Post on 30-Apr-2018
Floristic and ethnoecological diversity in various habitatsof a semi-arid area in the Chakwal district (Pakistan),with special emphasis on medicinal plants
Mehwish Jamil Noor • Mushtaq Ahmad • Muhammad Zafar • Maliha Sarfraz •
Ismail Yusoff • Yatimah Alias • Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf
Received: 15 April 2014 / Accepted: 17 July 2014
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Abstract Floristic and ethnoecological studies were
conducted in the semi-arid areas of different habitats
of Chakwal. Forty-two plant species belonging to 39
genera and 25 plant families were studied and
collected during the year 2012. All of the families
were angiosperms; three were monocots, while 22
were dicots. A greater number of the species that were
used locally were herbs. Of the species studied,
18.60 % were shading species, while fodder species
were 16.2 % and vegetable/edible species were
20.93 % of the total. Forage, potted herbs, fuel and
ornamental species composed 9.30 % of the species
used. The pollen morphology indicated that Ipomoea
carneahas as the largest pollen (i.e., 109 lm), and
Eucalyptus camaldulensis has the smallest pollen size
of all the selected species (i.e., a size of 17.5 lm). The
pH values and electrical conductivities of the soil
samples from the various habitats showed that the soil
in the area is mostly alkaline, and the concentration of
soluble salts varies among the different habitats. The
population in the area depends on the indigenous
resources, but traditional agriculture is now being
replaced by modern techniques; therefore, local
resources are becoming extinct due to the loss of
habitats. The exploration of alternative resources and
proper management is required for the conservation of
habitats.
Keywords Ethnoecology � Medicinal plants �Diversity � Semiarid region � Pakistan
Introduction
Chakwal, a Barani district, gained an independent
district status of the Rawalpindi division in 1985.
Chakwal has a hilly terrain, located at edge of the
Potowar plateau and the Salt Range. Scrub forest cover
lies in the southwest, while in the north and northeast
are leveled plains with dry rocky patches. This district
covers an area of 1,631,190 acres. Chakwal has an
Communicated by J. B. Fontaine and G. Stewart.
M. J. Noor
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah
Women University, The Mall, Rawalpindi 46000,
Pakistan
M. Ahmad � M. Zafar
Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University,
Islamabad 45320, Pakistan
M. Sarfraz
Department Physiology & Pharmacology, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan
I. Yusoff � M. A. Ashraf (&)
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of
Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
e-mail: aqeelashraf@um.edu.my
Y. Alias
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University
of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
123
Plant Ecol
DOI 10.1007/s11258-014-0384-1RETRACTEDART
ICLE
appearance typical of the region and can be classified
into mountains, hills, rocks, plains, weathered rocky
plains, piedmont plains, loess plains, and river plains.
The southwest has the appearance of scrub forest, on
one side of which are flat plains; the north and
northeast areas are covered with patches of rocky
areas, ravines, gorges and some desert areas. Hence,
the plain areas on the hills are cultivated, and
considerable surrounding areas are covered by forests
(Fig. 1).
A diverse range of plants and animals is found in
the district. The vegetation is dry, deciduous scrub,
and the predominant grass species are sharila (Heter-
opogon contortus), khawi (Cymbopogon jwarancusa),
mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), and karir (Capparis
decidua). All of these plant species are found
throughout the district. The most abundant species in
the region are wild olive (Olea cuspidate), phulai
(Acacia modesta), sanatha (Dodonaea viscosa), gur-
gura (Monotheca buxifolia), and pataki (Gymnosporia
royleana).
Ethnoecology is essentially the cross-cultural study
of people’s perceptions and manipulation of their
surroundings or environments. According to Toledo
Fig. 1 Map of Chakwal district, Pakistan
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(1987) and Patton (1993), ethnoecology includes the
facts, policies, approaches and abilities that enable a
rural area to benefit from the environment with the
proper management of nature’s resources. Ethnoecol-
ogy focuses on the traditional indigenous linguistic
investigation of the names for plants, animals, habi-
tats, and other ecological phenomena with the goal of
revealing the structure and behavior of the local
community (Costantini et al. 2006). This term was first
introduced by Harold Conklin in 1954. Heinrich
(2000) considered ethnoecology as an in-depth under-
standing of native people’s knowledge regarding the
environment and the various ways they use their
environment, an understanding of the structure and
intellectual relationships that each local culture has
with the non-human environment of that culture
(Heinrich 2000). Preliminary work was performed
by Conklin, Frake, Berlin and various other research-
ers, who documented the indigenous ethnoecological
knowledge representing the history of how humanity
flourished. The work of these investigators demon-
strates the significance of indigenous knowledge
compared with western scientific knowledge. The
difference is clearly explained in the ethnoecological
data, which is not only a bridge between two cultures
but also a source of the conservation of cultures and
biodiversity (Costantini et al. 2006).
