Post on 19-Dec-2015
INCREASE OR
MAINTAIN A
BEHAVIOR
REDUCE A
BEHAVIOR
ESTABLISH
A
BEHAVIOR
Haus & Polsgrove, 1980
Antecedents Consequences Antecedents Consequences Antecedents Consequences
Instruction
Modeling
GuidedParticipation
Shaping Cueing Contingency
PremackPrinciple
ManagementStimulusControl
Extinction
Punishment
ReinforceCompetingBehavior
CONCEPT ANALYSIS OF
BEHAVIORAL CHANGE
ESTABLISH
ABEHAVIOR
Antecedents Consequences
Instruction
Modeling
GuidedParticipation
Shaping
We must make the assumption that when we ESTABLISH a behaviorwe will be replacing an existing behavior.
Direct Instruction Assumption:
– It is more important to develop instructional sequences that systematically teach students essential skills than to spend time attempting to understand the inner workings of the mind, temperaments, and developmental levels
Key Principle:– both the curriculum materials and teacher
presentation of these materials must be clear, unambiguous, and directly related to the terminal objective
Critical Features of Direct InstructionAn explicit step-by-step strategy must me developed (task
analysis)
Development of mastery at each step in the process
Strategy (or process) corrections for student errors
Gradual fading from teacher directed activities toward independent work
Use of adequate, systematic practice with range of examples
Cumulative review of newly learned behaviors and concepts
Instruction Discrete Behaviors: rarely do we want to teach a
behavior in isolation. Most terminal objectives involve a complex set of behaviors that must be complete in sequence
Chaining - the performance of a series or sequence of individual behaviors to achieve a complex behavior. Example: appropriately entering a classroom
Step 1 Walking into the classroom Step 2 Hang up their coats Step 3 Putting their lunch boxes into their lockers Step 4 Sitting at their desks
Task Analysis
most skills are composed of chains of behavior
most skills occur in a consistent sequence
task analysis is the process and product of identifying component behaviors in their chains
no firm rule exists for determining the number of component behaviors that should be included in a task analysis
– should begin with a predictable stimulus (SD)
– should end with a reinforcing consequence (R+)
Task Analysis - example
leaves work area and go to sinkturn on waterwet handspick up soaprub soap on other handput soap downrub hands togetherrinse handsturn off waterdry hands on towelhang up towelgo to eating area
EAT FOOD
"Time to eat lunch."
Chaining Chaining is the learning of a series of behaviors to complete a complex act
Each link in the chain serves as a cue for the next response in the chain
Types of Chaining– Forward Chaining– Total Task Presentation– Backward Chaining– Backward Chaining with Leap Ahead
Forward Chaining the sequence of behavior identified in the task analysis
is taught in temporal order
reinforcement is delivered when the predetermined criterion for the first behavior in the sequence is achieved
thereafter, reinforcement is delivered for criterion completion of Step 1 + Step 2
each succeeding step requires the cumulative practice of all previous steps
instruction of each step may include:– modeling and demonstration– guided participation– prompting– none
as each successive step is mastered the reinforcement schedule is decreased
– continuous– fixed ratio– intermittent– none
advantage: mastered skills are practiced disadvantage: terminal consequence delayed
Forward Chaining (cont)
Task Analysis Assessment of Hand Washing: forward chaining
turn on water - - - -wet hands + + + +pick up soap - + + +rub soap on other hand - - + +put soap down - - - +rub hands together - - - -rinse hands - - - -turn off water - - - -dry hands on towel - - - -hang up towel - - - -
Step Behavior 10/1 2 3 4
Total Task Presentation variant of forward chaining
total chain is presented with trainer assistance provided with any step that the individual is not able to perform
chain is trained until the individual is able to perform all of the behaviors in sequence to criteria
direct instruction of individual behaviors is provided as in forward chaining
advantage: all steps in the task are practiced during each presentation - instruction session
disadvantage: time
Task Analysis Assessment of Hand Washing: total task
turn on water - - - -wet hands + - + +pick up soap - - + +rub soap on other hand - - + +put soap down - - - +rub hands together + + + +rinse hands - - - -turn off water - + + -dry hands on towel - - - +hang up towel + - + -
Step Behavior 10/1 2 3 4
Backward Chaining all tasks identified in the task analysis are first completed by the
trainer, except for the final behavior
when the learner performs the final behavior to successfully, reinforcement is delivered
subsequently, reinforcement is delivered when the next to last behavior + last behavior is performed
etc.
