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COASTAL INFRASTRUCTURE
Primary Source: The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a
driver of change in marine environments. (2010) Authors: Fabio
Bulleri and Maura G. Chapman, Journal of Applied Ecology
Presentation prepared by: Glorynel Ojeda-Matos, BSCE, MP
Department of Environmental Sciences
University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Fabio Bulleri Maura G. Chapman
Department of Biology,
University of Pisa, Italy
Centre for Research on Ecological
Impacts of Coastal Cities
School of Biological Sciences,
University of Sydney, Australia
Marine Ecology, restoration of habitat
Effects of coastal development
PAPER CONTENT
Summary
Introduction
Ecological consequences of the introduction of
artificial structures
• Introduction of Novel Habitat
• Effects on Adjacent Habitats
• Regional or Large-scale Changes
• Implications for the Spread of Exotic Species
Alternative management options
Future directions for research
Concluding remarks
OUR OBJECTIVES ARE:
I. Overview of the current knowledge of the
ecological effects and impacts of urban
infrastructure on marine habitats.
II. Discuss the alternative coastal defence options
might mitigate their impacts.
III. Identify future research directions that might
advance understanding of these artificial
habitats and, hence, our ability to preserve
biodiversity in urbanized environments.
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH OF POPULATIONS
Many of the largest cities in the world are located in coastal zones.
Areas with higher coastal population generally link to a more altered
state of shoreline.
75% of people are expected to live within 100 km of a coast by 2025.
Source: https://wiki.colby.edu/display/stateofmaine2009/State+of+Coastal+and+Marine+Management+in+Maine
TRANSFORMATION WILL ACCELERATE…
Exponential growth of human populations
Global changes
Sea-level rise
Increased frequency of extreme meteorological events
Image (Season 2011) : http://www.envivopr.com/
COASTAL SHORELINE
HARD STABILIZATION: TWO MAJOR CATEGORIES
Structures that are constructed
parallel to the beach designed to
protect the land and buildings
located immediately landward or
nearshore waters which act to
intercept and reduce the energy
of approaching waves.
Onshore
Seawalls, Bulkheads
Offshore
Breakwaters
Onshore to offshore
Pilings
Structures that are constructed
perpendicular to the beach and
extend out into the water. These
types of structures are designed to
retard or interrupt the longshore
movement of sand and accumulate
sand on the beach up drift of the
structure.
Groins
Jetties
Shore-parallel structures Shore-perpendicular structures
Shore-Parallel Onshore Structures
Shore-Parallel Offshore Structures
Shore-Perpendicular Structures
Source: http://www.csc.noaa.gov/archived/beachnourishment/html/geo/shorelin.htm
Groin at
Folly Beach ,
South Carolina
T-shaped
Y-shaped
Breakwaters at Sea Palling, Norfolk, EnglandSeawall at Galveston, Texas
was constructed in 1539
between the 1760s and 1780s, many
of the present walls were added
forty foot high security wall around
is positioned 140ft/43m above sea
level, and is surrounded by an
18ft/5.5m thick wall.
Fort San Felipe del Morro at Old San Juan
Sea wall – defensa marítima,
muralla de defensa, malecón
Boardwalk at La Esperanza, Vieques Island
Sea wall at Old San Juan, Puerto Rico
Azores Breakwater Repair (Terciera Island, Azores, Portugal)
Response to a major breakwater failure to protect key US Military facilities.
Breakwater - rock fill
placed by hand.
Rompeola de escollera -
acomodado a mano.
Source: http://www.baird.com/what-we-do/project/azores-breakwater-repair
ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF COASTAL INFRASTRUCTURE
Artificial structures are also often constructed of unnatural material,
(e.g. concrete, plastic or metal) which may affect colonization.
ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF COASTAL INFRASTRUCTURE
Current data indicate that artificial structures do not function as
surrogates of natural habitat.
Source: http://www.slideshare.net/scamay/ecological-enhancement-of-coastal-and-marine-infrastructures-finkel
Groynes (Groins) are generally
made of wood, concrete, or rock
piles, and placed in groups.
Rompeolas, espigones
Port of Spain, total length of 550 m
FROM PUNTA LIMA, NAGUABO TO PUNTA
ARENAS VIEQUES ISLAND (WEST SIDE )
Puerto Rico's underwater cable By Gabriel D'Attili
PUNTA ARENAS, VIEQUES, PUERTO RICO
1994 2006
2012 2012
WEBINAR, CTPR (2012): Calentamiento Global y el efecto en nuestras costas. Aurelio Mercado Irizarry, Programa Sea Grant, UPRM
Vary according to the nature of the surrounding
habitat(s)
Evidence that epibiota living on and fish assemblages
associated with artificial structures, differ from those
on natural reefs.