Floristic studies are systematic studies of the plant
species of a specific area. Floristic studies cover a wide
range from the vascular plants of a small region to the
biosystematic study of the flora of an entire continent.
Floristic studies are utilized to determine species
richness, land-use history, plant species composition,
hybrids, and reforestation (Soo et al. 2009). A number
of studies have been conducted in Pakistan by the
following investigators: Qureshi and Bhatti (2005,
2010), Parveen and Hussain (2007), Qureshi (2008),
Shaheen et al. (2011), Khan et al. (2014), Hussain et al.
(1996), Sher et al. (2011), and Noor and Kalsoom
(2011). Palynology addresses the morphology and
formation of pollen grains (angiosperms) and spores
(fungi) as well as the preservation and dispersal of
these plant components (Moore et al. 1991).
This study is helpful for identifying the ethnoeco-
logically important plant species of Chakwal with the
support of a floristic analysis and provides general
information regarding the abundance of these species
in a semi-arid region. These data will be useful for
taxonomic studies. The information that was
generated by this study could be used to find and
implement solutions to current problems, such as the
cultivation of crops in water-scarce arid or semi-arid
regions, the conservation of biodiversity, or the
ecological restoration of disturbed sites.
Methodology
This study was performed in various habitats of
Chakwal in 2012. Selected species that had any
significant value to the people were collected on the
basis of interviews conducted according to the ques-
tionnaire method adopted. The data collection was
performed through interviews, informal meetings,
group discussions, and semi-structured questionnaires
that were prepared after observations and repeated
surveys of the study area were conducted with the
permission of the local people. The respondents were
primarily 30–65 years of age. After various field visits,
the plants were collected, dried, and preserved. The
pollen morphology and stomata and leaf shapes were
studied, and microscopic slides were prepared. The life
form and leaf size of the plants were also studied. The
pH and EC values of the soil in various habitats were
also recorded. The plants were mounted, and voucher
specimens were deposited in The Taxonomy Lab of
Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi, for
future reference. For stomata study, the impression
technique (Hilu and Randall 1984) was used. The life
form of the plants was calculated according to the
Raunkiaer system. The leaf size area was measured in
mm2, and the leaf size classes were determined as
described by Raunkiaer (1934) and Hussain (1989).
The pollen morphology was performed following the
method of Noor et al. (2004). The pH and EC were
determined with a pH and EC meter (Fig. 2).
Status of selected species
0
5
10
15
20
25
Cultivated species Wild species Both
Species status
No
. of s
pec
ies
Fig. 2 Status of the selected species in Chakwal
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Table 1 Ethnobotanical data of the plant species of Chakwal
Sample
no
Local
name
Scientific name Family name Local uses
1 Palwan Chloris barbata Poaceae Fodder
2 Ghandal Conyza
bonariensis
Asteraceae Fodder for cattle
3 Pohli Carthamus spp. Asteraceae Fodder for camels
4 Ghas Chrysopogon
machery
Poaceae Forage for live stock
5 Mena Medicago
polymorpha
Fabaceae Fodder
6 Gram Cicer arietinum Fabaceae Food and green leaves as potted herb
7 Deela Fimbristylis
turkestanica
Cyperaceae Forage for buffalo
8 Safaida Eucalyptus
camaldulensis
Myrtaceae Shade, fuel, and roof thatching spp., and the trunk is used for support
during construction
9 Lehli Convolvulus
arvensis
Convolvulaceae Fodder and forage leaves
10 Mongphali Arachis
hypogaea
Fabaceae Food; green leaves as fodder
11 Vlaitiak Ipomoea
carnea
Convolvulaceae Soil binding spp. and leaves are used as a poultice to cure swelling;
crushed leaves are used as poultice
12 Ghari Ziziphus
nummularia
Rhamnaceae Berries edible; used as fences and soil binding spp., also as roof
thatching and for honey bee species
13 Itsit Boerhaavia
procumbens
Nyctaginaceae As spiritual healing spp. for jaundice; woody stem is cut into pieces,
bound with thread and put on the necks of the children
14 Mahokari Solanum
surattense
Solanaceae Edible, and used for diabetic patients as soup
15 Mahokar Solanum
xanthocarpum
Solanacease Edible, and used for diabetic patients as soup
16 Sherinh Albizia lebbeck Leguminosae Shade and fuel
17 Anar Punica
granatum
Lythraceae Fruit
18 Beri Zizyphus jujuba Rhamnaceae Shade, timber, fuel, and also for making agricultural tools and furniture
19 Safaid toot Morus alba Moraceae Fruit edible and shade
20 Kerimar Heliotropium
strigosum
Boraginaceae Forage spp.