advantage: individual is reinforced for task completion at a hierarchical level (sequence)
disadvantage: limited practice in early steps
Task Analysis Assessment of Hand Washing: backward chaining
turn on water - - - -wet hands - - - -pick up soap - - - -rub soap on other hand - - - -put soap down - - - -rub hands together - - - -rinse hands - - - +turn off water - - + +dry hands on towel - + + +hang up towel + + + +
Step Behavior 10/1 2 3 4
Backward Chaining with Leap Ahead
variant of backward chaining
"splinter skills" may be demonstrated
reinforcement still dependent upon completion of terminal step
advantage: allows learner to independently practice mastered skills thereby speeding up learning
disadvantage: needs close monitoring and withholding of reinforcement
Task Analysis Assessment of Hand Washing: backward chaining
turn on water - - - -wet hands - - + +pick up soap - - - +rub soap on other hand - - - -put soap down + + + +rub hands together - - - -rinse hands - - - +turn off water - - + +dry hands on towel - + + +hang up towel + + + +
Step Behavior 10/1 2 3 4
Factors Affecting the Performance of a Behavioral Chain
completeness of the task analysislength or complexity of the chainschedule of reinforcementschedule of nonreinforcementstimulus variationresponse variationstaffing/supervision patterns
Self-Instruction
a process of providing one's own verbal prompts
– necessary when discriminative stimuli are insufficient to set the occasion for the required response
– talking yourself through a multi step sequence of activities
" i before e except after c" ABC song verbalizing preconditions to use as a checklist
Self-Instruction (Meichenbaum and Goodman, 1971)
An adult model performed a task while talking to himself aloud (cognitive modeling)
The student performed the same task under the direction of the model's instruction (overt, external guidance)
The student whispered the instructions to himself as he went through the task (faded, overt self-guidance)
The student performed the task while guiding his performance via private speech (covert self-instruction)
Cognitive Modeling– Teaching the problem solving / decision making thought process
– Problem definition What is it I have to do? - Get out of this fight situation or get ready to fight? Choose the alternative - get out of the fight
– Focusing attention on the response guidance What can I do? Run or Talk (Carefull - choose the right words - Stop and Think!
"I don't really want to fight - this problem is really no big deal.")
– Self reinforcement OK - Good, I'm doing fine -not in a fight yet.
– Self evaluation coping skills and error correction Did I succeed? Yes - what did I do right? No - what should I change next time?
Behavioral Shaping
the process by which one systematically and differentially reinforces successive approximations to a terminal behavior
differential reinforcement means that one member of a response class is reinforced, while other members are not
successive approximation is any intermediate behavior that is a prerequisite component of the terminal behavior
topography of a behavior includes: intensity, duration, and rate (amount)
Behavioral Shaping (cont) The efficiency of behavioral shaping can be increased by using:
– a discriminative stimulus, – a physical prompt, or – an imitative prompt
Guidelines:– select terminal behavior– determine criterion for success– identify first behavior to reinforce– eliminate interfering stimuli– proceed in limited gradual steps– link behaviors to terminal behavior
INCREASE OR
MAINTAIN A
BEHAVIOR
REDUCE A
BEHAVIOR
ESTABLISH
A
BEHAVIOR
Haus & Polsgrove, 1980
Antecedents Consequences Antecedents Consequences Antecedents Consequences
Instruction
Modeling
GuidedParticipation
Shaping Cueing Contingency
PremackPrinciple
ManagementStimulusControl
Extinction
Punishment
ReinforceCompetingBehavior
CONCEPT ANALYSIS OF
BEHAVIORAL CHANGE
INCREASE OR
MAINTAIN A
BEHAVIOR
Antecedents Consequences
Cueing Contingency
PremackPrinciple
Management
We must make the assumption that when we INCREASEa behavior we will be replacing an existing behavior.
