Post on 03-Jun-2018
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he Identification Of Pharaoh During he ime Of Moses
M S M Saifullah, Abdullah David & Mohammad Ghoniem
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Assalamu alaum wa rahamatullahi wa baraatuhu#
-. Introduction
!reated for the "ur"ose of evangelising the native "eo"les the colonialists
were encountering as the e/"anded across the globe, the missions of the
!hristian missionaries were one of the breeding grounds for biblical
archaeolog in the nineteenth centur0-1 2 and remain so until this "resent
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da. Although the earliest e/cavations in 3g"t were not "ur"osel develo"ed
with the intention to underwrite the biblical narrative, scholars were cogni4ant
of the fact that ancient 3g"t had been mentioned in the 5ld 6estament,
"articularl in the boos of Genesis and 3/odus.0%1 As the mass e/cavation
of 3g"t beconed, the colonial "owers rushed forth to anal4e a countr full
of ancient treasures s"anning different religions and cultures over severalmillennia. In 7ictorian 8ritain much of the "o"ular interest revolved around
the ancient 3g"tian connections with the 8ible, es"eciall the 3/odus
narrative. It is in such a conte/t that Amelia 3dwards, an amateur
3g"tologist, and Reginald Stuart 9oole of the De"artment of !oins and
Medals at the 8ritish Museum, founded the 3g"t 3/"loration und :now
3g"t 3/"loration Societ; in -''%.0
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Moses saw "arts of the reigns of two 9haraohs :3/odus %#%
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te/t being the boo of I Nings #-,
In the four hundred eightieth ear after the Israelites came out of the land of
3g"t, in the fourth ear of Solomons reign over Israel, in the month of Oiv,
which is the second month, he began to build the house of the (5RD.0-1
It is generall agreed that Solomon ruled c. J$ 8!3 due to snchronisms
with 3g"tian and Assrian historical records.0--1 6herefore, according to the
conservative evangelical "osition, one sim"l adds *' to JF$ 8!3
:fourth ear of Solomons reign; to arrive at the figure -**F$ 8!3.0-%1 All
archaeological evidence is strictl inter"reted in light of this date, i.e., one
arrives at the date before one adduces su""orting archaeological evidence.
6he 9haraoh of the 3/odus according to the ancient 3g"tian chronological
data is thus 6uthmosis III :sometimes also written as 6hutmose III; whoreigned in the "eriod -*$J2-*%B 8!3 0igure
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and inerrant Eord of GodP 6hirdl, irres"ective if one follows either of these
numbers, none of them matches the number tallied when one ado"ts a
straightforward literal reading of individual =udge reigns and other "eriods of
time given in the 5ld 6estament from I Nings bac to the boo of 3/odus.
ensham neatl summarises,
6he "eriod of the =udges e/tends from the death of +oshua to the death of
Samson or the beginning of the activities of Samuel. 6he total of all the dates
given in +udges is *- ears. 8ut - N. #- states that the tem"le of Solomon
was constructed in his fourth ear, *' ears after the 3/odus. If we tae *-
ears and add the * ears s"ent in the desert, then the ears of +oshua, 3li,
Samuel, Saul, and David, then add SolomonLs ears, a figure of
a""ro/imatel BJJ ears emerges, which is --J ears in e/cess of the *'
ears given in Nings.0-B1
Similar calculation b ?offmeier of reigns derived from talling the ears in
retrograde order from I Nings bac to the boo of 3/odus gave
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harmonised in a fashion suitable for the conte/t, then the various theories of
biblical ins"iration, infallibilit and inerranc are necessaril rendered void
and the divine authorshi" of the 5ld 6estament overstated. Additionall, one
should note the theological convictions and "resu""ositions of those
"ro"onents of the earl2date model mean the dogmaticall adhere to the
Masoretic te/t re"orting of numbers and are unable to "rovide a reasonablee/"lanation of their "reference for the numbers re"orted there as o""osed to
the Se"tuagint or Dead Sea Scrolls. 6he following two re"resentative
e/am"les will serve to illustrate the fact that such an a/iomatic standard
cannot be ado"ted without difficult. In - Samuel -$#*, is Goliath si/ cubits
and a s"an tall :c. J J;, or four cubits and a s"an tall :c. J;P 6he
Se"tuagint and the oldest e/tant ?ebrew witness Dead Sea Scroll *HSama,
which "redates the oldest Masoretic ?ebrew manuscri"t b around -,
ears, agree with each other against the Masoretic 6e/t.0-J1 Remaining in the
boo of - Samuel, how man vessels are re"orted in verse %#-*F-P Given
the choice of two vessels as "er Dead Sea Scroll *HSama, three vessels as
"er the Se"tuagint and four vessels as "er the Masoretic te/t, 9arr o"ts forone vesselQ0%1 Such e/am"les could easil be multi"lied manifold.
E?3C IS A 9(A!3 CAM3 C56 A 9(A!3 CAM3P
6he "roof te/t of those scholars ado"ting the late2date model is based on a
set reading of the boo of 3/odus -#--,
6herefore the set tasmasters over them to o""ress them with forced labor.
6he built su""l cities, 9ithom and Rameses, for 9haraoh.0%-1
Ramesses II was nown to have constructed the cit of 9i2Ramesses :or 9r2
Ramesses, lit. house or dwelling of Ramesses; and it became the ca"ital of
his ingdom. 8 studing the usage of the name 9i2Ramesses in its
eg"tological conte/t, scholars of ancient near eastern archaeolog uicl
identified the residence named in 3/odus -#-- must be referring to the samecit. Attem"ts have been made b those scholars who su""ort the earl2date
model to "rove that the name Ramesses e/isted before the advent of
Ramesses.0%%1 ?owever, of those cities that used the name Ramesses, none
of them "redate the reign of Ramesses II. 6his "articular issue was studied
in2de"th b "rominent 3g"tologist Sir Alan Gardiner over J ears ago.0%
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6o sum u"# whether or no the 8ible narrative be strict histor, there is not the
least reason for assuming that an other cit of Ramesses e/isted in the
Delta besides those elicited from the 3g"tian monuments. In other words,
the 8iblical Raamses2Rameses is identical with the Residence2cit of 9i2Ramesses near 9elusium.0%*1
6he 9entateuchal occurrences of Ramesses omits the initial element 9r2F9i2.