21 Kachmach Solanum
nigrum
Solanaceae Potted herb (making saag)
22 Dharek Melia
azedarach
Meliaceae Shade and agricultural tools
23 Athubathu Chenopodium
album
Chenopdiaceae Potted herb (making saag) and fodder
24 Ak Calotropis
procera
Asclepiadaceae Healing of wounds; leaves are crushed and applied on the wounds
25 Chatri
dhodhak
Euphorbia
helioscopia
Euphorbiaceae Milky juice is applied for eruptions; fresh leaves are crushed, and the
juice is extracted
26 Taramera Eruca sativa Cruciferae Potted herb and seeds for yielding oil
27 Bhutak Asphodelus
tenuifolius
Liliaceae Juice is applied on warts and used in making bread and milk for halwa
(sweet dish); fresh needles are crushed and juice is extracted and
applied
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Results
This study was conducted in different habitats of
Chakwal, and plant species were collected and exam-
ined for pollen morphology, life form, leaf size, and
stomatal shapes. Soil samples were collected from
different habitats. The ethnoecological data of 42
plants from 39 genera and 25 families were collected
during 2012. Ethnobotanical data of the plant species
of Chakwal is shown in Table 1. All the families were
angiosperms; three were monocots, while 22 were
dicots. The ethnobotanical record includes the local
and botanical names, the corresponding family, the
plant part used, and the medicinal and botanical utility
(Table 1). Fifteen different uses were identified, of
which a higher percentage (30.23 %) was of medicinal
value. Summary of percentage use of the plants of
Chakwal on the basis of ethnoecology is shown in
Table 2. A greater number of species used locally
were herbs, while trees and shrubs had comparatively
fewer economic uses. Herbs were found in greater
numbers because the nutritional requirements from the
soil for herbs are less compared to other plant species.
Floristic analysis of the semi-arid area of Chakwal is
explained in Table 3. Most of the species that were
collected had more than one use, e.g., Acacia modesta,
Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Tribulus terrestris, etc.
A greater number of species were found in fields and
around the field (i.e., 31), and the fewest number of
species were found in the water-logged area. Of the
collected species, most were wild plants (Fig. 3).
The questionnaire and interview respondents had
primary to middle levels of education. The older
people belonged to different professions, but the
Table 1 continued
Sample
no
Local
name
Scientific
name
Family name Local uses
28 Pohli Carthamus
oxycantha
Asteraceae Young plants for fodder, and seeds yield oil that is used for ulcer and
itching on the skin
29 Asgand Withania
somnifera
Solanaceae Root paste is applied on bleeding wounds; the root is dried and ground,
then mixed with water and used on wounds
30 Phuli Acacia
modesta
Mimosaceae Shade, fuel, timber, honey bee and resin yielding
31 Jaoundri Avena sativa Poaceae Fodder and used in prickling
32 Harmal Peganum
harmala
Zygophyllaceae Used for animals to increase meat production and also as an evil repellent
33 Soy Anetlum soya Apiaceae As medicine to regulate periods in women; soy seeds are used in
combination with sugar and ajwain
34 Bhakra Tribulus
terrestris
Zygophyllaceae Used in urinary, genital diseases and also for backache; used in the form
of halwa (sweet dish)
35 Kekar Acacia
arabica
Fabaceae Shade, fuel, timber, flowers for Leokoria, resin yielding and honey bee
species
36 Jangli
Shahtoot
Broussonetia
papyrifera
Moraceae Shade
37 Khakri Cucumis melo Cucurbitaceae Edible fruit, green leaves for fodder
38 Renda Citrullus
lanatus
Cucurbitaceae Edible fruit, green leaves for fodder
39 Sukhchain Pongamia
pinnata
Fabaceae Shade, ornamental
40 Gulabi
gulab
Rosa indica Rosaceae Ornamental and extraction of rose water
41 Safaid
gulab
Rosa alba Rosaceae Ornamental
42 Peela
gulab
Sonchus asper Asteraceae Ornamental
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majority were farmers. Most of the local people had a
joint family system, in which a household composition
involved a maximum of 9 and minimum of 3 women in
a house. While in case of men, the maximum number
was 11, and the minimum was 5. The annual wages of
the farmers are approximately Rs. 30,000.
