Post on 01-Dec-2014
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NUCLEIC ACIDS:
• Are biological molecules essential for known forms of life on earth
• They include DNA and RNA
• Discovered by Friedrich Miescher in 1869
• They are named so because of their initial discovery in nucleus
DNA stands for deoxyribo nucleic acid
This chemical substance is present in the nucleusof all cells in all living organisms
DNA controls all the chemical changes which take place in cells
The kind of cell which is formed, (muscle, blood,nerve etc) is controlled by DNA
The kind of organism which is produced (buttercup,giraffe, herring, human etc) is controlled by DNA
DNA 2
DNA is a very large molecule made up of a long chain of sub-units
The sub-units are called nucleotides
Each nucleotide is made up of
a sugar called deoxyribose
a phosphate group -PO4 and
an organic base
DNA molecule 3
The deoxyribose, the phosphate and one of the bases
adenine
deoxyribose
PO4
Combine to form a nucleotide
NUCLEOTIDES6
The most common organic bases are
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
THE BASES5
The bases always pair up in the same way
Adenine forms a bond with Thymine
and Cytosine bonds with Guanine
Bonding 1 10
Adenine Thymine
Cytosine Guanine
• Adenine and guanine are known as PURINES
• Thymine and cytosine are known as PYRIMIDINES, in RNA instead of thymine it is Uracil
• Adenine pairs with Thymine forming two hydrogen bonds
• Cytosine pairs with Guanine forming with three hydrogen bonds
Purines Pyrimidines
Purines are double ringed structures Pyrimidines are single ringed structures
Example of purine bases are Adenine and Guanine
Example of pyrimidine bases are Thymine and Cytosine( in DNA), Uracil and cytosine ( in RNA)
Ribose is a sugar, like glucose, but with only fivecarbon atoms in its molecule
Deoxyribose is almost the same but lacks one oxygen atom
Both molecules may be represented by the symbol
THE SUGARS:RIBOSE & DEOXYRIBOSE4
STRUCTURE OF DEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDE AND RIBONUCLEOTIDE
NUCLEOSIDE NUCLEOTIDE
Nucleoside is a component formed by the union of a nitrogen base with a pentose sugar
Nucleotide is a component formed by the union of a nitrogen base, a pentose sugar and phosphate
It is a component of nucleotide It formed after phosphorylation of nucleoside
FUNCTIONS OF DNA:
• It is the genetic material, therefore responsible for carrying all the hereditary information.
• It has property of replication essential for passing genetic information from one cell to its daughters or from one generation to next.
• Crossing over produces recombination
• Changes in sequence and no. of nucleotides causes Mutation which is responsible for all variations and formation of new species.
• It controls all the metabolic reaction of cells through RNAs and RNA directed synthesis of proteins.
A molecule of DNA is formed by millions of nucleotides joined together in a long chain
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
sugar-phosphate backbone
+ bases
Joined nucleotides 7
In fact, the DNA usually consists of a double strand of nucleotides
The sugar-phosphate chains are on the outsideand the strands are held together by chemical bonds between the bases
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PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
2-stranded DNA 9
PO4
PO4
PO4
thymine
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
adenine
cytosine
PO4
guanine
Bonding 2 11
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
Pairing up 12
ROLE OF PHOSPHODIESTER LINKAGE
• Phosphodiester Bonds Link Successive Nucleotides in Nucleic Acids
• The successive nucleotides of both DNA and RNA are covalently linked through phosphate-group “bridges,” in which the 5’-phosphate group of one nucleotide unit is joined to the 3-hydroxyl group of the next nucleotide, creating a phosphodiester linkage .
The chain has a 5 end, which is usually attached to a phosphate, and a 3 end, which is usually a free hydroxyl group
The paired strands are coiled into a spiral called
A DOUBLE HELIX
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sugar-phosphatechain
bases
THE DOUBLE HELIX
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ANTIPARALLEL NATURE
• The two strands of DNA are also antiparallel(run in opposite directions) to one another.
• A strand of DNA can have the direction 5'-3' or 3'- 5'.
• One strand in the DNA molecule is 5'-3' and the other strand is 3'-5'.
