Ethics, philosophy, and history

Bio 415/615

Questions

1. What is the “tragedy of the commons”?

2. How do utilitarian and intrinsic value ethical systems differ?

3. Why isn’t either ethical system ideal in a conservation context?

4. What constitutes Aldo Leopold’s “Land Ethic”?

Environmental Ethics• Aldo Leopold (1949) – “A sand county almanac”

- Spurred the environmental movement- the ‘land ethic’

• Rachel Carson (1962) – “Silent Spring”– Sparked modern environmental movement

• Garrett Hardin's (1968) - "The Tragedy of the Commons"

• 1970-80s explosion of thought in environmental ethics– 1972 first environmental philosophy conference– Early 1980s first journal Environmental Ethics

Why conserve?

• This course is about biology. BUT…• We use biological knowledge to make

decisions based on our value system.• Our personal choices reflect what we

value about biodiversity and nature.• Our ethics also affect what we decide

is scientifically interesting.

Devising a system of values(= environmental ethics)

Goal of ethics: create a consistent basis for distinguishing good from bad (or better from worse)

There is no such thing as a ‘universal ethic’. We will not necessarily agree on our rationale for conservation.

“Appeal to Nature” or “Naturalistic fallacy” = something is good because it exists in nature (suffering, extinction, etc.)

2 broad ethical systems

• Utilitarianism (Anthropocentric Ethics)– Human-centered value

• Intrinsic value (Biocentric or Nature-centered Ethics)– Species (or ecosystems) have rights in

their own right

Utilitarian Value

• Goods: Fish, game, foods, spices, oils, fragrances, wood, medicine

• Ecosystem services: air quality, flood control, soil conservation, decomposition, detoxification, pollination, dispersal, pest control

• Information: genetic library, chemical cues

• Spiritual happiness/satisfaction

UtilitarianismJohn Stuart Mill

British philosopher (1806-1873)

Utilitarian value is not just personal, but has a social basis.

UtilitarianismJohn Stuart Mill

British philosopher (1806-1873)

[Jeremy Bentham]: “greatest good for the greatest number”

= hedonistic consequentialism

Anthropocentric Ethics• Greatest good for the greatest number• Instrumental value (a thing is ‘an instrument for’)• Consequentialism• The utilitarian calculus

– Pros and cons– Costs and benefits– Pluses and minuses– Hedons and dolors (add to, take away from pleasure)

• Hedonistic utilitarianism – Good, pleasure (avoidance of suffering), have intrinsic

value, all else is instrumental value

• Preference utilitarianism (ranking)• Monetary Value: valuation, common currency?

Utilitarianism can be a powerful rationale for

conservation

• DDT and Silent Spring• Lead in gasoline• Ozone layer, Montreal protocol

Bioprospecting

• Thermus aquaticus• Hot Springs, Yellowstone NP• Archaea• Near boiling point of water• Enzymes that work at high

temperatures• TAQ Polymerase (replaced

E. coli DNA polymerase)• Polymerase Chain Reaction

(PCR)• Billions!

Nature 1997

• What is the value of something irreplaceable?

• If there are substitutes, depends on supply and demand

• ‘marginal’ (small change) value: eg, what would you pay for one beach, or 50 tons of topsoil, …)

• Various services calculated per area, then extrapolated to globe

Nature 1997

• $33 trillion per year. What does this mean?

• If ecosystems vanish, but their services can be replaced by other means, it would cost about 2x global GNP

• Translation: impossible!

The problems of utilitarianism

The problems of utilitarianism

1. Substitutability: How can we put value on things that can’t be replaced? (what about species extinctions?)

The problems of utilitarianism

1. Substitutability: How can we put value on things that can’t be replaced? (what about species extinctions?)

2. Rarity: Can you estimate value for a service for one time and place and then extrapolate it elsewhere? What happens as it gets more rare?

The problems of utilitarianism

1. Substitutability: How can we put value on things that can’t be replaced?

2. Rarity: Can you estimate value for a service for one time and place and then extrapolate it elsewhere? What happens as it gets more rare?

3. How do we calculate the value of ‘happiness’, ‘contentment’, etc?

The problems of utilitarianism

4. How do we find a common currency for different qualities? (good night’s sleep for good meal?)

The problems of utilitarianism

4. How do we find a common currency for different qualities? (good night’s sleep for good meal?)

5. Human engineering: plastic trees? (is this ok? Restoration, gardening, …)

The problems of utilitarianism

4. How do we find a common currency for different qualities? (good night’s sleep for good meal?)

5. Human engineering: plastic trees? (is this ok? Restoration, gardening, …)

6. Scale: local value may be assessed differently than regional or global value, and processes have different functions at different scales

The problems of utilitarianism4. How do we find a common currency

for different qualities? (good night’s sleep for good meal?)