Prompts or Cues antecedent stimuli that supplement discriminative stimuli in order to produce a specific target behavior
the assistance provided to the learner after the presentation of the instructional stimulus, but before the response
usually a temporary instructional aid and should be systematically phased out as soon as possible
Effective Prompting
Prompts should focus student attention on the SD
Prompts should be as weak as possible
Prompts should be faded as soon as possible
Unplanned prompts should be avoided
Least Intrusive
Most Intrusive
Visual
Verbal
Modeling
PhysicalGuidance
Fade Toward
Natural
Eliminating Prompts Discriminate Stimulus Training
Time Delay Systems– gradual increase in time prior to prompt
Fading
– physical prompts– visual prompts
Contingency Management Contingency
– a precise definition of the limits and range of response topographies that will produce
– a specified consequence and– the environmental situation
Management– external control of events
Contingency Management– the external management of environmental stimuli that
serve as reinforcers for behavioral performance
Positive Reinforcement The process of reinforcing an appropriate target behavior in order to increase the probability that the behavior will recur
– it is responsive to the child's natural need for attention and approval
– it decreases the probability that the child will exhibit inappropriate behavior in an effort to obtain needed attention
Essential Rules when using Positive Reinforcement
FIRST– when a child is initially exhibiting a new appropriate
behavior, it must be positively reinforced each time it occurs
SECOND– once the target behavior is established at a
satisfactory rate, the child should be reinforced intermittently
Steps in the Use of Positive Reinforcement
Carefully select a target behavior (do not attempt to reinforce every positive behavior a child exhibits
Observe the child's behavior to ascertain when he or she engages in the behavior
During the initial stage, reinforce the behavior immediately after it is exhibited
Specify for the child the behavior that is being reinforcedWhen reinforcing, speak with enthusiasm and show interest in the
child's behaviorWhen appropriate, the practitioner may become involved in the
child's behavior, that is, give the child helpVary the reinforcer
Shea & Bauer, 1987
Contingency or Behavioral Contract
an agreement that specifies a contingent relationship between the completion of a specified behavior and access to, or delivery of, a specified consequence
quid pro quo agreements
explicit and negotiated
verbal or written
Basic Components of a Contract Task
– who– what– when
Consequence– who– what– after– how much
Task Record
contractThis is to certify that: George Haus
Will: complete and turn in his daily in-school spelling exercise.
For completing: completion of work - 100 pts. on-time turning work in - 100 pts. grade of 90-100% - 200 pts. 80-89% - 100 pts. 70-79% - 50 pts. 60-69% - 25 pts. 0-59% - 5 pts.
Points may be spent on FRIDAY of each week.