6his should not seen as a reason for distinguishing the biblical references
from the Ramesside residence of the northeast Delta as the writing
KRamessesL is attested in 3g"tian records and was a well2nown
abbreviation for this cit.0%B1 !onseuentl, with this data in hand, "ro"onents
of the late2date model hold the 9haraoh of the 3/odus to be Ramesses II
who reigned from -%$J2-%-< 8!3. 6his dating of the 3/odus en=os"o"ularit among scholars.0%1
A""reciating their "osition is confounded b the numerical data given in the
Masoretic and Se"tuagint te/t of - Nings #-, the "ro"onents of the late2date
model deal with this contradiction b resorting to a numerical substitution
theor as follows. irst, the start with the number *' as re"orted in the
Masoretic te/t of the 5ld 6estament. Second, * ears is =udged as being the
KidealL generation, giving *' F * -% generations in total. ?owever, the
value * is substituted for its actual real mathematical value of %B, as this is
closer to the actual length of a generation. 6hird, the mathematical
calculation continues to its conclusion giving -% / %B
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Realising the "roblem such an inter"retation of 3/odus -#-- "oses in that it
directl contradicts the data "rovided elsewhere in the 5ld 6estament
regarding number of ears ela"sed since the Israelites came out of 3g"t, the
"ro"onents of the "reviousl discussed earl2date model, in order to esca"e
the charge of historical contradiction or anachronism, affirm that editorial
u"dating has occurred.0%'1 According to them, this means that the name ofthe storeFsu""l cit built b the 9haraoh called Rameses in 3/odus -#-- was
originall named something else. 6hat is, the theoretical original reading,
which is "resentl unnowable and cannot be ascertained from the e/tant
biblical manuscri"ts, has in fact been u"dated b an unnown, unnamed
editor:s; centuries after Moses allegedl com"osed his te/t. 5ther well2nown
historical anachronisms in the 8ible due to editorial u"dating, to name but a
few, are mention of the 9haraohs when the rulers of ancient 3g"t were not
even called 9haraohs, a""earance of the name 9oti"har in the time of
+ose"h when the name 9oti"har itself "ost2dates both +ose"h and Moses,
and the anachronistic mention of the coin daric in the time of David. 6hus the
issue of editorial u"dating leaves Moses seeing "arts of the reigns of two9haraohs as mentioned in the 8ible :3/odus %#%
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ins"ired b God, and b his singular care and "rovidence e"t "ure in all
Ages, are therefore authenticall@ so as, in all !ontroversies of Religion, the
!hurch is finall to A""eale unto them.0
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errors in the 8ible. (et us now move from the last article to the first article.
?ere the I!8I "ur"osefull omitted reference to the number of boos
com"rising the canon of the 8ible due to established historical variances on
the com"osition of the canon throughout !hristendom.0
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igure -# 6he new chronolog :left column; as "ro"osed b David Rohl and
the biblical chronolog :right column;.0
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reuire one to de"end u"on editorial u"dating, ins"ired te/tual u"dating,
assigning different numerical values to msterious numbers or deciding
between which t"e of manuscri"ts and translations to rel u"on to calculate
those numbers.
Cotwithstanding the e/istence of dubious data in the 5ld 6estament, the
!hristian missionaries su"erciliousl claimed that the 9haraoh de"icted in the
Huran was A 9haraoh Eho orgot to Die in 6ime. 6he missionaries,
however, did not realise that the law of unintended conseuences would
result in their own "erceived Schadenfreude encom"assing them. As it turns
out, the contradictor data in the ?ebrew 8ible maes their "referred dating
of the 3/odus c. -**B 8!3 intrinsicall defective. )sing the missionaries own
language, one ma characterise the 9haraoh of the 8ible as not onl a
9haraoh who failed to a""ear on time but also a 9haraoh who forgot to
a""ear at the right "lace.
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9haraoh :Arabic, fir awn;. Ehat do modern linguistic studies and3g"tolog reveal about the word 9haraoh and its use in ancient 3g"tP
6he famous 8ritish 3g"tologist Sir Alan Gardiner discusses the term
9haraoh and cites the earliest e/am"le of its a""lication to the ing, during
the reign of Ameno"his I7 :c. -
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between -B$ 8!3 and -B* 8!3.0*%1 Giving and taing a few ears, the
Cew Ningdom chronolog, suggested b eg"tologists, is now validated
scientificall using -*! dating.
6?3 9?ARA5? E?5 R3IGC3D (5CG
Cow that we have identified the s"ecific timescale for the stor of Moses, let
us now loo into the ne/t and "erha"s the most im"ortant of all clues. )nlie
the 8ible, the Huran s"eas about onl one 9haraoh who ruled 3g"t before
the birth of Moses until the 3/odus and his :i.e., 9haraohs; death. 6he
evidence for this comes from the Huran %'#$2J and Huran %#-'2%%.
So Ee sent this ins"iration to the mother of Moses# Sucle :th child;, but
when thou hast fears about him, cast him into the river, but fear not nor
grieve# for Ee shall restore him to thee, and Ee shall mae him one of 5ur
messengers. 6hen the "eo"le of 9haraoh "iced him u" :from the river;# :It
was intended; that :Moses; should be to them an adversar and a cause of
sorrow# for 9haraoh and ?aman and :all; their hosts were men of sin. 6he
wife of 9haraoh said# :?ere is; =o of the ee, for me and for thee# sla him
not. It ma be that he will be use to us, or we ma ado"t him as a son. And
the "erceived not :what the were doing;Q 0Huran %'#$2J1
?ere God is narrating the event after the birth of Moses and how he was cast
in the river onl to be "iced u" b "eo"le of the 9haraoh. 9art of the
dialogue between Moses after his return from Midian and 9haraoh, as cited in
the Huran %#-'2%%, maes it "erfectl clear that this 9haraoh is the same
9haraoh who too custod of Moses in his infanc.
:9haraoh; said# Did we not cherish thee as a child among us, and didst thou
not sta in our midst man ears of th lifeP And thou didst a deed of thinewhich :thou nowest; thou didst, and thou art an ungrateful :wretch;Q Moses
said# I did it then, when I was in error. So I fled from ou :all; when I feared
ou@ but m (ord has :since; invested me with =udgment :and wisdom; and
a""ointed me as one of the messengers. And this is the favour with which
thou dost re"roach me,2 that thou hast enslaved the !hildren of IsraelQ
0Huran %#-'2%%1
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?ere 9haraoh reminds Moses of the time that he s"ent as a child in his
household and the event when he illed a man 0Huran %'#
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s"iritualF"schological strength. 6he commentators inter"ret this as
bestowing of 9ro"hethood on Moses and the corres"onding age of * ears
:See the commentaries such as 6afsXr al26abarX, 6afsXr al2HurtubX, 6afsXr al2 +alaln, Al2NashshWf of al2OamahsharX, etc.;.
6hirdl, after illing of one of the 3g"tians, Moses immediatel fled to Midian
after learning that the officials in 3g"t were "lanning to sla him. ?owever,
what is not clear is the time that ela"sed between the conferment of wisdom
and nowledge on Moses and his illing of the 3g"tian.
