmental protection– Protecting private property, transferring federal lands

to state or private hands, promoting motorized recreation on public lands

– Farmers, ranchers, loggers, mineral and fossil fuel industries

Wilderness protection has been weakened

• President George W. Bush weakened wilderness protection– Federal agencies have shifted policies and enforcement– Away from preservation and conservation – Toward recreation and resource extraction

Nonfederal entities also protect land• Each U.S. state and Canadian province has

agencies that manage resources– So do counties and municipalities

• Land trusts = local or regional organizations that purchase land to protect it– The Nature Conservancy is the world’s largest land

trust– Trusts protect (47 million acres)– Jackson Hole, Wyoming is protected by a land trust

Parks and reserves are increasing internationally

• Many nations have established national parks– Benefit from ecotourism– Protected areas now cover 9.6% of the world’s land area

• Parks do not always receive necessary funding– Paper parks = Areas protected on paper but not in reality– World heritage sites = protected areas that fall under

national sovereignty but are designated or managed by the United Nations

• 1007 sites across 163 countries

Transboundary and peace parks

• Transboundary park = an area of protected land overlapping national borders– For example, Waterton-Glacier National Parks in the U.S.

and Canada• Peace parks = transboundary reserves that help ease

tensions by acting as buffers between nations• Biosphere reserves = land with exceptional

biodiversity– Couple preservation with sustainable development

Biosphere reserves have several zones• This can be a win-win situation for everyone

Habitat fragmentation threatens species

• Contiguous habitat is chopped into small pieces– Species suffer

The SLOSS dilemma• Which is better to protect species?

– A Single Large Or Several Small reserves?– Depends on the species: tigers vs. insects

• Corridors = protected land that allows animals to travel between islands of protected habitat– Animals get more resources– Enables gene flow between populations

NATIONAL PARKS• Countries have established more than 1,842

national parks, but most are threatened by human activities.– Local people invade park for wood, cropland, and

other natural resources.– Loggers, miners, and wildlife poachers also deplete

natural resources.– Many are too small to sustain large-animal species.– Many suffer from invasive species.

Case Study: Stresses on U.S. National Parks

• Overused due to popularity.

• Inholdings (private ownership) within parks threaten natural resources.

• Air pollution.

Figure 10-23

• Suggestions for sustaining and expanding the national park system in the U.S.

Figure 10-24

NATURE RESERVES

• Ecologists call for protecting more land to help sustain biodiversity, but powerful economic and political interests oppose doing this.– Currently 12% of earth’s land area is protected.– Only 5% is strictly protected from harmful human

activities.– Conservation biologists call for full protection of at

least 20% of earth’s land area representing multiple examples of all biomes.

NATURE RESERVES• Large and medium-sized reserves with buffer

zones help protect biodiversity and can be connected by corridors.

➢Costa Rica has consolidated its parks and reserves into 8 megareserves designed to sustain 80% if its biodiversity.

Figure 10-10B

NATURE RESERVES• A model biosphere

reserve that contains a protected inner core surrounded by two buffer zones that people can use for multiple use.

Figure 10-25

NATURE RESERVES

• We can prevent or slow down losses of biodiversity by concentrating efforts on protecting global hot spots where significant biodiversity is under immediate threat.

• Conservation biologists are helping people in communities find ways to sustain local biodiversity while providing local economic income.

NATURE RESERVES

• Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping can be used to understand and manage ecosystems.– Identify areas to establish and connect nature

reserves in large ecoregions to prevent fragmentation.

– Developers can use GIS to design housing developments with the least environmental impact.

NATURE RESERVES

• Wilderness is land legally set aside in a large enough area to prevent or minimize harm from human activities.

• Only a small percentage of the land area of the United States has been protected as wilderness.