Fifteen different uses were identified for the 42
different plant species that were collected on the basis
of their economic use, and most of the selected species
had more than one use (Table 2). The percentages for
each of the uses were determined. The species are
mostly used for fodder, shade, medicine, and food.
The data indicate that most of the species are used for
medicinal purposes, while the number of species used
for fodder and shade and as fruits/vegetables is also
high. In contrast, the percentage of species used for
furniture and for repelling evil is low. Most of the
species are wild, while a smaller number of the species
fall into the category of both, i.e., species that grow as
wild plants and are also cultivated by the local people
(Figs. 4, 5).
The life form, leaf size, and stomatal shape of 42
species, mostly therophytes, were observed in the
selected species. The trees were microphanerophytes
and nanophanerophytes. The local name and family
name are described. After studying the shape of the
stomata, it was observed that paracytic, pericytic, and
anomotetracytic were the most common (Table 3).
The pollen morphologies of 34 plant species were
examined. Ten slides for each plant specimen were
prepared and examined with a microscope. The pH
values and electrical conductivities of the soil samples
were recorded (Table 4, Fig. 6a, b). Samples of the
soil were analyzed and the results are shown in
Table 4. The pollen morphology indicated that Ip-
omoea carneahas as the largest pollen (i.e., 109 lm),
and Eucalyptus camaldulensis has the smallest pollen
size of all the selected species (i.e., a size of 17.5 lm).
Pollen morphology of selected plant species is shown
in Table 5.
Discussion
The inhabitants of Chakwal have been utilizing plants
as medicines for centuries. This knowledge has been
transferred through their ancestors based on their
lifelong experiences. Heinrich (2000) believes that
local communities preserve comprehensive knowl-
edge regarding the ecology and utilization of indige-
nous organisms; this phenomenon was also observed
in this study. In addition, the villages are at a distance
from the urban areas, and there is a lack of proper
medical services (Shinwari and Khan 2000); therefore,
people prefer to use natural resources as a treatment.
The interview findings reflect that the respondents
belong to a diverse group of people from various walks
of life. The largest proportion of the information on the
ethnoecological species of Chakwal was obtained
from respondents who were over 35 years of age. The
elders prefer to live in the native villages, while the
newer generations are more modernized and tend to
leave their ancestral land due to poverty and the lack of
other basic necessities in search of education, jobs, and
a better life style away from nature.