Ehen he reached full age, and was firml established :in life;, Ee bestowed
on him wisdom and nowledge# for thus do Ee reward those who do good.
And he entered the cit at a time when its "eo"le were not watching# and he
found there two men fighting,2 one of his own religion, and the other, of hisfoes. Cow the man of his own religion a""ealed to him against his foe, and
Moses struc him with his fist and made an end of him. ?e said# 6his is a
wor of 3vil :Satan;# for he is an enem that manifestl misleadsQ ?e "raed#
5 m (ordQ I have indeed wronged m soulQ Do 6hou then forgive meQ So
:Allah; forgave him# for ?e is the 5ft2orgiving, Most Merciful. ?e said# 5 m
(ordQ or that 6hou hast bestowed 6h Grace on me, never shall I be a hel"
to those who sinQ So he saw the morning in the cit, looing about, in a state
of fear, when behold, the man who had, the da before, sought his hel" called
aloud for his hel" :again;. Moses said to him# 6hou art trul, it is clear, a
uarrelsome fellowQ 6hen, when he decided to la hold of the man who wasan enem to both of them, that man said# 5 MosesQ Is it th intention to sla
me as thou slewest a man esterdaP 6h intention is none other than to
become a "owerful violent man in the land, and not to be one who sets things
rightQ And there came a man, running, from the furthest end of the !it. ?e
said# 5 MosesQ the !hiefs are taing counsel together about thee, to sla
thee# so get thee awa, for I do give thee sincere advice. ?e therefore got
awa therefrom, looing about, in a state of fear. ?e "raed 5 m (ordQ save
me from "eo"le given to wrong2doing. 6hen, when he turned his face
towards :the land of; Madan, he said# I do ho"e that m (ord will show me
the smooth and straight 9ath. 0Huran %'#-*2%%1
6he events surrounding the conferment of wisdom and nowledge on Moses
and his illing of the 3g"tian in the Huran are mentioned successivel
suggesting that the were "erha"s se"arated b a shorter "eriod of time. As it
stands, this "eriod of time is an unnown. In Midian, Moses offered to hel"
two girls to water their flocs. 6he father of the girls agreed to marr one of
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them to Moses under the condition that he serves him for ' ears and
voluntaril for % more ears to mae it - ears as stated in Huran %'#%B2%J.
Afterwards one of the :damsels; came :bac; to him, waling bashfull. She
said# M father invites thee that he ma reward thee for having watered :our
flocs; for us. So when he came to him and narrated the stor, he said# ear
thou not# :well; hast thou esca"ed from un=ust "eo"le. Said one of the
:damsels;# 5 m :dear; fatherQ engage him on wages# trul the best of men
for thee to em"lo is the :man; who is strong and trust ?e said# I intend to
wed one of these m daughters to thee, on condition that thou serve me for
eight ears@ but if thou com"lete ten ears, it will be :grace; from thee. 8ut I
intend not to "lace thee under a difficult# thou wilt find me, indeed, if Allah
wills, one of the righteous. ?e said# 8e that :the agreement; between me
and thee# whichever of the two terms I fulfill, let there be no ill2will to me. 8e
Allah a witness to what we sa. Cow when Moses had fulfilled the term, andwas travelling with his famil, he "erceived a fire in the direction of Mount 6ur.
?e said to his famil# 6arr e@ I "erceive a fire@ I ho"e to bring ou from
there some information, or a burning firebrand, that e ma warm
ourselves. 0Huran %'#%B2%J1
It is not clear from the above verses if Moses fulfilled ' or - ears in Midian.
In an case, we can tae a minimum of '2- ears as Moses sta in Midian.
ourthl, there is no mention of an e/"licit length of Moses second so=ourn in
3g"t after returning from Midian. Conetheless, there are number of verses in
the Huran which can hel" to give us an idea of the length of time of Moses
second so=ourn in 3g"t.
Said the chiefs of 9haraohs "eo"le# Eilt thou leave Moses and his "eo"le,
to s"read mischief in the land, and to abandon thee and th godsP ?e said#
6heir male children will we sla@ :onl; their females will we save alive@ and
we have over them :"ower; irresistible. Said Moses to his "eo"le# 9ra forhel" from Allah, and :wait; in "atience and constanc# for the earth is Allahs,
to give as a heritage to such of ?is servants as ?e "leaseth@ and the end is
:best; for the righteous. 6he said# Ee have had :nothing but; trouble, both
before and after thou camest to us. ?e said# It ma be that our (ord will
destro our enem and mae ou inheritors in the earth@ that so ?e ma tr
ou b our deeds. Ee "unished the "eo"le of 9haraoh with ears :of
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droughts; and shortness of cro"s@ that the might receive admonition. 8ut
when good :times; came, the said, 6his is due to us@ Ehen gri""ed b
calamit, the ascribed it to evil omens connected with Moses and those with
himQ 8eholdQ in truth the omens of evil are theirs in Allahs sight, but most of
them do not understandQ 6he said :to Moses;# Ehatever be the Signs thou
bringest, to wor therewith th sorcer on us, we shall never believe in thee.So Ee sent :"lagues; on them# Eholesale death, (ocusts, (ice, rogs, And
8lood# Signs o"enl self2e/"lained# but the were stee"ed in arrogance,2 a
"eo"le given to sin. 3ver time the "enalt fell on them, the said# 5 MosesQ
on our behalf call on th (ord in virtue of his "romise to thee# If thou wilt
remove the "enalt from us, we shall trul believe in thee, and we shall send
awa the !hildren of Israel with thee. 8ut ever time Ee removed the
"enalt from them according to a fi/ed term which the had to fulfil,2 8eholdQ
the broe their wordQ So Ee e/acted retribution from them# Ee drowned
them in the sea, because the re=ected 5ur Signs and failed to tae warning
from them. And Ee made a "eo"le, considered wea :and of no account;,
inheritors of lands in both east and west, 2 lands whereon Ee sent down 5urblessings. 6he fair "romise of th (ord was fulfilled for the !hildren of Israel,
because the had "atience and constanc, and Ee levelled to the ground the
great wors and fine buildings which 9haraoh and his "eo"le erected :with
such "ride;. 0Huran $#-%$2-
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:b;
igure
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attire and administered affairs of the nation with the full su""ort of im"ortant
officials. ?atshe"sut disa""eared in -*B' 8!3 when 6uthmosis III, wanting to
reclaim the throne, led a revolt. After 6uthmosis III became the sole ruler, he
had her statues and reliefs mutilated. 6hus the actual reign of 6uthmosis III
was for onl Y
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fit the descri"tion of a 9haraoh who claimed to be "rinci"al god of 3g"tP (et
us investigate.
