Decentralization .

• Decentralization

https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

Network topology - Decentralization

1 This decentralization is often used to compensate for the single-point-

failure disadvantage that is present when using a single device as a

central node (e.g., in star and tree networks)

Network topology - Decentralization

1 A fully connected network, complete topology, or is a network topology in which there is a

direct link between all pairs of nodes. In a fully connected network with n nodes, there are

n(n-1)/2 direct links. Networks designed with this topology are usually very expensive to set up, but provide a high degree of reliability due

to the multiple paths for data that are provided by the large number of redundant

links between nodes. This topology is mostly seen in military applications.

Decentralization

1 Concepts of decentralization have been applied to group dynamics and

management science in private businesses and organizations,

political science, law and public administration, economics and

technology.

Decentralization - History

1 In the mid-1800s Alexis de Tocqueville wrote that the French Revolution began

with "a push towards decentralization...[but became,]in the end, an extension of

centralization." In 1863 retired French bureaucrat Maurice Block wrote an article

called “Decentralization” for a French journal which reviewed the dynamics of

government and bureaucratic centralization and recent French efforts at

decentralization of government functions.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

1 All my political ideas boil down to a similar formula: political federation or

decentralization."

1 In early twentieth century America a response to the centralization of

economic wealth and political power was a decentralist movement

1 Naisbitt’s book outlines 10 “megatrends”, the fifth of which is

from centralization to decentralization

1 Bennett's Decentralization, Intergovernmental Relations and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare

Agenda describes how after World War II governments pursued a centralized "welfarist" policy of

entitlements which now has become a "post-welfare" policy of

intergovernmental and market-based decentralization.

1 According to a 1999 United Nations Development

Programme report:

1 This trend is coupled with a growing interest in the role of civil society and

the private sector as partners to governments in seeking new ways of service delivery...Decentralization of governance and the strengthening of

local governing capacity is in part also a function of broader societal

trends

Decentralization - Systems approach

1 The United Nations Development Programme report applies to the topic of

decentralization "a whole systems perspective, including levels, spheres, sectors and functions and seeing the community level as the entry point at

which holistic definitions of development goals are most likely to emerge from the people themselves and where it is most

practical to support them

1 However, decentralization itself

has been seen as part of a systems approach

1 University of California, Irvine's Institute for Software Research's "PACE" project is creating an "architectural style for trust

management in decentralized applications." It adopted Rohit Khare's

definition of decentralization: "A decentralized system is one which

requires multiple parties to make their own independent decisions" and applies it to Peer-to-peer software creation, writing:

1 ...In such a decentralized system, there is no single centralized

authority that makes decisions on behalf of all the parties

Decentralization - Goals

1 The following four goals or objectives are frequently stated in various

analyses of decentralization.

1 According to one definition: "Decentralization, or decentralizing governance, refers to the

restructuring or reorganization of authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between institutions of governance at the

central, regional and local levels according to the principle of subsidiarity, thus increasing the overall quality and effectiveness of the system of governance, while increasing the

authority and capacities of sub-national levels."

1 Theorists believe that local representative authorities with actual discretionary powers

are the basis of decentralisation that can lead to local efficiency, equity and development.”

Columbia University's Earth Institute identified one of three major trends relating

to decentralization as: "increased involvement of local jurisdictions and civil society in the management of their affairs,

with new forms of participation, consultation, and partnerships."

1 Decentralization has been described as a "counterpoint to globalization" which removes decisions from the

local and national stage to the global sphere of multi-national or non-

national interests. Decentralization brings decision-making back to the

sub-national levels. Decentralization strategies must the interrelations of the global, regional, national, sub-

national, local levels.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

1 Decentralized is defined as a property of a system where the

agents have some ability to operate "locally.” Both decentralization and diversity are necessary attributes to

achieve the self-organizing properties of interest."

1 Advocates of political decentralization hold that greater participation by better informed

diverse interests in society will lead to more relevant decisions than

those made only by authorities on the national level. Decentralization

has been described as a response to demands for diversity.