Agriculture: Problems & Solutions

Monoculture, Slash & Burn Farming

Intercropping, Polyculture, Crop

Rotation & Agroforestry

Plowing/Tilling & Row Crops

Contour Plowing, Terracing, No-Till

Spray/Furrow Irrigation, Salinization, Waterlogging

Drip irrigation, Hydroponics, GMO drought-tolerant crops

Mechanization, CAFOs, “Energy Subsidy”

• Food travels ~ 2,000 km to reach your plate

Local & Unprocessed foods, Less Meat

Pesticide persistence; pesticide treadmill; collateral damage

• Bees dying from use of neonicotinoids

IPM (Integrated Pest Management)

& GMOs

Synthetic Fertilizer Production; Overapplication/runoff (eutrophication)

Organic Fertilizer, Composting, GMOs

Western Diet, “Lifestyle Diseases”

White Meat, Mediterranean Diet, Paleo Diet, Antibiotic-free meat

Marine Fisheries Overview

This project supported in part by the National Science Foundation. Opinions expressed are those of the authors and

not necessarily those of the Foundation.

byWynn W. Cudmore, Ph.D.

Northwest Center for Sustainable ResourcesDUE # 0757239

Summary• Marine fisheries are an important biological and

cultural resource• Significant numbers of stocks are overexploited or

depleted• Overfishing is a major cause for the decline of marine

fisheries• Traditional fisheries management has not resulted in

sustainable fisheries• New approaches include both market-based and

ecosystem-based solutions

NOAA Photo Library / OAR/National Undersea Research Program (NURP); Alaska Department of Fish and Game

What is a fishery?

• The resource (fish species)• The habitat• The people involved

NOAA Photo Library ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies / Marine Photobank NOAA Photo Library –Kip Evans

Tsukiji Fish MarketTokyo, Japan

Wikipedia

Most fish are harvested within 200 miles of shore

• Upwellings• Continental shelves• Estuaries

NEFSC (NOAA) NASA, MODIS Rapid Response Team

NCSR et. al.

Status of Marine Fisheries

• In 2004, 52% of world fish stocks were fully exploited, 25% were overexploited or depleted

• Large predatory fish have declined globally by 90%

• At least 42% of U.S. fisheries are being overexploited

UNFAO– Antonio Pais

Fisheries Collapses

Atlantic cod

Atlantic salmon

Pacific sardine

Haddock

Atlantic halibut

Peruvian anchovy

Collapse of the Atlantic Cod Fishery off Newfoundland

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

Causes for Marine Fishery Declines

• Overfishing

The rate of fish mortality (harvest plusbycatch) exceeds the natural rate of replacement.

NOAA Photo Library – Teobaldo Dioses

Causes for Marine Fishery Declines

• Overfishing• Highly efficient technology

Fishing vessels and gear

Radar and sonar

Electronic navigation

Aircraft with infrared sensors

Electronic image intensifiers

NOAA Photo Library - C. Oritz Rojas

Causes for Marine Fishery Declines

• Overfishing• Highly efficient technology• Bycatch

The capture of non-target fish or other marine animalsin fishing gear

NOAA Photo Library

Causes for Marine Fishery Declines

• Overfishing• Highly efficient technology• Bycatch• Overcapacity

Fishing fleets are larger than necessary to harvest the allowable catch

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

Community and ecosystem-level impacts of fishery declines

• Fishing down the food web• Habitat degradation• Trophic cascades• Changes in life history traits

Fishing Down the Food WebThe serial harvest of progressively lower

trophic levels

Time

Trophic Level

Concept : Daniel Pauly; Artist: Aque Atanacio

Habitat Degradation: the impact of fishing gear

Dr. R. Grant Gilmore, Dynamac CorporationLance Horn, National Undersea Research Center/University of North Carolina at Wilmington

Before trawling After trawling

Deep-sea Oculina coral reefs off Florida's Atlantic Coast

Changes in life history traits

• Females respond to fishing pressure by spawning at an earlier age

• Removal of large females reduces reproductive potential

NOAA Fisheries

Summary of Community/Ecosystem Effects of Fishing

Pew Center on Global Climate Change

Why are fishery declines allowed to occur?