Fifty percent of the respondents were illiterate or
had a primary level of education, which reflects the
concept that indigenous knowledge is very familiar to
the older and less educated people and is going to
diminish with the passage of time. It is recommended
that this inherited knowledge be incorporated into the
national biodiversity programs by using the practices
of the local people in the local management of these
species, including the spontaneous management
within the ecosystem and intensive management in
the cultivation of the flora (Heinrich 2000). The trend
Table 2 Summary of percentage use of the plants of Chakwal
on the basis of ethnoecology
Economic uses classes No. of
species
Percentage
use
1. Fodder species 7 16.2
2. Forage species 4 9.30
3. Potted herb (making saag) species 4 9.30
4. Shading species 8 18.60
5. Medicinal species 13 30.23
6. Fuel species 4 9.30
7. Roof-thatching species 2 4.65
8. Furniture-making species 1 2.32
9. Vegetable/edible fruit species 9 20.93
10. Honey bee food species 3 6.97
11. Agricultural tool-making species 3 6.97
12. Soil-binding species 2 4.65
13. Resin-yielding species 2 4.65
14. Evil-repellent species 1 2.32
15. Ornamental species 4 9.30
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Table 3 Floristic analysis of the semi-arid area of Chakwal
S. no. Plant name Local name Family name Life forma Leaf sizeb Stomatal shape
1 Chloris barbata Palwan Poaceae TH N Paracytic
2 Conyza bonariensis Ghandal Asteraceae TH N Actinocytic
3 Carthamus oxycantha Poli Asteraceae TH N Anomotetracytic
4 Chrysopogon machery Ghas Poaceae TH L Paracytic
5 Medicago polymorpha Mena Fabaceae TH L –
6 Cicer arietinum Channy Fabaceae TH L Paracytic
7 Fimbristylis turkestanica Deela Cyperaceae TH N Paracytic
8 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Safaida Myrtaceae Mp Mic Pericytic
9 Convolvulus arvensis Lehli Convolvulaceae TH L Axillocytic and staurocytic
10 Arachis hypogaea Mongphali Fabaceae TH L Paracytic
11 Ipomoea carnea Vlaitiak Convolvulaceae Mp Mic Apparently pericytic
12 Ziziphus nummularia Ghari Rhamnaceae Np L Apparently anomotetracytic
13 Boerhaavia procumbens Itsit Nyctaginaceae TH L Anomotetracytic
14 Solanum surattense Mahokari Solanaceae He N Anomotetracytic
15 Solanum xanthocarpum Mahokar Solanaceae He N Pericytic
16 Albizia lebbeck Sherinh Leguminosae Mp N Apparently anomocytic
17 Punica granatum Anar Lythraceae Mp N Pericytic
18 Zizyphus jujuba Beri Rhamnaceae Mp N –
19 Morus alba Safaid toot Moraceae Mep Mic Paracytic
20 Heliotropium strigosum Kerimar Boraginaceae TH N Pericytic
21 Solanum nigrum Kachmach Solanaceae Ch N
22 Melia azedarach Dharek Meliaceae Mp N Brachyparacytic
23 Chenopodium album Athubathu Chenopdiaceae TH N Brachyparacytic
24 Calotropis procera Ak Asclepiadaceae Mp Mes Actinocytic-diacytic
25 Euphorbia helioscopia Chatri dhodhak Euphorbiaceae TH N Apparently anomotetracytic
26 Eruca sativa Tara mera Brassicaceae TH N Anomotetracytic
27 Asphodelus tenuifolius Bhutak Liliaceae TH L Apparently pericytic
28 Carthamus oxycantha Pohli Asteraceae TH N Amphianisocytic–anomotetracytic
29 Withania somnifera Asgand Solanaceae Np N Amphianisocytic
30 Acacia modesta Phuli Mimosaceae Mp L Pericytic
31 Avena sativa Jaoundri Poaceae TH L Parasytic
32 Peganum harmala Harmal Zygophyllaceae He L Staurocytic–anomotetracytic
33 Anetlum soya Soy Apiaceae TH L Paracytic
34 Tribulus terrestris Bhakra Zygophyllaceae TH L –
35 Acacia arabica Kekar Fabaceae Mp-Mep L –
36 Broussonetia papyrifera Jangli Shahtoot Moraceae Mep Mic –
37 Cucumis melo Khakri Cucurbitaceae TH Mic –
38 Citrullus lanatus Renda Cucurbitaceae TH N Apparently anomotetracytic
39 Pongamia pinnata Sukhchain Fabaceae Mep N –
40 Rosa indica Gulabi gulab Rosaceae He N –
41 Rosa alba Safaid gulab Rosaceae He N –
42 Sonchus asper – Asteraceae TH N Anisocytic
a Key for life form: Mp microphanerophytes, Np nanophanerophytes, He hemicryptophytes, TH therophytes, Mep mesophenerophytesb Key for leaf size: Mes mesophyll, N nanophyll, M megaphyll, Mic microphyll, L leptophyll
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of using resources by focusing on the significance of
indigenous communities was begun in 1980s (UICN
1984; WRI 1992); since that time, the people have
been given consideration in the sustainable develop-
ment of a specific region. Cultural traits have possibly
attracted attention because this focus was considered
irrelevant earlier in the management program (Han-
bury-Tension 1991). However, currently in environ-
mental research, the local inhabitants are given the
status of a research tool for gathering a record of the
flora and fauna and determining the obligatory
features of regional development (NAS 1992).
