EcologyEcology

Chapters 50-Chapters 50-5555

Rachel Carson’s Rachel Carson’s Silent Silent SpringSpring

Population GrowthPopulation Growth

Lynx / HareLynx / Hare

EcologyEcology

• The The scientificscientific study of the study of the interactionsinteractions between organisms and between organisms and their their environmentsenvironments..

The BiosphereThe BiosphereChapter Chapter

5050

Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization

• BBiosphere – the living earth.iosphere – the living earth.

• EEcosystems – cosystems – interrelationship between interrelationship between communities and the communities and the environment.environment.

• CCommunity – a group of ommunity – a group of populations.populations.

• PPopulation – all individuals of opulation – all individuals of the same species living in an the same species living in an area.area.

• OOrganisms – single living rganisms – single living things.things.

Biosphere IIBiosphere II

Other termsOther terms• HabitatHabitat –the place where an organism –the place where an organism

usually livesusually lives

• NicheNiche – all the biotic (living) and abiotic – all the biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) resources used by an (nonliving) resources used by an organism.organism.– BarnaclesBarnacles– Two species can Two species can

not share a niche. not share a niche.

BiomeBiome

• Regions that exhibit common Regions that exhibit common environmental characteristics.environmental characteristics.

Tropical ForestsTropical Forests – high temperature, heavy – high temperature, heavy rainfall.rainfall.

- - Epiphytes - commensal plantsEpiphytes - commensal plants

SavannaSavanna – grasslands with scattered – grasslands with scattered treestrees

- High temperatures- High temperatures

DesertDesert – hot and dry – hot and dry

ChaparralChaparral – midlatitude spiny evergreen – midlatitude spiny evergreen shrubsshrubs

- California- California- Fires- Fires

Temperate grasslandTemperate grassland – less water and lower – less water and lower temperaturestemperatures

- N. American prairies- N. American prairies

Temperate deciduous forestTemperate deciduous forest – warm – warm summers, summers, cold winters, and moderate cold winters, and moderate precpitationprecpitation

Coniferous forestConiferous forest – Cold winters with snow – Cold winters with snow

TundraTundra – ground freezing winters – ground freezing winters- Permafrost- Permafrost

Behavioral BiologyBehavioral BiologyChapter 51Chapter 51

I. Animal BehaviorI. Animal Behavior

• ““Nature” – genesNature” – genes– Natural selectionNatural selection– Increases fitnessIncreases fitness

• ““Nurture” – learnedNurture” – learned

• CombinationCombination

Animal BehaviorsAnimal Behaviors

1. Instinct – inherited behavior1. Instinct – inherited behavior2. Fixed Action Pattern (FAP)2. Fixed Action Pattern (FAP)

– Goose egg retrievalGoose egg retrieval– Stickleback defenseStickleback defense

3. Imprinting – acquiring a specific 3. Imprinting – acquiring a specific behavior during a critical periodbehavior during a critical period– Konrad Lorenz – imprinting geeseKonrad Lorenz – imprinting geese– Salmon imprint stream odorsSalmon imprint stream odors

Animal BehaviorsAnimal Behaviors

4. Associative learning 4. Associative learning – two or more events – two or more events are connectedare connected– Pavlov’s dogs Pavlov’s dogs

5. Operant conditioning 5. Operant conditioning – trial and error – trial and error learning.learning.– B.F. SkinnerB.F. Skinner– Skinner boxSkinner box

Animal BehaviorsAnimal Behaviors

6. Observational learning 6. Observational learning – animals copy – animals copy behaviorbehavior– PlayPlay

• Vervet monkeysVervet monkeys

7. Insight – solving new 7. Insight – solving new problems.problems. - Stacking boxes- Stacking boxes

II. Animal MovementII. Animal Movement

1. Kinesis – undirected change in 1. Kinesis – undirected change in speed in response to stimulispeed in response to stimuli– PillbugsPillbugs

2. Taxis – directed movement in 2. Taxis – directed movement in response to stimuliresponse to stimuli– Moths toward lightsMoths toward lights– Mosquitos toward heatMosquitos toward heat

3. Migration – long-distance 3. Migration – long-distance seasonal movementsseasonal movements– Whales, birds, insectsWhales, birds, insects– Magnetic fields, sun, starsMagnetic fields, sun, stars

III. Social BehaviorIII. Social Behavior1. Agonistic behavior – aggression 1. Agonistic behavior – aggression

and submission.and submission.– Rituals – wolvesRituals – wolves

2. Dominance hierarchies – 2. Dominance hierarchies – pecking orderpecking order– Alpha male and femaleAlpha male and female

3. Territoriality- possession and 3. Territoriality- possession and defense of territory.defense of territory.

4. Altruistic behavior – seemingly 4. Altruistic behavior – seemingly unselfish behavior.unselfish behavior.– Kin selectionKin selection– ““I would give my life to save two I would give my life to save two

brothers or eight cousins”brothers or eight cousins”

TerritorialityTerritoriality

IV. Animal CommunicationIV. Animal Communication

• Chemical – pheromonesChemical – pheromones– Female mothsFemale moths– Male mammal urineMale mammal urine