“Overfishing occurs because all of the economic incentives are in place for it to occur.”

Iudicello, et al., 1999

• Government subsidies• Increasing demand• Shifting baselines• Lack of adequate fisheries data

Government subsidies

The global fishing fleet spends $50 billion more than it makes every year.

UN Food and Agriculture Organization

Increasing demand for seafood

From 1961 to 2003 total fish consumption in China increased from 3.2 million tons to 25.4 million tons Artwork © Ray Troll

Shifting Baselines“Fishing has a short memory. If you see twice as many fish as you’ve seen in

the last 10 years, it’s still twice as much of not very much.”

Teri Frady - NMFS

Post card from Census of Marine Life - History of Marine Animal Populations – Glenn Jones

Lack of Adequate Fisheries Data

Effective management requires collection andinterpretation of basic biological information on fish species and marine ecosystems

© Pete Naylor, uwphoto.geckoworks.com 2005 / Marine Photobank

Traditional fisheries management (“Single-species approach” – failed)

• Quotas (Total Allowable Catches)• Gear restrictions• Maximum sustainable yield• Closures

Gear Restrictions(ex: mesh size limits on nets)

NOAA Fisheries

NCSR

Closures – an example

Areas closed in 1994 to any fishing gear capable of catching Atlantic cod

NOAA Fisheries

Sea scallops on Georges Bank

NOAA Fisheries – Northeast Fisheries Science Center NOAA Fisheries - Chantell Royer

Area Closed

Market-based Solutions

• Certification• Consumer-based solutions• Purchase of fishing rights• Aquaculture• Increased use of underutilized species• Reduce government subsidies

Certification of Seafood

Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)

52 fisheries certified:■ North Sea herring■ Australian mackerel■ Oregon Pink Shrimp■ Baja California red rock lobster

MSC / Marine Photobank

Consumer-based solutions

www.blueocean.org/fishphone.index.html

Purchase of fishing rights

Governments may buy out willing fishing permit holders to reduce fishing effort

NOAA Fisheries - Robert Brigham

Aquaculture

Fish farming has the potential to reduce the pressure on wild-caught fish

Farmed organisms that do not consume fish meal are most sustainable

NOAA Photo Library – Courtesy of UNFAO, Danilo Cedrone

Increased use and marketing of underutilized species

• Silver hake = “whiting”

• Slimeheads = “orange roughy”• Patagonian toothfish = “Chilean sea bass”

• Deep sea angler = “monkfish”

Sascha Regmann / Project Blue Sea / Marine Photobank (top image)

© Gavin Parsons / www.gavinparsons.co.uk / Marine Photobank (bottom image)

Reduce government subsidies

Reduction and eventual elimination of government subsidies allows price to be

a more reliable indicator of scarcity.

Ecosystem-based Fishery Management

Attempts to sustain healthy marine ecosystems and the fisheries they support

• Reduce bycatch• Marine reserves• Catch share programs• Ecologically sustainable yield

Reduce bycatchTurtle excluder device on shrimp boat in Gulf of Mexico

NOAA Photo Library / William B. Folsom, NMFS

Marine Reserves

Extractive activities (fishing, mining, oil drilling) are prohibited in marine reserves

Catch Share Programs Limited Access Privilege Programs – LAPPs

Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs) can be

bought and sold

UNFAO / NOAA Photo Library / Jose Cort

Bluefin tuna harvest in Spain

The Future of Marine Fisheries

“An ecosystem-based approach is founded on the notion that robust fisheries depend onhealthy marine ecosystems…… Ideally, ecosystem-based fishery management would shift the burden of proof that fishing would not take place unless it could be shown not to harm key components of the ecosystem.”

Pikitch, et al. 2004

NOAA Photo Library / Passage Productions

COMPASS, E. Neeley

Some good news for a change?