DNA STRUCTURE
• The two strands run antiparallely and are complimentary to each other.
• The coiling is right handed.
• The major groove occurs where the backbones are far apart, the minor groove occurs where they are close together.
• Two helical polynucleotide chains are coiled around a common axis. The chains run in opposite directions.
• The sugar-phosphate backbones are on the outside and, therefore, the purine and pyrimidine bases lie on the inside of the helix.Adenine always pairs with Thymine, Guanine binds with Cytosine
• The bases are nearly perpendicular to the helix axis, and adjacent bases are separated by 3.4 Å.
• The helical structure repeats every 34 Å, so there are 10 bases (= 34 Å per repeat/3.4 Å per base) per turn of helix.
• There is a rotation of 36 degrees per base (360 degrees per full turn/10 bases per turn).
• The diameter of the helix is 20 Å.
CHARGAFFS RULE:
• “It states that DNA from any cell of all organisms should have a 1:1 ratio of pyrimidine and purine bases and more specifically that the amount of guanine is equal to amount of cytosine and amount of adenine is equal to amount of thymine”
• %A=%T
• %G=%C
DENATURATION OR MELTING
• The hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases of complementray DNA can break due to high temperature, low or high pH known as Melting or Denaturation of DNA.
• A-T base pairs can go easy denaturation due to presence of only two hydrogen bonds, whereas G-C base pairs are comparitively more stable (high melting point) due to presence of three hydrogen bonds.
RNA
• Like DNA, RNA is also made of a long chain of
nucleotides.
• Some RNA molecules play an active role in cells by
catalyzing biological reactions, controlling gene
expression, or sensing and communicating responses to
cellular signals.
• In RNA molecules instead of the base T, base U is found.
• Generally three types of RNA molecules are found in the
cell – mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA.
MESSENGER RNA:mRNA• Comprise only 5% of total cellular RNA.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries information about a protein
sequence to the ribosomes, the protein synthesis factories in the
cell.
• It is coded so that every three nucleotides (a codon) correspond
to one amino acid.
• The synthesis of mRNA takes place inside the nucleus and after
its synthesis, it is exported out where it attaches to ribosomes
for protein synthesis.
• After certain amount of time the message in mRNA is degraded
into its component nucleotides.
TRANSFER RNA:tRNA• tRNA represents 15% of total RNA in the cell.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) is a small RNA chain of about 80
nucleotides that transfers a specific amino acid to a growing
polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis
during translation.
• It has sites for amino acid attachment and an anticodon region
for codon recognition that binds to a specific sequence on the
messenger RNA chain through hydrogen bonding.
STRUCTURE OF tRNA• Anticodon arm :
• Made up of three nitrogen bases for recognising and attaching to the codon of mRNA
• A-A Binding Site:
It lies at the3’ end and has CCA-OH group
• TΨC Loop:
Contains pseudouridine, site for attaching the ribosomes
• DHU Loop:
Contains dihydrouridine, binding site for aminoacyl synthetase enzyme.
• Variable loop:
Lies between the anticodon and TΨC loop.
RIBOSOMAL RNA (rRNA):
• 80% of total RNA in the cells are rRNA
• Ribosomal RNA is a constituent of Ribosomes
• rRNA are found in combination with several proteins (about 82 proteins) as component of the ribosome which is the site of protein synthesis.
CENTRAL DOGMA• The set of ideas that describes how the cell uses the information
stored in DNA is called the Central dogma
• The first step of central dogma is Transcription
• Transcription uses DNA as a template to copy genetic information into form of RNA
• The second step of central dogma is Translation
• Translation synthesizes the protein using RNA as a template
Character RNA DNA
Nitrogenous bases RNA contains adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine.
DNA contain adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine;
Strandedness RNA is single-stranded. DNA is double-stranded
Location RNA can be found in both the nucleus and cytoplasm.
DNA is only found in the nucleus
Functions RNA carries out protein synthesis. RNA transfers the information to other places in the cell
DNA contains the information for protein synthesis.DNA stores genetic information
Pentose sugar Hydroxyl group present at 2 carbon of the pentose sugar
Absence of hydroxyl group at 2 C of the pentose sugar