1 In business decentralization leads to a “Management by Results" philosophy which focuses on definite objectives to be achieved

by unit results. Decentralization of government programs is said to increase

efficiency - and effectivness - due to reduction of congestion in communications, quicker

reaction to unanticipated problems, improved ability to deliver of services, improved

information about local conditions, and more support from beneficiaries of programs.

1 Firms may prefer decentralization because it ensures efficiency by making sure that managers closest to the local information make decisions and in a more timely fashion; that their taking responsibility frees

upper management for long term strategizing rather than day-to-day decision-making; that managers

have hands on training to prepare them to move up the management hierarchy; that managers are

motivated by having the freedom to exercise their own initiative and creativity; that managers and divisions are encouraged to prove that they are profitable, instead of allowing their failures to be

masked by the overall profitability of the company.

1 The same principles can be applied to government. Decentralization promises to

enhance efficiency through both inter-governmental competition with market

features and fiscal discipline which assigns tax and expenditure authority to the lowest level of government possible. It works best where members of subnational government

have strong traditions of democracy, accountability and professionalism.

1 Brancati holds that decentralization can promote peace if it encourages

statewide parties to incorporate regional demands and limit the

power of regional parties.

Decentralization - Processes

1 According to the United Nations Development Programme it is "more than a process, it is a way of life and a state of mind." The report provides

a chart-formatted framework for defining the application of the

concept ‘decentralization’ describing and elaborating on the "who, what, when, where, why and how" factors in any process of decentralization.

1 Some hold that decentralization should not be imposed, but done in a respectful manner.

1 The appropriate balance of centralization and decentralization should be studied

1 Gauging the appropriate size or scale of decentralized units has been

studied in relation to the size of sub-units of hospitals and schools, road networks, administrative units in

business and public administration, and especially town and city

governmental areas and decision making bodies.

1 In creating planned communities ("new towns"), it is important to

determine the appropriate population and geographical size. While in earlier years small towns were considered appropriate, by the 1960s, 60,000 inhabitants was

considered the size necessary to support a diversified job market and an adequate shopping center and

array of services and entertainment. Appropriate size of governmental units for revenue raising also is a

consideration.

1 Even in bioregionalism, which seeks to reorder many functions and even

the boundaries of governments according to physical and

environmental features, including watershed boundaries and soil and terrain characteristics, appropriate size must be considered. The unit

may be larger than many decentralist bioregionalists prefer.

1 There is no one blueprint for decentralization since it depends on the initial state of a country and the power and views of political interests and whether they support or oppose

decentralization.

1 A variation on this is "inadvertent decentralization", when other policy innovations produce an unintended

decentralization of power and resources

1 Decentralization of responsibilities to provinces may be limited only to

those provinces or states which want or are capable of handling

responsibility

1 Measuring the amount of decentralization, especially

politically, is difficult because different studies of it use different

definitions and measurements. Chanchal Kumar Sharma writes: "a true assessment of the degree of

decentralization in a country can be made only if a comprehensive

approach is adopted and rather than trying to simplify the syndrome of

characteristics into the single dimension of autonomy,

interrelationships of various dimensions of decentralization are

taken into account."

Decentralization - Government decentralization

1 Hall review other works that detail these cycles, including works which analyze the concept of core elites

which compete with state accumulation of wealth and how

their "intra-ruling-class competition accounts for the rise and fall of states" and of their phases of

centralization and decentralization.

1 Rising government expenditures, poor economic performance and the rise of free market-influenced ideas

have convinced governments to decentralize their operations, to induce competition within their

services, to contract out to private firms operating in the market, and to privatize some functions and services

entirely.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

1 It has been called the "new public management" which has been described as decentralization, management by objectives,

contracting out, competition within government and consumer

orientation.

Decentralization - Political

1 Political decentralization aims to give citizens or their elected representatives more power

Decentralization - Administrative

1 Four major forms of administrative

decentralization have been described.

1 Deconcentration, the weakest form of decentralization, shifts

responsibility for decision-making, finance and implementation of

certain public functions from officials of central governments to those in

existing districts or, if necessary, new ones under direct control of the

central government.

1 Delegation passes down responsibility for decision-making,

finance and implementation of certain public functions to semi-

autonomous organizations not wholly controlled by the central

government, but ultimately accountable to it

1 Devolution transfers all responsibility for decision-making, finance and implementation of certain public

functions to the sub-national level, such as a regional, local, or state

government.