Ehen Moses calls 9haraoh to worshi" one true God, the call is re=ected.
Instead 9haraoh collects his men and "roclaims that he is their (ord, most
high.
?as the stor of Moses reached theeP 8ehold, th (ord did call to him in the
sacred valle of 6uwa, Go thou to 9haraoh for he has indeed transgressed
all bounds# And sa to him, KEouldst thou that thou shouldst be "urified :from
sin;P 2 And that I guide thee to th (ord, so thou shouldst fear ?imP 6hen
did :Moses; show him the Great Sign. 8ut :9haraoh; re=ected it and
disobeed :guidance;@ urther, he turned his bac, striving hard :against
God;. 6hen he collected :his men; and made a "roclamation, Saing, I amour (ord, Most ?igh. 0Huran $J#-B2%*1
urthermore, when Moses goes to 9haraoh with clear signs, the are
re=ected as being fae. 9haraoh then addresses his chiefs b saing that he
nows of no god for them e/ce"t him.
9haraoh said# 5 !hiefsQ no god do I now for ou but mself... 0Huran%'#
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"ea as evidenced in numerous cult statues as well as su""orting
hierogl"hs and "a"ri.0B1 6he hierogl"hs give good information about the
him. (et us consider three hierogl"hs from the time of Ramesses II :who had
"renomen )sermaatre2sete"enre and nomen Ramesses meramun;.
Stela no. *- of ?ildesheim Museum shows two "eo"le, one is standing
wearing the double crown with the uraeus, a short sirt, a neclace and holds
the so2called handerchief or seal in one hand 0igure B:a;1. ?e is called#
Ning of )""er and (ower 3g"t, the (ord of the 6wo (ands KRamesses2
meramun, the GodL.0B-1
:a;
:b;
:c;
igure B# Stela no. :a; *-, :b; -$J of the ?ildesheim Museum. :c; 6hese
have an im"ortant inscri"tion saing Ramesses2meramun, the god. 6his
inscri"tion is mared inside a red bo/ in both the stelas :a; and :b;.0B%1
5n stela no. -$J of ?ildesheim Museum a man is de"icted wearing a long
garment tied at the waist, offering two flowers with his right hand. In front of
him is a table laden with various inds of offerings, and two stands with a
vase between them 0igure B:b;1. 5""osite him are two statues, each
wearing a short ilt, an artificial beard and the crown of )""er 3g"t, with
uraeus in front. Above these two statues and before them are the words#
(ord of the two (ands K)sermaatre2set"enreL Monthu2in2the26wo2(ands and
(ord of the diadems KRamesses2meramunL, the God.0B
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igure # A relief in the Great 6em"le of Abu Simbel showing Ramesses II
venerating Ramesses II.0B*1
5ur last e/am"le of the divine ingshi" in ancient 3g"t comes from the
Great 6em"le at Abu Simbel 0igure 1. An interesting relief in the Great
6em"le of Abu Simbel shows the (ord of 6wo (ands K)sermare2set"enreL :
Ramesses II; offering to Ramesses2meramun : Ramesses II;. 5bviousl,
Ramesses II is worshi""ing Ramesses II here. ?owever, we also note that
the worshi""er and the one who is worshi""ed have two different names and
that these names are "ronomen and nomen of Ramesses II, res"ectivel. A
closer loo at the iconogra"h reveals that the worshi""er and he who is
worshi""ed are not identical. ?e, to whom the offering is made, is adorned
with a sun2dis and has a curved horn around his ear, de"icting his divinit.6herefore, Ramesses II is not sim"l worshi""ing himself, but his divine self.
0BB1 !oncerning the 9haraoh, the Huran also mentions that he e/alted
himself in the land and that he was e/travagant.
8ut none believed in Musa e/ce"t the offs"ring of his "eo"le, on account of
the fear of 9haraoh and their chiefs, lest he should "ersecute them@ and most
surel 9haraoh was loft in the land 0Arabic# fir awn la2 Wlin fi2al2ardh1@ and most surel he was of the e/travagant 0Arabic# innahu lamin al2musrifXn1.
0Huran -#'
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:-,%; It lies between D=ah and 6o2meri, and is full of food and victuals. It is
after the fashion of 5n of )""er 3g"t, and its duration is lie :-,
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6he Huran "rovides another ver uniue and interesting descri"tion of the
9haraoh which can be shown to be "articularl a""licable to Ramesses II.
6his is the Huranic reference to 9haraoh in a cou"le of verses as dhul2awtWd
:of the awtWd or usuall translated as (ord of the staes;. 6he relevantverses are#
5r have the the dominion of the heavens and the earth and all betweenP If
so, let them mount u" with the ro"es and means :to reach that end;Q 8ut
there 2 will be "ut to flight even a host of confederates. 8efore them :were
man who; re=ected messengers,2 the "eo"le of Coah, and KAd, and 9haraoh,
the (ord of Staes, and 6hamud, and the "eo"le of (ut, and the !om"anions
of the Eood@ 2 such were the !onfederates. 0Huran
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. : 83). ,$ DA3 B.E ? 67 /! F/ G;HIJG/K #!: C +E +L? :/ GM 4-'# = : S? ! TS >U # N;! ?
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#orks for the gods the entire length of 1g$pt and 7ubia, /amesses II
surpassed not onl$ the 1ighteenth !$nast$ but ever$ other period in 1g$ptian
histor$. In that realm, he certainl$ fulfilled the d$nast$s aim for satiet$.89;
5imilarl$, 2la$ton ackno#ledges /amesses II as a preeminent builder
among the Pharaohs of ancient 1g$pt and states that his greatest feat #as
the building of t#o temples at Abu 5imbel, especiall$ the et his genuine building achievements are on a Herculean scale. He
added to the great temples at 'arnak and 3u4or, completed his father 5etis
mortuar$ temple at
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It is also #orth noting that the phrase -Pharaoh, 3ord of the a#td- is
mentioned along #ith Iram #hich had loft$ pillars, most likel$ cut from rocks,
and people of Thamud #ho built houses in the mountains. This suggests that
Pharaoh /amesses II also did something similar, i.e., built structures out of
rocks. Indeed /amesses II built t#o temples at Abu 5imbel in 7ubia #hich
#ere cut in the living rock of the mountainside 8Gigure B;. ?ne is called the
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Gigure : A philatelic melange sho#ing the campaign to create #orld#ide
a#areness to save the anti*uities of 7ubia. /amesses II and his temples at
Abu 5imbel #ere prominentl$ featured on the stamps in man$ countries.