It has been found that those people have a
comprehensive knowledge of the plant species, and
the local inhabitants use their own approach to
identifying the plants based on diverse conditions,
such as usage, medicinal values, spiritual and religious
beliefs, habits, habitats, morphology, etc. According
to this study, in contrast to the previous study
conducted by Badshah et al. (1996), the species are
primarily used for medicine and as fodder species, and
it was observed that the fodder and medicinal species
have experienced degradation over the years because
the local people depend on these natural resources for
a living and the resources are quickly being exploited
with the increased population. It was observed that
another reason for species degradation is rural growth,
road construction, agriculture, and cattle grazing, etc.
In the current situation, in which everyone in the study
areas are now also cognizant of the environmental
challenges and the depletion of resources, there is a
need to focus on the traditional knowledge and to
develop a link, a bridge, between the local indigenous
knowledge of nature and the formal sciences. This link
will play a vital role in understanding how such
interdisciplinary studies played vital roles in combat-
ing famine in the past and will promote sustainable
development in future. Ethnoecology emphasizes the
role of local interests in the sustainable utilization of
natural resources; for example, by using the ethno-
ecological interests and with help of ethnoecological
ideas, the government agents of the Yucatan peninsula
(Mexico’s southern region) funded a conservation
development based on sustainable practices and
utilizing principles applied according to the local
ethnoecology of the land. Similar trends are advised
for this region. Accordingly, the knowledge of localFig. 3 Habit of the selected species of Chakwal
Fodder species
10%
Forage species 6%
Pot herb (saag making) species
6%
Shading species 12%
Medicinal species 19%
Fuel species 6%
Roof thatching species
3%
Furniture making species
2%
Vegetable/ediblefruit species
13%
Honey bee species 5%
Agricultural tool making species
4%
Soil binding species 3%
Resin yielding species
3%
Evil repellent species
2%Ornamental species
6%
Chart TitleFig. 4 Ratio of
ethnoecological significance
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inhabitants must be spread by promoting university
training in such applied fields. A plan to implement
policies promoting sustainable rural development is
also required.
It was found that a greater number of species that
were locally used were herbs, while trees and shrubs
had less utilization. Most species that were collected
had more than one use, e.g., Acacia modesta, Euca-
lyptus cammodulenses camaldulensis, and Tribulus
terrestris, etc. A greater number of species were found
in and around fields (i.e., 31), and the fewest number of
species was found in the water-logged areas. Of the
collected species, most were wild plants, and fewer
had a status being cultivated as well as wild plants
(Fig. 7).
The life-form spectrum provides basic climatic
information (Danin and Orshan 1990). In this study,
the spectrum of life forms according to Raunkiaer was
utilized because this method has a greater predictive
power for the climatic conditions and is potentially
applicable in any environment but most useful in a
seasonal climate. The measurement of the life forms of
the ethnoecologically significant plants revealed that
most of the plants were therophytes; these plants are
annual and have the ability to survive during an
unfavorable season, such as that seen in the Chakwal
region, and survive there in the form of seeds,
completing the plant’s life-cycle when the favorable
season returns. Therophytes are stated to be present
under conditions of low precipitation and high tem-
perature in regions that contain arid and semi-arid life-
form spectra (Araujo et al. 2005). Microphanero-
phytes, nanophanerophytes, and hemicryptophytes
were also observed (Table 1). However, when the
ratios were compared, it was found that the presence of
these three types of plants is negligible: 22 plants were
therophytes; 9 were microphanerophytes; 3 were
mesophanerophytes; 5 were nanophanerophytes; and
Fig. 5 Percentage of life form representation
Table 4 pH and electrical conductivity of various habitats of
Chakwal
S.
no.