1 Divestment, also called privatization, may mean merely contracting out

services to private companies

Decentralization - Fiscal

1 Fiscal decentralization means decentralizing revenue raising and/or

expenditure of monies to a lower level of government while

maintaining financial responsibility

1 Fiscal decentralization can be achieved through user fees, user participation through monetary or labor contributions, expansion of

local property or sales taxes, intergovernmental transfers of

central government tax monies to local governments through transfer

payments or grants, and authorization of municipal borrowing

with national government loan guarantees. Transfers of money may

be given conditionally with instructions or unconditionally

without them.

Decentralization - Economic or market

1 Economic decentralization can be done through privatization of public owned functions and businesses, as

described briefly above

1 Since the 1970s there has been deregulation of some industries, like

banking, trucking, airlines and telecommunications which resulted generally in more competition and

lower prices

1 Emmanuelle Auriol and Michel Benaim write about the "comparative benefits" of decentralization versus

government regulation in the setting of standards

Decentralization - Environmental

1 Such decentralization has happened in India

and other third world nations.

Decentralization - Libertarian socialist decentralization

1 Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophies that promote a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic society without private property in

the means of production

1 Adherents propose achieving this through decentralization of political

and economic power, usually involving the socialization of most large-scale private property and

enterprise (while retaining respect for personal property)

1 Political philosophies commonly described as libertarian socialist

include most varieties of anarchism (especially anarchist communism, anarchist collectivism, anarcho-

syndicalism, and mutualism) as well as autonomism, Communalism, participism, libertarian Marxist philosophies such as council

communism and Luxemburgism, and some versions of "utopian socialism"

and individualist anarchism

1 For Proudhon, mutualism involved creating "industrial democracy," a

system where workplaces would be "handed over to democratically organised workers' associations

Decentralization - Free market decentralization

1 Free market ideas popular in the 19th century, such as those of Adam

Smith returned to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s

1 There would be no difficulty about efficient control or planning were conditions so simple that a single person or board could effectively

survey all the relevant facts. It is only as the factors which have to be taken

into account become so numerous that it is impossible to gain a synoptic view of them that decentralization becomes

imperative.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

1 According to Bruce M

1 This also was true in banking and finance, which saw decentralization as leading to instability as state and local banks competed with the big

New York City firms

1 Her 1984 book Cities and the Wealth of Nations proposed a solution to the

various ills plaguing cities whose economies were being ruined by

centralized national governments: decentralization through the

"multiplication of sovereignties", i.e., acceptance of the right of cities to

secede from the larger nation states that were squelching their ability to

produce wealth.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

Decentralization - Technological decentralization

1 Technology includes tools, materials, skills, techniques and processes by which goals are accomplished in the public and private spheres. Concepts of decentralization of technology are

used throughout all types of technology, including especially

information technology and appropriate technology.

1 Technologies often mentioned as best implemented in a decentralized manner, include: water purification, delivery and waste water disposal, agricultural technology and energy

technology

Decentralization - Appropriate technology

1 "Appropriate technology", originally described as "intermediate technology" by economist E

Decentralization - Critiques

1 If there is a loss of economies of scale in procurement of labor or

resources, the expense of decentralization can rise, even as central governments lose control

over financial resources.

1 Other challenges, and even dangers, include the possibility that corrupt local elites can capture regional or

local power centers, while constituents lose representation; patronage politics will become rampant and civil servants feel

compromised; further necessary decentralization can be stymied;

incomplete information and hidden decision-making can occur up and down the hierarchies; centralized power centers can find reasons to

frustrate decentralization and bring power back to themselves.

1 It has been noted that while decentralization may increase "productive efficiency" it may

undermine "allocative efficiency" by making redistribution of wealth more difficult. Decentralization will cause greater disparities between rich and poor regions, especially during times

of crisis when the national government may not be able to help

regions needing it.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

Decentralization - Further reading

1 Furniss, Norman (1974). "The Practical Significance of

Decentralization". The Journal of Politics 36 (4): 958–82.

doi:10.2307/2129402. ISSN 0022-3816.