______________ teacher______________ student______________ contract dates
official
George Haus
Mr. Bingo
Jan 1 - Jan 30
1,000 pts. = special privilege PASS CARD 500 pts. = Percent Ticket 100 pts. = 5 free minutes
How do Contracts Work Positive Reinforcement
– addition of something wanted
Negative Reinforcement– removal of something not wanted
Rule-Governed Behavior– specificity generalizes to reality
Desirable Aspects of Contingency Contracting
a positive reward-based management systema way for teachers to individualize contingencieshelp teachers and parents remain consistenta good method for involving parents and significant others in the
student's programencourages active participation and self-determination by the
studentcan be used to teach independence and self-controla fairly simple behavior change intervention that can be
implemented by non professionalsparticipants usually like it
Essential Elements of a ContractTask description is presentDescribed task is observableWhen the task will be accomplished is indicatedHow much of the task or how well a task will be performed is
indicatedReward description is presentWhen the reward will be delivered is indicatedHow much of the reward will be delivered is indicatedReward is indicated to occur at a time after the task has been
completedAmount of reward is appropriate for the task
Token Economy behaviors to be reinforced are identified and defined
a medium of exchange is selected; that medium of exchange is a symbol called a "token"
backup reinforcers are provided that can be purchased or exchanged with the token
Tokens function as "generalized conditioned reinforcer"
– paired with a wide variety of backup reinforcers
token generalized to reinforcer - not the behavior or setting
used to bridge the "time gap" between performance and reinforcement
used to bridge the "setting gap" between the delivery of reinforcement and behavior performance area
Rules for Establishing a Token Economy
Select a target behaviorConceptualize and present the target behavior as a "what to do" not
"what not to do"Post the rules and review them frequentlySelect an appropriate tokenEstablish reinforcers for which reinforcers can be exchangedDevelop a reward menu and post it. Include exchange ratio.Implement the token economy on a limit basis initially.Provide immediate reinforcement for acceptable behaviorGradually change from a continuous to a variable schedule of
reinforcementProvide times for students to exchange tokens for rewardsRevise the reward menu frequently: Content and Ratio
Procedures for Implementing a Token Economy
Selecting Tokens Defining Rules and Behaviors
– observable, measurable, criteria for successful completion, easy to hard, prerequisite skills
Select Backup Reinforcers– naturally occurring activities– artificial activities - tangible items
Establish Ratio of Exchange Establish General Procedures Field Test
Point Card
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2021 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 4041 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Student Name: ________________________ Date: ________
Point Tally Form
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
9:00 - 9:15
9:15 - 9:30
10:00 -10:30
10:30 -10:45
10:45 -11:30
11:30 -12:00
Work period Readiness Social Work Work Comments Behavior Effort Success
Point Card for Multipurpose Token Economy
Student Name: ________________________ Date: ________
**
** **
Premack Principle
A principle stating that any high-probability activitymay serve as a positive reinforcer for any low-probability activity.
Low Probability High Probability Activity Activity
INCREASE OR
MAINTAIN A
BEHAVIOR
REDUCE A
BEHAVIOR
ESTABLISH
A
BEHAVIOR
Haus & Polsgrove, 1980
Antecedents Consequences Antecedents Consequences Antecedents Consequences
Instruction
Modeling
GuidedParticipation
Shaping Cueing Contingency
PremackPrinciple
ManagementStimulusControl
Extinction
Punishment
ReinforceCompetingBehavior
CONCEPT ANALYSIS OF
BEHAVIORAL CHANGE
REDUCEA
BEHAVIOR
Antecedents Consequences
Stimulus Control
We must make the assumption that when we DECREASEa behavior we will cause another behavior to increase.
Reinforcement of CompetingBehavior
Extinction
Time-out
Punishment
Restitution
Satiation
Antecedents to Inappropriate Behavior
Frustration due to:– response ignorance– complex materials, lacking in appropriate behavior– lack of functional vocabulary to communicate– goal or performance interruption
Understimulation: Boredom– being ignored– meaningless repetition beyond criterion– nonfunctional activity– pacing too slow
Overstimulation– environment– rate of physical prompting or verbalizations– pace of activity
Environmental Expectations or Models
Functions Served by Inappropriate Behavior
Attention Seeking– a communication attempt to indicate needs and wants– historical/current pattern of positive reinforcement resulting in a means to access
people, object, event– inconsistent pattern of reinforcement or punishment
Means of Escape/Avoidance– internal stimuli: ear ache, sinus pain, hunger, constipation, etc.– external stimuli: touching, difficult task, change of routine, noise, heat, etc.
Sensory Feedback/Stimulation– to obtain reinforcement from internal stimulation
Nature of current reinforcement desirability, quantity, intensity, scheduling, etc.