Habitat pH at 25 �C
(mean)
Electrical
conductivity
(mean)
1 Saline area 9.34 846 ls at 34.3 �C
2 Field 8.33 235 ls at 32.3 �C
3 Forest patches 8.05 152.5 ls at
34.3 �C
4 Around the
wetland
8.15 240 ls at 36.2 �C
5 Pasture 8.02 440 ls at 33.3 �C
6 Home garden 7.49 207 ls at 30.5 �C
7 Roadside 8.39 222 ls at 27.6 �C
8 Graveyard 7.82 318 ls at 32.2 �C
Mean 8.19875 332.5625
STDV 0.542281885 224.840171
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Salinearea
Field Forestpatches
Aroundthe
wetland
Pasture Homegarden
Roadside
Graveyard
pH
Habitats
pH of Soil of Various habitats (25˚C)
pH at 25˚C(Mean)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Saline area Field Forestpatches
Aroundthe
wetland
Pasture Homegarden
Road side Grave yard
Ele
cttr
ical
Co
nd
uct
ivit
y
Electrical Conductivity (Mean)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6 a pH of soil of various habitats (25 �C) and b electrical
conductivity (mean)
Plant Ecol
123
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Plant Ecol
123
RETRACTEDART
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Plant Ecol
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4 were hemicryptophytes. Raunkiaer’s system is most
popular one; although it is often refined (Barkman
1988), the fundamental classifications, such as phan-
erophytes, chamaephytes, hemicryptophytes, geo-
phytes, and therophytes, are generally maintained.
This life-form spectrum has predictive signs of
particular climates because Raunkiaer (1910) believed
that life-form spectra could be predicted for the
particular climate properties of any continent, bioge-
ography, and altitude. The leaf size classification
indicated that the leaf sizes mostly were in the
nanophyll category, but leptophyll leaves were also
present in large numbers. Mesophyll and megaphyll
leaves were also observed. Stomata were first studied
by Stresburger (1866). Twenty-five types of stomata
based on the epidermal cells were discovered by
Metcalfe and Chalk (1979).
In this study, the shapes that were observed were
paracytic, actinocytic, anomotetracytic, pericytic,
brachyparacytic, anomocytic, amphianisocytic, tauro-
cytic, and anisocytic. Paracytic shapes were observed
most frequently. Sixty-nine stomatal forms of dicots
belonging to 64 genera and 28 families were studied
with LM and SEM. Six stomatal types, i.e., anisocytic,
parallelocytic, anomocytic, cyclocytic, paracytic, and
diacytic, were identified by Perveen et al. (2007). In
this study, pericytic, paracytic, and anomoparacytic
were the most common.
Fig. 7 Selected pollen micrographs. a Acacia modesta, b Eucalyptus camaldulensis, c Sonchus asper, and d Avena sativa
Plant Ecol
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The study of pollen morphology indicates the
variation in the shape, size, apertures, number of
apertures, exine thickness, and aperture size. Spores
and pollen are marvelous objects for study. The
morphology of these components is noticeably vari-
able (Jansonius and McGregor 1996). Of the 36 plant
species that were studied for pollen morphology, it
was observed that Ipomoea carnea has the largest
pollen size of all the selected species, i.e., 109 lm,
while Albizia lebbeck has a size of 79.16 lm,
Boerhaavia procumbens has 78.3 lm pollen, Asph-
odelus tenuifolius has 60.8 lm pollen, Citrullus
lanatus has 60 lm pollen, Convolvulus arvensis has
55 lm pollen, and Cucumis melo has a 50 lm pollen
size. Eucalyptus camaldulensis has smallest size of all
the selected species, i.e., a pollen size of 17.5 lm. The
most common shapes of the pollens were round, polar,
circular, and angular in the polar view, while a prolate
shape was most commonly found in the equatorial
view. Perprolate, rhomboidal, apple-shaped, oval, and
suboblate shapes were also found. The different
species had different apertures, i.e., poricolpi, and
some species had both types; the number of apertures
also differed. The following pollen types were found:
mono-, di-, tri-, and tetraporate, mono-, di-, and
tricolpate, mono-, di-, and tricolporate. Two species,
Acacia modesta and Albizia lebbeck, had a polyad
pollen type. The margins were mostly psilate or
echinate. These results were similar to the pollen
morphology of the 16 species of aquatic angiosperms
observed by Perveen (1999).
The pH values and electrical conductivities of the
soil samples from various habitats showed that the soil
of the area is mostly alkaline. The graveyard and home
gardens had neutral pH values, while the saline area
had a slightly more alkaline pH, i.e., 9.34. The
electrical conductivities of the samples also varied
greatly. The saline area had higher EC, i.e., 846 at
34.3 �C. The forest patches had the lowest EC value,
i.e., 152.5 ls at 34.3 �C. The pH and EC measure-
ments vary with different environmental factors, such
as climate, plants, animals, bedrock and superficial
geology, as well as anthropogenic activities. Suresh
et al. (2009) believe that these variations are a result of
the variations in feed type and effluent management
systems. The calculated ECs of the different soil
samples indicate that the different habitats have
variable soluble salts. The saline area has a higher
EC, which means that the water saline area has a high
number of salts, while the forest patches have fewer
salts, i.e., a smaller EC compared to the other soil
samples.