1 Merilee Serrill Grindle, Going Local: Decentralization, Democratization,

And The Promise of Good Governance, Princeton University Press, 2007, ISBN 069112907X,

9780691129075

1 Daniel Treisman, The Architecture of Government: Rethinking Political

Decentralization, Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN

0521872294, 9780521872294

1 Richard M. Burton, Børge Obel, Design Models for Hierarchical Organizations: Computation,

Information, and Decentralization, Springer, 1995, ISBN 079239609X,

9780792396093

1 Dubois, H.F.W. & Fattore, G. (2009), Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of

decentralization', International Journal of Public Administration,

32(8): pp. 704–727.

1 Miller, Michelle Ann & Tim Bunnell. (2012), guest editors. 'Asian Cities in

an Era of Decentralisation', Space and Polity, Vol.16, No.1.

1 Sharma, Chanchal Kumar (2006), Decentralization Dilemma: Measuring

the Degree and Evaluating the Outcomes, The Indian Journal of

Political Science, Vol.67, No.1, pp. 49–64.

1 Sharma, Chanchal Kumar (2008), Emerging Dimensions of

Decentralization Debate in the Age of Glocalization, MPRA Paper 6734,

University Library of Munich, Germany; revised version Published

as "Emerging Dimensions of Decentralization Debate in the Age of

Globalization" in Indian Journal of Federal Studies Vol. 19 No.1 pp 47–

65( year 2009).https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

1 Schakel, Arjan H. (2008), Validation of the Regional Authority Index],

Regional and Federal Studies, Routlege, Vol. 18 (2).

1 Decentralization, article at the “Restructuring local government project” of Dr. Mildred Warner,

Cornell University includes a number of articles on decentralization trends

and theories.

1 Peter Aucoin, Herman Bakvis, The Centralization-Decentralization Conundrum: Organization and Management in the Canadian Government, IRPP, 1988, ISBN 0886450705, 9780886450700

1 Jean-Paul Faguet, Decentralization and Popular Democracy: Governance from Below in Bolivia, University of

Michigan Press, 2012, ISBN 0472118196, 9780472118199

1 Harvey S. Rosen, Editor, Fiscal Federalism: Quantitative Studies

National Bureau of Economic Research Project Report, NBER-

Project Report, University of Chicago Press, 2008, ISBN 0226726231,

9780226726236

1 Tim Campbell, Quiet Revolution: Decentralization and the Rise of

Political Participation in Latin American Cities, University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003, ISBN

0822957965, 9780822957966

1 Fisman, Raymond and Roberta Gatti (2002), Decentralization and Corruption: Evidence Across Countries, Journal of Public

Economics, Vol.83, No.3, pp. 325–45.

1 Frischmann, Eva (2010), Decentralization and Corruption. A

Cross-Country Analysis, Grin Verlag, 978-3640710959.

1 Miller, Michelle Ann, ed. (2012). Autonomy and Armed Separatism in

South and Southeast Asia (Singapore: ISEAS).

XMPP - Decentralization and addressing

1 The XMPP network uses a Client–server model|client–server

architecture (clients do not talk directly to one another). However, it is decentralized—by design, there is no central authoritative server, as there is with services such as AOL

Instant Messenger or Windows Live Messenger. Some confusion often arises on this point as there is a public XMPP server being run at

jabber.org, to which a large number of users subscribe. However, anyone may run their own XMPP server on

their own domain.

1 Every user on the network has a unique Jabber ID (usually abbreviated

as JID). To avoid requiring a central server to maintain a list of IDs, the

JID is structured like an email address with a username and a domain name

(or IP addressRFC 6122) for the server where that user resides,

separated by an at sign (@), such as username@example.com.

1 Since a user may wish to log in from multiple locations, they may specify a 'resource'. A resource identifies a

particular client belonging to the user (for example home, work, or mobile).

This may be included in the JID by appending a slash followed by the

name of the resource. For example, the full JID of a user's mobile account

would be username@example.com/mobile.