Stimulus Control An inappropriate behavior chain (e.g., nail biting, smoking,
encopresis) can be broken if the initial SD is determined and an alternative SD is substituted
The first SD is a chain sets the occasion for the first response, which, in turn, terminates that S and produces the onset of the second SD; and so the chain continues
if the first SD becomes less likely, the whole chain becomes less likely
to break an inappropriate chain, the cues for not emitting the initial behavior in the chain must be stronger than the initial cues that prompted the behavior in the first place
D
Stimulus Control (cont)
take break go to smoke physical from class office satisfaction
look at emotional picture satisfaction of kids
go to talk withhall students
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative or Incompatible Behavior (DRA & DRI) underlying principle is that you can weaken a maladaptive behavior by strengthening an alternative behavior in its place
incompatible behavior– cannot be just any behavior - it must be mutually exclusive
with the maladaptive behavior or must directly compete with it (in-seat vs. out-of-seat, talking vs. not talking)
alternative or competing behavior– are not mutually exclusive - it may be possible to perform
both behaviors at same time
DRA & DRI Advantages:
– they are positive approaches to behavior reduction without any negative side effects
– popular with change agents because desired behavior is increased
– logical - teach what you want not get rid of what you don't want
Disadvantages:– requires a high degree of management to
establish new behavior withhold reinforcement for maladaptive behavior
Differential Reinforcement of the Omission of Behavior (DRO)
student earns reinforcement for not engaging in the maladaptive behavior for a specified interval of time
may be Momentary DRO (MDRO) or Whole-Interval DRO (WDRO)
Advantages:– new behavior not established, shaping procedures available,
low management
Disadvantages:– replacement behavior not specified or controlled
Extinction occurs when you withhold or remove the reinforcer maintaining a behavior
is a procedure that gradually reduces the frequency and/or intensity of a target behavior by withholding reinforcement from previously reinforced behavior
extinction can be used to eliminate the connection between the behavior and the positive consequences that follow it
Extinction (cont) Extinction REQUIRES complete control of the reinforcer
– consistency is the most important factor related to the efficacy of extinction
– in most cases, extinction is only effective in reducing behaviors that are motivated by attention from the teacher/parent/caregiver
Other factors affecting resistance to extinction– the schedule of reinforcement that previously maintained the
behavior– the amount of strength of the previous reinforcer– the length of time of the previous behavior-reinforcer association– the frequency of use of extinction with the student: more the
better
Extinction (cont) Advantages
– may be effective without the use of physical or verbal consequences
– no use of aversive consequences/punishment– effects tend to be long lasting– when combined with DRI or DRA very effective
Disadvantages– temporary increase in behavior expected at start– child frustration– difficult to chose appropriate behavior to use extinction with– must have consistency between and among caregivers and
peers (environment)
Time-Out the removal of a child from an apparently reinforcing
setting to a presumable nonreinforcing setting for a specified and limited period of time
Types of time-out:– nonexclusion
time-out ribbon planned ignoring removal of specific reinforcers observational
– exclusion seclusion isolation
Isolation Time-Out: Guidelines Duration of time-out
– 2-minutes– 4-5 maximum– never more than 10
Caregiver must be able to clearly observe child Child should not be able to see caregiver Expectations for child's behavior should be clear Set timer for amount of time child is to spend in time-out
Setting should not be reinforcing - remember the purpose of time-out is to remove the child from reinforcement
Validate the reinforcement value of the "normal" environment
Time-Out Log
Child _________________________________________Supervisor ____________________________________Date _____________
Time Type Behavior before Behavior during Behavior afterEnters Leaves time-out time-out time-out
10:05 10:10 Verbal interruptions
Quite, watched class
Waited for turn
Tommy Jones
Ms. Smith
Friday, 3-30-02
ign
Type of TO: obs = observational ign = ignore sec = seclusion iso = isolation
Advantages of Time Out Easy to integrate with positive reinforcement program to increase appropriate behavior
Effects of T.O. process usually rapid