5. Human engineering: plastic trees? (is this ok? Restoration, gardening, …)

6. Scale: local value may be assessed differently than regional or global value, and processes have different functions at different scales

7. Value changes: consider value of natural medicines once product becomes synthesized

The problems of utilitarianism

8. Everything is relative: consider ecotourism vs. oil drilling on a nature preserve. What would influence the decision to drill or tour?

The problems of utilitarianism

8. Everything is relative: consider ecotourism vs. oil drilling on a nature preserve. What would influence the decision to drill or tour?

9. Negative value: species harmful to humans? (invaders? predators?)

The problems of utilitarianism

8. Everything is relative: consider ecotourism vs. oil drilling on a nature preserve. What would influence the decision to drill or tour?

9. Negative value: species harmful to humans? (invaders? predators?)

10. Species that don’t contribute: no rationale for conserving nonfunctional species?

The problems of utilitarianism8. Everything is relative: consider

ecotourism vs. oil drilling on a nature preserve. What would influence the decision to drill or tour?

9. Negative value: species harmful to humans? (invaders? predators?)

10. Species that don’t contribute: no rationale for conserving nonfunctional species?

11. Unknowns: do we actually know the value of most species or ecosystems?

The problems of utilitarianism

12. Human experience: we all rate ‘nature’ differently. If you live in a city, what value do you assign the night sky?

The problems of utilitarianism

12. Human experience: we all rate ‘nature’ differently. If you live in a city, what value do you assign the night sky?

Others???? Hardin?

Intrinsic valueBiocentric or Nature-centered

Ethics• Species intrinsic values and species

rights…US Endangered Species Act• Animal rights, the value of the

sentient being• Ecosystem, holistic value

– Aldo Leopold’s Sand County Almanac (?)

Intrinsic valueBiocentric or Nature-centered

Ethics• Deontological or rule-based ethics• Kant’s Categorical Imperative• Non-consequentialism• Absolute, not subject to

measurement, nor varying by result or outcome, intrinsic and not as an instrument to benefit of anything external

The Ecological-Evolutionary Land Ethic and Ethical Holism

Aldo Leopold 1887-1948

19491949

Leopold’s Ethical Sequence

• Self• Kin (Family)• Social Group (City, Town)• Nation (Religion)• All People• All Sentient Species (Animal Rights)• All Species• Land-Ecosystem

Gifford Pinchot John Muir

Resource Preservation Conservation EthicEthic

Gifford Pinchot

ResourceConservation Ethic

Scientific forestry (late 1800s)

• Sustained yield without harming productive capacity

• Avoidance of waste

• Best use for human benefit

John Muir

Preservation Ethic

Intrinsic value of wilderness

• Spiritual value• Sierra Club• But utilitarian?

The Hetch Hetchy Dam—1913 (Congress passed Raker Act)

The Hetch Hetchy Dam—1913

Dam Hetch Hetchy! As well dam for water-tanks the people's cathedrals and churches, for no holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man. (Muir)

“Within five years, native grasses and wildlife would begin to reappear as the Tuolumne River reclaimed its original channel. Willows and alders would quickly return to its banks and, soon after, Ponderosa pines and oak woodlands would begin to take root. As habitat restored itself, large numbers of animals would migrate home and the twin of Yosemite Valley would re-emerge in the light of the 21st century.”

www.hetchhetchy.org

The great irony is that the valley’s demise was the work of the City of San Francisco, which now is home to many environmentalists who would lay their bodies down in protest if anyone tried to build such a thing today. But San Francisco is hooked: how do you tear down a dam and remove a reservoir that helps deliver 85 percent of a city’s water?

NY Times, April 10, 2010

Problems of Intrinsic Value

1. Species are transitory– Species evolve, and most species that

ever existed are extinct.

Problems of Intrinsic Value

1. Species are transitory– Species evolve, and most species that

ever existed are extinct.

2. Species are antagonistic– How do we decide who to favor in the

confrontation of competitors, predators and prey, hosts and parasites, etc?

Problems of Intrinsic Value

1. Species are transitory– Species evolve, and most species that

ever existed are extinct.

2. Species are antagonistic– How do we decide who to favor in the

confrontation of competitors, predators and prey, hosts and parasites, etc?

3. Ecosystems vary through time– Which state is the ‘correct’ one?– Focus on the process, not the state?

What’s the answer?

• Sustainability, capacity to adapt (continue to change) are modern themes

• Biodiversity at least gives capacity for future adaptation (Leopold: “save every cog and wheel”)

• Ethical questions, like scientific ones, are sensitive to scale

• Where do you stand?