1 Each resource may have specified a numerical value called 'priority'.

Messages simply sent to username@example.com will go to the client with highest priority, but

those sent to username@example.com/mobile will

go only to the mobile client. The highest priority is the one with

largest numerical value.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

1 JIDs without a username part are also valid, and may be used for system messages and control of special

features on the server. A resource remains optional for these JIDs as

1 The means to route messages based on a logical endpoint identifier - the

JID, instead of by an explicit IP Address present opportunities to use

XMPP as an Overlay network implementation on top of different

underlay networks.

Decentralization

1 Concepts of decentralization have been applied to group dynamics and

management science in private businesses and organizations,

political science, law and public administration, economics and

technology.

1 Schmidt, Democratizing France: The Political and Administrative History of

Decentralization, Cambridge University Press, 2007,

[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZsltI4XKXTUCpg=PA22dq=word+centralizationhl=ensa=Xei=58sSUc_MFfKB0QHC6oFQved=0CFoQ6AEwBw

#v=onepageq=word%20centralizationf=false p

1 In 1863 retired French bureaucrat Maurice Block wrote an article called

“Decentralization” for a French journal which reviewed the dynamics

of government and bureaucratic centralization and recent French

efforts at decentralization of government functions.Robert Leroux,

French Liberalism in the 19th Century: An Anthology, Chapter 6: Maurice Block on Decentralization,

Routledge, 2012, [http://books.google.com/books?

id=Hhf1iGshBKECpg=PA255dq=19th+century+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=csUSUaWxJYHj0gHnuoCoBQved

=0CD0Q6AEwAg#v=onepageq=19th%20century

%20decentralizationf=false p

1 And from the accumulation of these local, active, persnickety freedoms, is

born the most efficient counterweight against the claims of the central government, even if it were supported by an impersonal,

collective will.[http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization/English/General/history_fao.html A History of Decentralization], Earth

Institute of Columbia University website, accessed February 4, 2013

1 * wrote: All my economic ideas as developed over twenty-five years can

be summed up in the words: agricultural-industrial federation. All

my political ideas boil down to a similar formula: political federation or decentralization.Du principe Fédératif

(Principle of Federation), 1863.

1 In early twentieth century America a response to the centralization of

economic wealth and political power was a decentralist movement

1 Naisbitt’s book outlines 10 “megatrends”, the fifth of which is

from centralization to decentralization.Sam Inkinen, Mediapolis: Aspects of Texts, Hypertexts and Multimedial

Communication, Volume 25 of Research in Text Theory, Walter de

Gruyter, 1999, [http://books.google.com/books?

id=UdOg403f5ykCpg=PA272dq=Naisbitt+Megatrends+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=JRcUUfDQDO630QHN2YHoDgved=0CGsQ6AEwCw#v=onepa

geq=Naisbitt%20Megatrends%20decentralizationf=false p

1 Bennett's Decentralization, Intergovernmental Relations and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare

Agenda describes how after World War II governments pursued a centralized welfarist policy of

entitlements which now has become a post-welfare policy of

intergovernmental and market-based decentralization.

1 It involves seeing multi-level frameworks and continuous,

synergistic processes of interaction and iteration of cycles as critical for

achieving wholeness in a decentralized system and for

sustaining its development.””Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”,1999, p

1 However, decentralization itself has been seen as part of a

systems approach

1 Los Alamos National Laboratory, for University of California Los Angeles 1999 conference Decentralization

1 University of California, Irvine's Institute for Software Research's

PACE project is creating an architectural style for trust

management in decentralized applications. It adopted Rohit Khare's

definition of decentralization: A decentralized system is one which requires multiple parties to make

their own independent decisions and applies it to Peer-to-peer software

creation, writing:

1 ISBN 1402047002, 9781402047008 The following four goals or objectives

are frequently stated in various analyses of decentralization.

1 According to one definition: Decentralization, or decentralizing

governance, refers to the restructuring or reorganization of

authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between institutions

of governance at the central, regional and local levels according to

the principle of subsidiarity, thus increasing the overall quality and

effectiveness of the system of governance, while increasing the authority and capacities of sub-

national levels.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p

1 Theorists believe that local representative authorities with actual discretionary powers are the basis of

decentralisation that can lead to local efficiency, equity and

development.” Columbia University's Earth Institute identified one of three

major trends relating to decentralization as: increased

involvement of local jurisdictions and civil society in the management of

their affairs, with new forms of participation, consultation, and

partnerships.