5ome stamps also sho# his *ueen 7efertari. In the above figure, the are
stamps from (from top ro#, left to right) 1g$pt (=A/), 5omalia, onaco, the
atican, Ira*, 7igeria,
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and containing a river port.89E; In the timeline of the ancient near east, the
construction of Pr/amesses is certainl$ unprecedented as =phill informs us,
Per /amesses #as probabl$ the vastest and most costl$ ro$al residence ever
erected b$ the hand of man. As can no# be seen its kno#n palace and
official centre covered an area of at least four s*uare miles, and its temples
#ere in scale #ith this, a colossal assemblage forming perhaps the largest
collection of chapels built in the preclassical #orld b$ a single ruler at one
time.89B;
+ith the use of a caesium magnetometer, the first geoph$sical
measurements of Pr/amesses took place in 9.89; =sing the data
gathered from the recent magnetometer inspections, the latest pro0ections
have sho#n the cit$ centreMro$al residence comprised at least s*uare
kms, around @.L s*uare kms more than had been previousl$ estimated. It is
hoped that continued magnetic investigation #ill eventuall$ lead to a map of
Pr/amesses covering at a minimum the cit$ centreMro$al residence.8E; +ith
all the focus on the cit$ centreMro$al residence, one should also not forget to
consider the large suburban Done, #hich, #hen factored into the calculations,
sho#s the ancient cit$ of Pr/amesses comprised at least @ s*uare kms.
8E; 5ometimes numbers alone do not conve$ the sheer scale of the
construction. If #e consider the area of Pr/amesses in comparison to other
celebrated cities in the ancient near east such as the famous ancient
esopotamian cities of 'horsabad, 7imrud, 7ineveh and 6ab$lon, the areabounded b$ Pr/amesses easil$ eclipses them all.8EF; 2ommenting on such
a gigantic feat of human engineering =phill further remarks,
The uni*ue feature about Per /amesses is that it is the onl$ cit$ of imperial
siDe in the ancient near east, rivalling Heliopolis, emphis and Thebes in
splendour, kno#n to have been entirel$ planned, built and full$ completed
under one 'ing.8E@;
Pr/amesses, #hich once had magnificent splendour, no# lies in ruins. ost
likel$, the destruction of this magnificent cit$ is alluded to in the &uran E:@E
and
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lands in both east and #est, lands #hereon +e sent do#n ?ur blessings.
The fair promise of th$ 3ord #as fulfilled for the 2hildren of Israel , because
the$ had patience and constanc$, and +e levelled to the ground the great
#orks and fine buildings #hich Pharaoh and his people erected (#ith such
pride) 8m kna $as"na u fir a#na #a *a#humO #a m knO $a rishOn;.
8&uran E:@E;
5HA33 +1 5A1 >?= I7 TH1 6?!>, THAT >?= A>15T 61 A
5I?=...Q
+e took the 2hildren of Israel across the sea: Pharaoh and his hosts
follo#ed them in insolence and spite. At length, #hen over#helmed #ith the
flood, he said: -I believe that there is no god e4cept Him +hom the 2hildren
of Israel believe in: I am of those #ho submit (to Allah in Islam).- (It #as said
to him): -Ah no#R 6ut a little #hile before, #ast thou in rebellionR and thou
didst mischief (and violence)R -This da$ shall +e save thee in the bod$, that
thou ma$est be a sign to those #ho come after theeR but veril$, man$ among
mankind are heedless of ?ur 5ignsR- 8&uran :F;
The &uran and the 6ible 814odus K:F@ and 14odus L:F; state that
the Pharaoh #as dro#ned in the sea. Ho#ever, the &uran differs from the
6ible and it makes a ver$ uni*ue statement that the bod$ of the dro#ned
Pharaoh #as saved as a sign for future generations. The &uranic statement
about rescuing Pharaohs bod$ #ould be in total agreement #ith the fact that
the bod$ of /amesses II has survived in a mummified form. It #as discoveredin BB among a group of ro$al mummies that had been removed from their
original tombs for fear of theft. Priests of the Fst !$nast$ had reburied them
in a cache at !eir al6ahari on 3u4ors #est bank.8EK; The mumm$ of
/amesses II formed one of the cache and its resting place #as Tomb 'E in
the alle$ of 'ings. 7othing #hatsoever #as kno#n at the time of the
revelation of the &uran about the mumm$ of /amesses II.
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A fe# #ords also need to be said about the preservation of the mumm$ of
/amesses II 8Gigure ;. In EK, 1g$ptologists at the 1g$ptian useum,
2airo, noticed that the mumm$s condition #as #orsening rapidl$. The$
decided to fl$ /ameses II to Paris so that a team of e4perts could give themumm$ a medical e4amination. ?n 5eptember F9, E9, a Grench Air Gorce
plane touched do#n at 3e 6ourget airport 0ust outside Paris carr$ing the
mummified bod$. /amesses II ma$ have been dead for more than @,
$ears but his mummified bod$ #as #elcomed #ith a ceremon$ fit for an$
living head of state.
(a)
(b)
Gigure : umm$ of /amesses II sho#ing (a) top and (b) side vie#s.
The idea of bringing the mumm$ of /amesses II to Paris for an e4haustive
scientific investigation #as the brainchild of !r. aurice 6ucaille. The pro0ect
#as codirected b$ 2hristiane !esroche7oblecourt, curator of 1g$ptian
Anti*uities at the usSe du 3ouvre, and Professor 3ionel 6alout, !irector of
the usSe de lHomme.8EL; ?ne of goals of the pro0ect #as to stud$ the
remains of the Pharaohs mumm$ for evidence that #ould complement that
from other archaeological and #ritten sources. Ho#ever, the main mission#as to rescue the mumm$ from ph$sical deterioration caused b$ fungus,
bacteria and insects.8E9; !uring the e4amination, scientific anal$sis revealed
battle #ounds and old fractures, as #ell as other medical conditions. Grom
the 4ra$ anal$sis, it #as concluded that /amesses II #as suffering from
atherosclerosis and an 4ra$ of his pelvis sho#ed calcification of both femoral
arteries.8EE; In the last decades of his life, /amesses II #as apparentl$
crippled #ith arthritis and #alked #ith a hunched back.8EB; It #as suggested
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that /amesses II suffered from ank$losing spond$litis, no# part of
rheumatologic folklore.8E; All these led 6ucaille to infer that /amesses II
could have not pla$ed an$ role in the 14odus as he #as crippled.8B; He
claimed, using the biblical data (14odus F:F@), that his son erenptah #as
the Pharaoh involved in the 14odus after /amesses IIs death. Ho#ever, a
recent stud$ using better 4ra$ imaging and unpublished radiographs hasconcluded that the diagnosis of ank$losing spond$litis as reported in the
literature is unsupported. The authors prefer a diagnosis of diffuse idiopathic
skeletal h$perostosis8B; (or !I5H) #hich is corroborated b$ the
archaeological and historical studies about the ph$sical attributes and
e4ploits of /amesses II.8BF; Thus, the possibilit$ cannot be re0ected out of
hand that /amesses II #as the Pharaoh #ho perished in the sea #hile
chasing the 2hildren of Israel.8B@; Ho#ever, it must be emphasiDed that the
process of mummification itself convolutes the information of actual cause of
death. Therefore, the cause of death of /amesses II cant be verified from his
mumm$.