This study will prove useful in understanding the
perspective of the local people regarding the floristic
components, ecology, soil status and identification of
the plants, especially the medicinal plant species. As
Costantini et al. (2006) states, this consideration of the
use and distribution of environmental resources or the
surroundings is important because this information
will help us to understand the evolutionary process by
which we adapt to our environment. Sometimes a
lopsided distribution of these factors produces con-
flicts, which may be due to less adaptation to the
changing scenario. To keep the ecosystem functioning
and productive, the sustainable use and preservation of
biodiversity are indispensible (Srivastava and Vellend
2005).
Conclusion and recommendations
It has been suggested that if a study such as this is
expanded and covers more area, then that study will
prove helpful in tracing the links between different
regions and the migration patterns of plant species,
along with the effects of climate change and the
impacts of human activities, etc. This information will
help to bridge ecology and sociology. However, for
conservation management, an understanding is
required of how the impacts of human activities on
vegetation, along with the societal indicators, such as
poverty, low literacy rates, and ignorance, and the
improper utilization of vegetation result in the over-
exploitation of plant resources; therefore, such studies
should be planned locally and internationally (Zobel
and Singh 1997).
The present investigation suggests that the flora of
Chakwal is rich with significant economic value and
requires further exploration. Although the population
depends on such natural resources, the trend is shifting
toward a modern life. Habitats are being reduced
because of the replacement of traditional agricultural
tools by faster modern techniques, in addition to
suburbanization and various housing development
schemes. In general, the indigenous knowledge is
diminishing because people do not know the exact
methods for the collection of the plants for various
purposes, the entire plant is damaged during
Plant Ecol
123
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collection, and the abundant species are becoming
endangered. Environmental groups, which are influ-
ential regarding the ecosystem, and NGO’s must pay
attention to these environmental concerns for future
sustainable development (Stewart and Pullin 2008).
The change in the climate, overgrazing, and over-
harvesting are also depleting the natural resources
along with other anthropogenic activities. A loss of
habitat results from urbanization because people are
ignoring the natural environment as they migrate to
cities and other countries and use the natural resources
only for construction purposes, and trees are being cut
down for such expansion purposes. Due to the access
to local markets, the only emphasis is on cultivated
species, and the natural habitat of the species is being
lost. An increase in pollution results in a change in the
pH and EC of the habitat, and the soil does not support
a large number of species. The excess use of natural
resources and turning one’s attention toward commer-
cial species, e.g., cultivated species, resources of a
decrease in biodiversity. More land is cleared for
agricultural purposes, and the natural habitat of
various species is destroyed, thus decreasing biodi-
versity. The inhabitants have been overexploiting the
wild flora of the area by utilizing these plants as a
source of fodder and for other domestic uses, thus
disturbing the vegetation and risking the plant biodi-
versity. For appropriate and sustainable use, it is
crucial to understand the ethnoecological relationships
among humans and their local flora.
This research has been useful in learning about the
local/indigenous perspective regarding the floristic
components, ecology, soil status and identification of
the plants, especially the medicinal plant species.
Indigenous knowledge should be preserved for the
next generation so that this knowledge can be used by
future generations in proper ways. The proper methods
for the collection of the species should be imple-
mented, and the farmers and local people should be
aware of these methods so that the species can be
preserved. Alternative resources should be used
instead of endangered species for the sake of the
conservation of these species. Proper management is
required for the sake of habitat loss due to urbanization
and modern agricultural techniques. Farmers should
be informed about the agricultural methods that will
not destroy the natural habitat of the species. In the
case of palynology, the pollen atlas of the flora of
Pakistan will provide guidance and easy access to
pollen morphology that will enable researchers to
identify the plants.
Acknowledgments This research is supported by High Impact
Research MoE Grant UM.C/625/1/HIR/MoE/SC/04 from the
Ministry of Education Malaysia and University Malaya Centre
for Ionic Liquids (UMCiL). Similarly the PPP research grant
University Malaya PG008-2013B, RG257-13AFR is also
acknowledged.
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