• Visual – displaysVisual – displays– Sage grouse Sage grouse leksleks

• Auditory – long distances, Auditory – long distances, water, nightwater, night– Whales, wolves, birdsWhales, wolves, birds

• Tactile – social bondingTactile – social bonding– Infant careInfant care– Dog lickingDog licking– Dance of the beesDance of the bees

Dance of the BeesDance of the Bees

V. Foraging BehaviorV. Foraging Behavior

1. Herds, flocks, and 1. Herds, flocks, and schoolsschools– Concealment, Concealment,

vigilance, defensevigilance, defense

2. Packs – corner and 2. Packs – corner and attack large preyattack large prey

3. Search images – a 3. Search images – a set of key set of key characteristicscharacteristics

Pack Pack BehaviBehavi

oror

Population Population EcologyEcology

Chapter 52Chapter 52

Population terms:Population terms:

• SizeSize – the total number – the total number of organisms (N)of organisms (N)

• DensityDensity – N per unit area – N per unit area– 100 elk/km100 elk/km22

• DispersionDispersion – how – how organisms are organisms are distributed.distributed.– ClumpedClumped– UniformUniform– RandomRandom

Clumped DispersionClumped Dispersion

Uniform DispersionUniform Dispersion

Random DispersionRandom Dispersion

Population terms:Population terms:• Age Structure – the abundance of Age Structure – the abundance of

individuals of each age.individuals of each age. RapidRapid Slow Slow ZPGZPG

Chinchilla BabiesChinchilla Babies

Population Terms:Population Terms:

• Survivorship Curves – mortality over a Survivorship Curves – mortality over a lifetimelifetime– Type I – survive middle ageType I – survive middle age

• HumansHumans

– Type II – random deathType II – random death• RodentsRodents

– Type III – young deathType III – young death• OysterOyster

Population GrowthPopulation Growth

Population GrowthPopulation Growth• Biotic potential – maximum growth rate under Biotic potential – maximum growth rate under

ideal conditions.ideal conditions.– Bacteria and elephantsBacteria and elephants

• Carrying capacity – maximum N sustained by a Carrying capacity – maximum N sustained by a habitat.habitat.– Oh Deer!Oh Deer!

• Limiting Factors – limit biotic Limiting Factors – limit biotic potential potential– Density dependent Density dependent

• Parasites, food, space, sunlightParasites, food, space, sunlight

– Density independentDensity independent• Fire, earthquake, stormsFire, earthquake, storms

Growth rateGrowth rate

• r = growth rater = growth rate– positive or positive or

negativenegative– ZPG (Zero ZPG (Zero

Population Population Growth)Growth)•r = 0r = 0

r = births - deaths

N

Exponential GrowthExponential Growth

• Occurs when r > 0Occurs when r > 0

• J-shaped curveJ-shaped curve

• New or unfilled New or unfilled environmentenvironment

Logistic GrowthLogistic Growth

• Limiting factors Limiting factors restrict size to restrict size to carrying capacity carrying capacity (K).(K).

• S-shaped, sigmoid S-shaped, sigmoid curvecurve

ΔN Δt

K - N

K= rN( )

Logistic growthLogistic growth

Population CyclesPopulation Cycles

Human Population GrowthHuman Population Growth

• Increased food supplyIncreased food supply– DomesticationDomestication– Green revolutionGreen revolution

• Reduction in diseaseReduction in disease– MedicineMedicine

• Reduction in human Reduction in human wasteswastes– Water/sewage Water/sewage

purificationpurification

• Expansion of habitatExpansion of habitat– Houses and heatingHouses and heating

Community Community EcologyEcology

Chapter 53Chapter 53

PredationPredation

Poorwill and LizardPoorwill and Lizard

Warning ColorationWarning Coloration

MutualismMutualism

Deceptive ColoringDeceptive Coloring

Batesian MimicryBatesian Mimicry

I. I. Interspecific CompetitionInterspecific Competition – competition – competition between different speciesbetween different species

• Competitive Exclusion Principle – only one Competitive Exclusion Principle – only one species can occupy a niche.species can occupy a niche.– ParameciumParamecium

• Examples:Examples:• Resource partitioning – dividing foodResource partitioning – dividing food

• 5 warbler in a spruce tree5 warbler in a spruce tree

• Character displacement (niche shift)Character displacement (niche shift)• Galapagos finches Galapagos finches

• Realized niche Realized niche • BarnaclesBarnacles

Character DisplacementCharacter Displacement

II. II. PredationPredation – consuming other – consuming other species. species.

• TypesTypes– True predators – killing and eatingTrue predators – killing and eating

• CheetahCheetah

– Parasites – Parasites – living on (not killing) a hostliving on (not killing) a host – Parasitoids – laying egg on a hostParasitoids – laying egg on a host

• Spiders and insectsSpiders and insects

– Herbivores – eating plantsHerbivores – eating plants• Granivores – seedGranivores – seed

• Grazers – grassGrazers – grass

• Browsers - leavesBrowsers - leaves

III. III. SymbiosisSymbiosis – living together – living together

• Mutualism – both species benefitMutualism – both species benefit– Acacia trees and antsAcacia trees and ants– LichensLichens

• Commensalism – one benefitsCommensalism – one benefits– Bird nests and egretsBird nests and egrets

• Parasitism Parasitism – TapewormsTapeworms

IV. IV. CoevolutionCoevolution – evolving in response – evolving in response to another species adaptations.to another species adaptations.