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title used to refer to the king of 1g$pt from the 7e# 'ingdom Period on#ards.
5hould our proposed identification of /amesses II be correct, a historical
investigation has sho#n that 6akenkhons, the High Priest of Amun during
/amesses II reign, can be considered a good candidate for Haman
mentioned in the &uran.
Another interesting detail #hich the &uran mentions is the da$ of encounter
bet#een oses and the magicians.
-6ut #e can surel$ produce magic to match thineR 5o make a tr$st bet#een
us and thee, #hich #e shall not fail to keep neither #e nor thou in a place
#here both shall have even chances.- oses said: ->our tr$st is the !a$ of
the Gestival 8$aum alDna;, and let the people be assembled #hen the sun is
#ell up.- 8&uran F:LBL;
The da$ of the encounter in the &uran is called $aum alDna. Una means a
thing #ith #hich or b$ #hich one is adorned, ornamented, decorated, etc.8BK;
5o, the phrase $aum alDna can mean a da$ #hen people are dressed up
smartl$, or the cit$ is adorned or perhaps both. It could even mean a da$ of
pompous celebration or more precisel$ a da$ of festival.8BL; 2ould it refer to
the Heb5ed (or simpl$ 5ed) festivalV The Heb5ed Gestival,8B9; also called a
0ubilee, #as usuall$ celebrated @ $ears after a kings rule and thereafter,
ever$ three $ears. /amesses II celebrated a record or F of these after his
Heb5ed festival in $ear @. It #as to rene# the potenc$ of the Pharaoh and
to assure a long reign in the afterlife. ?ne of the most important aspects of
this festival is that it #as probabl$ #itnessed b$ ordinar$ citiDens onl$ ver$
rarel$.
K. 2onclusions
Those 2hristian scholars #ho date the 14odus can be broadl$ divided into
t#o groups: one #hich believes that the 6ible should be the sole basis of
dating and the other group #hich uses ancient near eastern archaeolog$.
6oth these groups emplo$ certain assumptions and overlook certain details in
order to reach their conclusions. As #e have observed, proving the efficac$ of
the statements contained in the ?ld Testament is problematic. The biblical
account is inherentl$ contradictor$ as the information provided simultaneousl$
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points to#ards divergent time periods and thus divergent Pharaohs. The
2hristian scholars, #hom the missionaries and apologists depend upon, rush
to e4plain a#a$ these contradictions b$ making ingenious reinterpretations of
the te4t and using concepts such as -editorial updating- and its corollar$
-inspired te4tual updating-. Gor e4ample, the number KB does not actuall$
stand for KB and the place name /amesses does not actuall$ stand for theplace name /amesses. !oes it reall$ matterV /ealising the$ have no other
choice, the missionaries and apologists have long since approved -editorial
updating- and its occurrence throughout the 6ible. ?ne such missionar$
casuall$ states, -In the final an$lsis, I do not mind if the placeMperson names
#ere updated in 5criptures- W #hich begs the *uestion #hat other te4ts the
missionaries and apologists -do not mind- being updatedV It should be clear
b$ no# that such approval is integrated #ithin a fle4ible creedal s$stem of
beliefs #here one can believe in an undelineated 6ible that contains errors
and still maintain ones right to -salvation-. 2onse*uentl$, the doctrines of
biblical inspiration, infallibilit$ and inerranc$ become confusing and ineffectual
as numbers mean other different numbers and place names mean other
different place names.
Although certain assumptions must be formed in absence of information
supplied, interpreting the &uran does not re*uire one to depend upon
-editorial updating-, -inspired te4tual updating-X assigning different numerical
values to m$sterious numbers or deciding bet#een #hich t$pe of manuscripts
and translations to rel$ upon to calculate those numbers. The &uran does
not mention the name of the Pharaoh #ho un0ustl$ oppressed oses and the
2hildren of Israel. +hen combined, the information provided b$ the &uran
and the ancient 1g$ptian sources including the archaeological and
documentar$ evidence, there are a sufficient number of clues that point
to#ards the 7e# 'ingdom period in general and to the Pharaoh /amesses II
in particular #ho reigned for about 99 $ears from FEWF@ 621. Although
the scientific e4amination of /amesses IIs mumm$ is inconclusive regarding
the precise nature of his death, he did not, as #as previousl$ thought, have a
debilitating rheumatic condition that #ould have ph$sicall$ prevented him
from engaging oses and the 2hildren of Israel in the final stages of his life.
In conclusion, the &uranic presentation of the Pharaoh of the 14odus is
internall$ consistent and fits #ell #ith the e4tant eg$ptological data. This isalso in line #ith the earlier studies b$ Hamidullah8BE; and Gatoohi et al.8BB;
#ho have arrived at similar conclusions, albeit using less e4haustive and
sometimes shak$ evidence, that the Pharaoh #ho ruled 1g$pt before the
birth of oses until the 14odus and his (i.e., Pharaohs) death #as /amesses
II.
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And Allah kno#s bestR
6ookmark and 5hare
/eferences Y 7otes
8; . ! ZaDAndreu, A +orld Histor$ ?f 7ineteenth2entur$ Archaeolog$:7ationalism, 2olonialism, And The Past, FE, ?4ford =niversit$ Press Inc.,
7e# >ork, pp. @@K. It #ould come as a surprise to man$ that even a
scientific discipline such as archaeolog$ had to find its place amongst
contemporar$ political events in 0u4taposition #ith #estern imperial and
nationalistic ideologies current in the nineteenth centur$. Hence, in the #ords
of ! ZaDAndreu, -... archaeolog$ is not a valuefree and neutral socialscience as previousl$ presumed.- 8ibid., p. K;. 5een b$ man$ as the
archaeolog$ of the 3evant #ith a (evangelical) 6iblical bias, it is of course an
entirel$ different discussion if such a discipline named biblical archaeolog$ is
even appropriate. Gor some topical vie#s see P. /. 5. oore$, A 2entur$ ?f
6iblical Archaeolog$, , The 3utter#orth Press: 2ambridge (=')% . 2.
oreland (1d.), 6et#een Te4t And Artifact: Integrating Archaeolog$ In 6iblical
5tudies Teaching, F@, 5ociet$ ?f 6iblical 3iterature: Atlanta% T. +. !avis,
5hifting 5ands: The /ise And Gall ?f 6iblical Archaeolog$, FK, ?4ford
=niversit$ Press Inc.: 7e# >ork% C. '. Hoffmeier Y A. illard (1ds.), The
Guture ?f 6iblical Archaeolog$: /eassessing ethodologies And
Assumptions, FK, The Proceedings ?f A 5$mposium August FK, F
At Trinit$ International =niversit$, +m. 6. 1erdmans Publishing 2o.:
8/12/2019 firaun in the period of Musa
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8K; The 5ociet$ W Histor$ ?f The 5ociet$ (The 6eginnings), The 1g$pt
14ploration 5ociet$ (?fficial +ebsite), available online (accessed Kth
7ovember FB).