Nonexclusion T.O. may be employed without removing the child
T.O. viable alternative to more intrusive behavior reduction strategies
Potential Disadvantages of T.O. T.O. may be abused - duration & frequency
Caregivers may use it as a "break"
Frequent T.O. removes the child from the educational environment
Child may exhibit other inappropriate behaviors when caregivers remove positive reinforcement
Punishment the addition of an aversive stimulus as a consequence of a behavior -
may be physical or psychological
the subtraction of something the child perceives as desirable - response cost
punishment by deprivation or response-cost is generally considered less harmful to the child and more effective intervention than the addition of physical or psychological aversive stimuli
the short-term effectiveness of punishment for decreasing behaviors is not disputed - punishment is effective for obtaining short-term goals
Punishment Reasons for avoiding the use of punishment:
– It does not eliminate but merely suppresses the behavior– It does not provide a model for the desired acceptable behavior– Aggression on the part of the practitioner presents an undesirable
model– The emotional results of punishment may be fear, tension, stress,
or withdrawal– The child's resulting frustration may result in further deviation
Punishment is associated with the punisher rather than with the unacceptable behavior
Punishment Commonly used punishments
– denying participation in scheduled activities– denying snacks– physical punishment– verbal punishment– having the child stand apart from the others– having the child wear a sign
If punishment is to be used: guidelines to use– specify and communicate the punishable behavior to the child by means of
classroom rules for behavior– post the rules where the children can see them; review them frequently– provide models of acceptable behavior– apply the punishment consistently, not whimsically– be fair in using the punishment– impose the punishment impersonally - do not punish when you are angry or
otherwise out of self-control
Punishment Loss of Privileges - response cost
Guidelines– Be sure the child understands the relationship between the target behavior
and the privilege to be lost– Be sure the child knows the punishable behavior and the consequence of
exhibiting it– When possible use natural or logical consequences– Apply the loss of privilege interventions fairly– Avoid warning, nagging, or threatening– Do not debate the punishable behaviors, the rules, or the punishment once
these have been established– Do not become emotionally involved, Don't feel guilty when the child loses a
privilege– Be consistent– Reinforce appropriate behavior; do not emphasize inappropriate behaviors
only
Punishment
Reprimands - to be scolded, "yelled at", "bawled out", or otherwise verbally chastised for exhibiting an inappropriate target behavior
Guidelines– Be specific. Tell the child exactly what inappropriate behavior is being
reprimanded– Reprimand the behavior, do not denigrate the child– Reprimand immediately– Be firm in voice and physical demeanor– If either the child or others may be harmed by the behavior, remove the child– Encourage the child to behave appropriately and include a statement of the
appropriate behavior in the reprimand– Be calm– When it is over, it is over.– Always observe the child's reaction to the reprimand to determine if it is
aversive.
Restitution & Restitutional Overcorrection
Restitution– a procedure that requires and individual to return the
environment to its state prior to a behavior that changed the environment
Restitutional Overcorrection– the child is not only required to perform restitution but
to "restore the situation to a state vastly improved from that which existed before the disruption."
If the Child: Restitution Restitution + Overcorrection
damages car pay for repair pay for new car
throws things pick up items thrown pick up all items on floor
makes a mess during clean play area clean entire roomplay or other activity
drops food on floor sweep up food sweep entire floor
writes on wall wash the writing wash entire wall
damages school repair property to repair property damagedproperty condition prior to and perform additional
behavior service to school property
Satiation
the tendency for an act or stimulus to become less attractive to the subject upon
repetition
the decreasing or elimination of an inappropriate behavior as a result of continued and increased
presentation of the SD
reinforcement of the behavior
Must be implemented with a continuous or fixed reinforcement schedule
very helpful tool for decreasing behaviors that "appear" to be appropriate– pencil sharpening– putting paper in the waste basket– getting drinks of water– etc.