• Secondary compounds – toxic plant chemicalsSecondary compounds – toxic plant chemicals• Camouflage – “blending in”Camouflage – “blending in”

– Predator and preyPredator and prey– Snowshoe hare, cheetah, polluted mothsSnowshoe hare, cheetah, polluted moths

• Warning coloration – sting, bite, or taste badWarning coloration – sting, bite, or taste bad– Bees and NewtsBees and Newts

• Mimicry – similar appearancesMimicry – similar appearances– Mullerian – all the sameMullerian – all the same

• Bees, yellowjackets, waspsBees, yellowjackets, wasps– Batesian – mimics the warning colorationBatesian – mimics the warning coloration

• Viceroy and MonarchViceroy and Monarch

V. V. Ecological successionEcological succession – the change – the change in the composition of species over in the composition of species over time.time.

• Plant speciesPlant species

• Pioneer species – first to colonizePioneer species – first to colonize– Harsh conditionsHarsh conditions– Lupine and lodgepolesLupine and lodgepoles

• Climax communityClimax community– Persists to catastrophePersists to catastrophe

Types of SuccessionTypes of Succession

• Primary – new substratePrimary – new substrate– Rock or lavaRock or lava– Sand dunesSand dunes

• Secondary – damaging eventSecondary – damaging event– Fire, floods, insects, overgrazing, clear-Fire, floods, insects, overgrazing, clear-

cutting.cutting.

EcosystemsEcosystemsChapter 54Chapter 54

TerrariumTerrarium

FoodFoodWebWeb

EutrophicationEutrophication

EcosystemEcosystem

• All the organisms and abiotic factors All the organisms and abiotic factors in a community.in a community.

Trophic Levels – based on main Trophic Levels – based on main source of nutrition.source of nutrition.

• Primary producersPrimary producers – autotrophs; – autotrophs; convert sun energy into chemical convert sun energy into chemical energyenergy– AngiospermAngiosperm

• Primary consumersPrimary consumers – herbivores – herbivores– GrasshopperGrasshopper

• Secondary consumersSecondary consumers – primary – primary carnivorescarnivores– RatRat

• Tertiary consumersTertiary consumers – secondary – secondary carnivorescarnivores– SnakeSnake

• DetritivoresDetritivores – consume dead – consume dead material (detritus) material (detritus) – WormsWorms

Ecological pyramidsEcological pyramids

• Show relationship between trophic Show relationship between trophic levelslevels

ENERGYENERGY

Ecological pyramidsEcological pyramids

• Show relationship between trophic Show relationship between trophic levelslevels

NUMBERSNUMBERS

Ecological pyramidsEcological pyramids

• Show relationship between trophic Show relationship between trophic levelslevels

BIOMASSBIOMASS

Ecological efficiencyEcological efficiency – the proportion of – the proportion of energy that is transferred to the next energy that is transferred to the next levellevel

• 10% - next level10% - next level

• 90% - metabolic activities, detritus90% - metabolic activities, detritus

• Why we don’t eat lions.Why we don’t eat lions.

Energy Flow ChartsEnergy Flow Charts

• Food chain – linear flow chartFood chain – linear flow chart– Grass Grass zebra zebra lion lion vulture vulture

• Food web – all the food chains in an Food web – all the food chains in an ecosystem.ecosystem.

Biochemical Cycles – describe the flow of Biochemical Cycles – describe the flow of essential elements from the environment essential elements from the environment and back.and back.

• Reservoir – storage locationReservoir – storage location

• Assimilation – incorporated into plants and Assimilation – incorporated into plants and animalsanimals

• Release – elements returns to environmentRelease – elements returns to environment

Water CycleWater Cycle• Storage: oceans, air, iceStorage: oceans, air, ice

• Assimilation: plants absorb, animals drinkAssimilation: plants absorb, animals drink

• Release: evapotranspirationRelease: evapotranspiration

Carbon CycleCarbon Cycle• Storage: atmosphere (COStorage: atmosphere (CO22), fossil fuels), fossil fuels

• Assimilation: photosynthesis and eatingAssimilation: photosynthesis and eating

• Release: respiration and decompositionRelease: respiration and decomposition

Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle• Storage: atmosphere (NStorage: atmosphere (N22) and soil) and soil

• Assimilation: plants absorb, animals eatAssimilation: plants absorb, animals eat– Nitrogen fixation – prokaryotes in root nodulesNitrogen fixation – prokaryotes in root nodules

• Release: Denitrification by bacteriaRelease: Denitrification by bacteria

Phosphorus CyclePhosphorus Cycle• Storage: rocksStorage: rocks

• Assimilation: plants absorb, animals eatAssimilation: plants absorb, animals eat

• Release: decompositionRelease: decomposition