1 Decentralization has been described as a counterpoint to globalization which removes decisions from the

local and national stage to the global sphere of multi-national or non-

national interests. Decentralization brings decision-making back to the

sub-national levels. Decentralization strategies must the interrelations of the global, regional, national, sub-

national, local levels.”Decentralization: A Sampling

of Definitions”, 1999, p. 12-13.

1 Norman L. Johnson writes that diversity plays an important role in

decentralized systems like ecosystems, social groups, large organizations, political systems. Diversity is defined to be unique properties of entities, agents, or

individuals that are not shared by the larger group, population, structure.

Decentralized is defined as a property of a system where the

agents have some ability to operate locally.” Both

1 Quote: ...if demographic diversity promotes greater decentralization, the size of the public

1 sector is not affected 10

consequently.

1 Silverman, Public Sector Decentralization: Economic Policy and Sector Investment Programs,

Volume 188, World Bank Publications, 1992, [

http://books.google.com/books?id=XtoXuSHMclICpg=PA4dq=efficiency+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=Q90ZUZC3F4rV0gG86IGIBwved=0CEUQ

6AEwBA#v=onepageq=efficiency%20decentralizationf=false p

1 Brancati holds that decentralization can promote peace if it encourages statewide

parties to incorporate regional demands and limit the power of regional parties.Dawn

Brancati, [ http://books.google.com/books/about/Peace_by_Design_Managing_Intrastate_Conf.html?

id=g7eLksrA8LAC Peace by Design:Managing Intrastate Conflict through Decentralization], Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN 0191615226, 9780191615221

1 The report provides a chart-formatted framework for defining the

application of the concept ‘decentralization’ describing and

elaborating on the who, what, when, where, why and how factors in any

process of decentralization.”Decentralization: A

Sampling of Definitions, 1999, p

1 Some hold that decentralization should not be imposed, but done in a respectful manner.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p

1 182], ISBN 0203219996, 9780203219997Aaron Tesfaye,

Political Power and Ethnic Federalism: The Struggle for Democracy in

Ethiopa, University Press of America, 2002,

[http://books.google.com/books?id=XD9oFjvFurACpg=PA44dq=

%22appropriate+size%22+government+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=Gr0bUerHCofB0QG6v4Agved=0CEcQ6AEwBA#v=onepageq=

%22appropriate%20size%22%20government

%20decentralizationf=false p

1 Appropriate size of governmental units for revenue raising also is a

consideration.Harry Ward Richardson, Urban economics,

Dryden Press, 1978, [http://books.google.com/books?

ei=Gr0bUerHCofB0QG6v4Agid=d9YpAQAAMAAJdq=%22appropriate+size%22+government+decentralizationq

=%22appropriate+size%22+#search_anchor p

1 Even in bioregionalism, which seeks to reorder many functions and even

the boundaries of governments according to physical and

environmental features, including Drainage basin|watershed

boundaries and soil and terrain characteristics, appropriate size must

be considered

1 Fattore, [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/

10.1080/01900690902908760 Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of

decentralization], International Journal of Public Administration,

Volume 32, Issue 8, 2009, pp

1 A variation on this is inadvertent decentralization, when other policy innovations produce an unintended

decentralization of power and resources. In both China and Russia,

lower level authorities attained greater powers than intended by

central authorities.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p.

19–20.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

1 Some privatization may be more appropriate to an urban than a rural

area; some types of privatization may be more appropriate for some

states and provinces but not others.”Decentralization: A Sampling

of Definitions”, 1999, p

1 Chanchal Kumar Sharma writes: a true assessment of the degree of decentralization in a country can be made only if a comprehensive approach is adopted and rather than trying to simplify the syndrome of

characteristics into the single dimension of autonomy, interrelationships of various dimensions of decentralization are taken into account.Chanchal

Kumar Sharma, [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?

abstract_id=955113 Decentralization Dilemma: Measuring the Degree and Evaluating the