8L; 1g$pt 14ploration Gund, /eport ?f Gourth Annual
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In the four hundred and eightieth $ear after the Israelites had come out of
1g$pt, in the fourth $ear of 5olomons reign over Israel, in the month of Uiv,
the second month, he began to build the temple of the 3?/!.
8; '. A. 'itchen, -Ho# +e 'no# +hen 5olomon /uled-, 6iblical
Archaeological /evie#, F, olume FE (5eptemberM?ctober), 7o. L, pp.
@F@E, p. LB.
8F; 5ee, for e4ample, +. H. 5hea , -14odus, !ate ?f The - in
8/12/2019 firaun in the period of Musa
39/51
8L; G. 2. Gensham, -Cudges, 6ook ?f-, in
8/12/2019 firaun in the period of Musa
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the$ built Pithom and /ameses as store cities for Pharaoh.
8FF; ork, p. K% P. Ale4ander and !. Ale4ander (1ds.), The 3ion Handbook To
The 6ible, , Third 1dition (/evised Y 14panded), 3ion Publishing Inc.:
?4ford (='), p. L9% '. A. 'itchen, -oses- in C. !. !ouglas (?rganiDing
1ditor), 7e# 6ible !ictionar$, BF, 5econd 1dition, Interarsit$ Press:
3eicester (=') and T$ndale House Publishers, Inc.: +heaton (I3), p. EL%
-oses- in A. 2. $ers (1d.), The 1erdmans 6ible !ictionar$, BE, +illiam
8/12/2019 firaun in the period of Musa
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6. 1erdmans Publishing 2ompan$:
8/12/2019 firaun in the period of Musa
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8@; P. 5chaff, The 2reeds ?f 2hristendom, +ith A Histor$ And 2ritical 7otes,
BEE, Gourth 1dition /evised and 1nlarged, The 1vangelical Protestant
2reeds +ith Translations, olume III, Harper Y 6rothers: 7e# >ork.
8@; The Humble Advice ?f The Assembl$ ?f !ivines, 7o# 6$ Authorit$ ?f
Parliament 5itting At +estminster, 2oncerning A 2onfession ?f Gaith,
Presented 6$ Them 3atel$ To 6oth Houses ?f Parliament, 9K9, Printed for
the 2ompan$ of 5tationers.: 3ondon, pp. L9% A !eclaration ?f The Gaith And
?rder ?#ned And Practiced In The 2ongregational 2hurches In 1ngland%
Agreed =pon And 2onsented =nto 6$ Their 1lders And essengers In Their
eeting At The 5avo$, ?ctob. F. 9LB, 9L, Printed for !. 3. And are to be
sold in Pauls 2hurch >ard, Gleet5treet, and +estminsterHall: 3ondon, pp. F
@% A 2onfession ?f Gaith. Put Gorth 6$ The 1lders And 6rethren ?f an$2ongregations ?f 2hristians (6aptiDed =pon Profession ?f Their Gaith) In
3ondon And The 2ountr$, 9EE, Printed for 6en0amin Harris, and are to be
sold at his shop at the 5tationers Arms in 5#eetings /ents, in 2ornhill, near
the /o$al 14change: 3ondon, p. E.
8@F; /. 2. 5proul, 14plaining Inerranc$, 9, 3igonier inistries: ?rlando
(G3), p. L9. 7.6. This book #as previousl$ published in B #ith the title
14plaining Inerranc$: A 2ommentar$, b$ the International 2ouncil on 6iblical
Inerranc$.
8@@; ibid.
8@K; ibid., pp. F.
8@L; !. . /ohl, A Test ?f Time, L, olume I: The 6ible Grom $th To
Histor$, /andom House =' 3td.: 3ondon.
8@9; ibid., p. @@.
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8@E; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The
!$nastic Period- in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient
1g$ptian 2hronolog$, F9, op. cit., p. KF% '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical
2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in . 6ietak (1d.), The
5$nchronisation ?f 2ivilisations In The 1astern editerranean In The 5econd
illennium 6.2., F, Proceedings ?f An International 5$mposium At 5chlo
6Haindorf, LthEth ?f 7ovember 9 And At The Austrian Academ$,ienna, thFth ?f a$ B, 2ontributions To The 2hronolog$ ?f The
1astern editerranean olume I, Qsterreichischen Akademie !er+issenschaften: +ien, pp. KLK9 Y p. K. This is a ne# revised version of
'itchens article originall$ published in '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical
2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment-, Acta Archaeologica,
9, olume 9E, pp. @.
8@B; !. . /ohl, A Test ?f Time, L, olume I: The 6ible Grom $th To
Histor$, op. cit., p. @FE.
8@; 6. oung, -The Talmuds T#o Cubilees And Their /elevance To The !ate ?f The
14odus-, +estminster Theological Cournal, F9, olume 9B, pp. EB@% /. I.asholD, -?n The !ating ?f The 14odus-, Presb$terion, F9, olume @F,
7o. F, pp. @% /. '. Ha#kins, -Propositions Gor 1vangelical Acceptance
?f A 3ate!ate 14odus2on*uest: 6iblical !ata And The /o$al 5carabs Grom
t. 1bal-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, FE, olume L,
7o. , pp. @K9% C. '. Hoffmeier, -+hat Is The 6iblical !ate Gor The 14odusV
A /esponse To 6r$ant +ood-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological
5ociet$, FE, op. cit., pp. FFLFKE% idem., -/ameses ?f The 14odus
7arratives Is The @th 2entur$ 6.2. /o$al /amesside /esidence-, Trinit$
Cournal, FE, op. cit., pp. FBFB% 6. oung Y 6.
8/12/2019 firaun in the period of Musa
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8K; 5ir A.
8/12/2019 firaun in the period of Musa
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different but it should not make an$ impact on our argument.