Different types of infrastructure generally provide
vertical habitat, whereas many natural habitats slope
more gently or have heterogeneous topography.
Densities may be abnormally increased, or species
that do not usually come into contact can be forced to
occupy the same area, potentially increasing the
strength of interspecific interactions.
ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF COASTAL INFRASTRUCTURE
Altering the feeding behaviour and local distribution -
The biota living on artificial structures may also
provide an important food-source for species living in
adjacent waters.
Fragmentation and loss of habitat
Substantial alteration in the functioning of the system
Many built structures are deployed on sedimentary
bottoms and severe sand-scouring can be an important
cause of mortality for sessile organisms, ultimately
leading to relatively low levels of species richness.
ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF COASTAL INFRASTRUCTURE
o Potentially causing loss of nursery and foraging
grounds for fish and shorebirds, or breeding sites for
turtles.
o Prevent inland migration of these habitats if sea-
level rises.
o Changes water flow - Disruption of water flow by
infrastructure may stop or limit dispersal of
propagules.
o Illumination – Light Pollution
o Increase rates of sedimentation
ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF COASTAL INFRASTRUCTURE
In many cases, infrastructure is, however, obligatory, either for public safety or to meet engineering standards (e.g. ports, roads, bridges or wharves). Under these circumstances, minimizing their ecological impacts should be considered a priority.
The age of introduced surfaces is also an important determinant of the extent to which the assemblages they support can resemble those on natural rocky substrata.
Managed retreat or realignment of hard coastal defence structures (mostly seawalls) has been identified as an adaptive strategy for alleviating estuarine flood risk or for the re-establishment of ecologically valuable intertidal habitats.
ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
Burt et al. (2009) have shown that the use of
Gabbro as a material to construct breakwaters
could encourage the recovery of corals in
tropical regions, while Russell et al. (1983) have
shown that disused docks can support diverse
assemblages of marine animals and plants and
can be used to promote educational, amenity
and economic activities.
ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
Conventional coastal engineering compared with
new ecosystem-based defence.
ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
Ecosystem creation and restoration can provide a more
sustainable, cost-effective and ecologically sound
alternative to conventional coastal engineering
Source: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v504/n7478/full/nature12859.html
Ecological Engineering: Combining science, design,
and engineering for creating sustainable ecosystems
that integrate human society with its natural
environment for the benefit of both (Mitsch 96).
ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
Source: http://www.slideshare.net/scamay/ecological-enhancement-of-coastal-and-marine-infrastructures-finkel
Improved water quality or enhancement of habitats
for birds, amphibians and crabs.
MARINE URBAN ECOSYSTEMS
Coastal ecosystem restoration project in New York City integrates revegetation
(a form of green infrastructure) with bulkheads and riprap (gray or built infrastructure).
©Department of City Planning, New York City.
MARINE URBAN ECOSYSTEMS
Novel or emerging ecosystems
Needs of research for advancing our understanding
of marine urban ecosystems
Importance of these novel conditions for sustaining
biodiversity
Successful conservation or management of species
needs robust and up-to-date ecological knowledge
and theories
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH
Alternative management options might mitigate their impacts.
Incorporate ecological criteria into coastal engineering - to develop improved ways of building infrastructure to provide habitat formore species without compromising engineering standards.
Identify the mechanisms that cause differences in patterns or processes between natural and artificial rocky habitats.
Understanding how fundamental ecological processes (competition, predation, facilitation, etc.) are affected
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH
Field experiments with adequate replication and
at spatial and temporal scales relevant to
managers so that the results of the experiments
can underpin future management practices.
It is important that engineering practices become
flexible and recognize that the same design may
have different outcomes in different places.
There is little current knowledge about how
connected are marine populations.
The potential role of marine artificial structures
in promoting gene exchange remains virtually
unexplored.
PUERTO RICO
In Puerto Rico there are 8,431 hectares classified as coastal
barriers. These are principally in the Southwest and Northeast
side of the Island. These are fragile and high risk coastal areas,
primarily formed from consolidated sediments. This structure
explains coastal areas’ high instability for construction and
erosion susceptibility.
Needs
Extensive studies of coastal erosion, which include physical
and quantitative estimates of damages from erosion.
Study the process of erosion and sand deposits in various
sites.
Protect the coast using creative, environmentally safe and
cost-effective measures.
Puerto Rico Coastal Zone Management Program, Executive Summary , August 2008
It is not yet possible to provide a ‘recipe book’ of ecological
engineering, but with more experimental collaborations
between engineers and ecologists, progress will be made.