8KL; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The
!$nastic Period- in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient
1g$ptian 2hronolog$, F9, op. cit., pp. KFKK% '. A. 'itchen, -The
Historical 2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in . 6ietak
(1d.), The 5$nchronisation ?f 2ivilisations In The 1astern editerranean In
The 5econd illennium 6.2., F, op. cit., pp. @K.
8K9; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The
!$nastic Period- in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient
1g$ptian 2hronolog$, F9, op. cit., p. KK% '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical
2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in . 6ietak (1d.), The
5$nchronisation ?f 2ivilisations In The 1astern editerranean In The 5econd
illennium 6.2., F, op. cit., p. L.
8KE; +. C. urnane, -The 1arlier /eign ?f /amesses II And His 2oregenc$
+ith 5et$ I-, Cournal ?f 7ear 1astern 5tudies, EL, olume @K, 7o. @, pp.
L@% idem., Ancient 1g$ptian 2oregencies, EE, 5tudies In Ancient
?riental 2iviliDation 7o. K, The ?riental Institute: 2hicago (I3), pp. LEBE%
A. 5palinger, -Traces ?f The 1arl$ 2areer ?f /amesses II-, Cournal ?f 7ear
1astern 5tudies, E, olume @B, 7o. K, pp. FEFB9.
8KB; '. A. 'itchen, -/amesses II- in !. 6. /edford (1d.), The ?4ford
1nc$clopedia of Ancient 1g$pt, F, olume III, ?4ford =niversit$ Press:
?4ford (='), p. 9.
8K; !. P. 5ilverman,-!ivinities And !eities In Ancient 1g$pt- in 6. 1. 5hafer
(1d.) /eligion In Ancient 1g$pt:
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5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3Bg$pte, LK, olume LF, pp. KK@LL, Plates I[[[II. ?ther important #orks are
8/12/2019 firaun in the period of Musa
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Plate II(a).
8LL; H. Te elde, -2ommemoration In Ancient 1g$pt-, in H.
8/12/2019 firaun in the period of Musa
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3td.: 3ondon (='), pp. L@LK.
89F; '. A. 'itchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The 3ife And Times ?f /amesses II,
'ing ?f 1g$pt, BF, op. cit., pp. F@KF@L. 14amples of stamps from various
countries featuring temples of Abu 5imbel, /amesses II and his *ueen
7efertari can be seen on p. F@9.
89@; ibid., p. F@9.
89K; 1. P. =phill, -Pithom And /aamses: Their 3ocation And 5ignificance-,
Cournal ?f 7ear 1astern 5tudies, 9B, olume FE, 7umber K, p. F.
89L; . HamDa, -14cavations ?f The !epartment ?f Anti*uities At &ant]r
(Ga*us !istrict) (5eason, a$ Fst Cul$ Eth, FB)-, Annales !u 5ervice
!es Anti*uitSs !e 3Bg$pte, @, op. cit., pp. @9B, Plates II% 3. Habachi,-'hat\na&ant]r: Importance-, Annales !u 5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3
Bg$pte, LK, op. cit., pp. KK@LL, Plates I[[[II.
899; 1. 6. Pusch Y A. Herold, -&antirMPi/amesses- in '. A. 6ard (1d.),
1nc$clopedia ?f The Archaeolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, , /outledge, Ta$lor
Y Grancis 6ooks 3td: =', pp. 9KE9K% 1. 6. Pusch, -Piramesse- in !. 6.
/edford (1d.), The ?4ford 1nc$clopedia of Ancient 1g$pt, F, olume III,
?4ford =niversit$ Press: ?4ford (='), pp. KBL.
89E; 1. P. =phill, -Pithom And /aamses: Their 3ocation And 5ignificance-,
Cournal ?f 7ear 1astern 5tudies, 9, olume FB, 7umber , p. @E. =phill
records a ver$ useful table allotting points to the above listed cities based on
this concise list of nine attributes re*uired for Pr/amesses as discerned from
the primar$ and secondar$ sources.
89B; 1. P. =phill, The Temples ?f Per /amesses, BK, Aris Y Phillips,
+arminster: 1ngland, p. .
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49/51
89; 1. Pusch, -To#ards A ap ?f Piramesse-, 1g$ptian Archaeolog$, ,
7umber K, p. @.
8E; 1. 6. Pusch, -Piramesse- in !. 6. /edford (1d.), The ?4ford
1nc$clopedia of Ancient 1g$pt, F, olume III, op. cit., p. L.
8E; 1. 6. Pusch Y A. Herold, -&antirMPi/amesses- in '. A. 6ard (1d.),
1nc$clopedia ?f The Archaeolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, , op. cit., p. 9KE.
8EF; 1. P. =phill, The Temples ?f Per /amesses, BK, op. cit., p. FFE. 7.6.
The comparative calculations made b$ =phill #ere based on the
measurements of Pr/amesses available to him at the time. As #e have
observed, modern investigations sho# the cit$ is no# considerabl$ larger
than previousl$ imagined.
Perhaps due to the uncertaint$ surrounding the identification and e4act
measurements, some modern studies still maintain 7ineveh and
subse*uentl$ 6ab$lon #ere the largest cities in the ancient near east. Gor
e4ample see, 2. ork: (=5A), pp. EB.
8EL; . 6ucaille (Trans. A. !. Pannell Y . 6ucaille), ummies ?f The
Pharaohs: odern edical Investigations, , 5t. artins Press: 7e#
>ork, pp. vii44.
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8E9; 5. Pain, -/amesses /ides Again-, 7e# 5cientist, FK, Issue FKE@ (@th
7ovember), p. LK.
8EE; -/amses II (/amses The ork, p. @B.
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51/51
7. 6. Gor the latest facial reconstruction of /amesses II face using a three
dimensional computer model see 2. . +ilkinson, -The Gacial
/econstruction ?f Ancient 1g$ptians- in !. A. /osalie (1d.), 1g$ptian
ummies And odern 5cience, FB, op. cit., pp. EE.
8B@; 5ta$ing active and getting regular e4ercise are amongst the best #a$s of
managing the s$mptoms of diffuse idiopathic skeletal h$perostosis (!I5H). A
recent stud$ suggests that the people suffering from !I5H sho# improvement
#ith e4ercise therap$. 5ee the stud$ b$ A. AlHerD, C. 5nip, 6. 2larke, C.
1sdaile, -14ercise Therap$ Gor Patients +ith !iffuse Idiopathic 5keletal
H$perostosis-, 2linical /heumatolog$, FB, olume FE, 7o. F, pp. FEF.
8BK; 1. +. 3ane, An Arabic1nglish 3e4icon, 9B, Part @, 3ibrairie !u 3iban:
6eirut, FEFB.
8BL; ibid., p. FB.
8B9; Gor detailed discussion of Heb5ed festival see H. Grankfort, 'ingship
And The