Outcomes], The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol

1 Hall, Rise and Demise: Comparing World Systems, Westview Press,

1997, [http://books.google.com/books?

id=sIpw_9oI0RgCprintsec=frontcoverdq=Chase-

Dunn+Hall+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=8Q0TUcCODofA9QTR-

oGYCwved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=decentralizationf=false p

1 Chaturvedi, Mittal Publications, 2003, [http://books.google.com/books?

id=kpohGPGIyYMCpg=PA229dq=neo-

liberalism+Mishra+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=2xYpUeuBNsXw0QGC8oEIved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq

=neo-liberalism%20Mishra%20decentralizationf=false p

1 Government decentralization has both political and administrative

aspects. Its decentralization may be territorial, moving power from a

central city to other localities, and it may be functional, moving decision-making from the top administrator of any branch of government to lower

level officials, or divesting of the function entirely through

privatization.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p. 5-

1 It has been called the new public management which has been described as decentralization, management

by objectives, contracting out, competition within government and consumer orientation.Managing

Decentralisation: A New Role for Labour Market Policy, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development, Local Economic and Employment Development (Program), OECD Publishing, 2003,

[http://books.google.com/books?id=LJh1onzfJMICpg=PA135dq=New+Public+Management+Decentralisationhl=ensa=Xei=6WgUUcjVJevW0gHs3

oH4AQved=0CEcQ6AEwBA#v=onepageq=New%20Public%20Management%20Decentralisationf=false

p 135], ISBN 9264104704, 9789264104709

Decentralization - Political

1 Political decentralization aims to give citizens or their elected

representatives more Power (sociology)|power

1 Four major forms of administrative decentralization have been

described.[http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization/English/General/

Different_forms.html Different forms of decentralization], Earth Institute of

Columbia University, accessed February 5, 2013.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p.

8.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

1 * Deconcentration, the weakest form of decentralization, shifts

responsibility for decision-making, finance and implementation of

certain public functions from officials of central governments to those in

existing districts or, if necessary, new ones under direct control of the

central government.

1 *Delegation passes down responsibility for decision-making,

finance and implementation of certain public functions to semi-

autonomous organizations not wholly controlled by the central

government, but ultimately accountable to it

1 *Devolution transfers all responsibility for decision-making,

finance and implementation of certain public functions to the sub-national level, such as a regional,

local, or state government.

1 *Divestment, also called privatization, may mean merely

contracting out services to private companies

1 It actually can be a way of increasing central government

control of lower levels of government, if it is not linked to

other kinds of responsibilities and authority.David King, Fiscal Tiers: The Economics of Multilevel Government, George Allen and Unwin, 1984.Nico

Groenendijk, Fiscal federalism Revisited paper presented at

Institutions in Transition Conference organized by IMAD, Slovania

Ljublijana.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p

1 Transfers of money may be given conditionally with instructions or

unconditionally without them.http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/decentralization/fiscal.htm Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations],

Decentralization and Subnational Economies project, World Bank

website, accessed February 9, 2013.

1 Since the 1970s there has been deregulation of some industries, like

banking, trucking, airlines and telecommunications which resulted generally in more competition and

lower prices

1 Some argue that government standardisation in areas from

commodity market, inspection and standardized testing|testing

Procurement|procurement bidding, Building codes, Professional degree|

professional and vocational education, trade certification, safety,

etc. are necessary. Emmanuelle Auriol and Michel Benaim write about

the comparativehttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

1 benefits of decentralization versus government regulation in the setting of

standards

Decentralization - Environmental

1 Such decentralization has happened in IndiaI

1 Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophy|political

philosophies that promote a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic society

without private property in the means of production

1 The Growth of Economic Thought Duke University Press (1991) p.446 Adherents propose achieving this

through decentralization of political and economic power, usually

involving the socialization of most large-scale private property and

enterprise (while retaining respect for personal property)

1 Political philosophies commonly described as libertarian socialist

include most varieties of anarchism (especially anarchist communism, Collectivist anarchism|anarchist

collectivism, anarcho-syndicalism, and mutualism (economic theory)|

mutualism[http://www.mutualist.org/id32.html A Mutualist FAQ: A.4

1 For Proudhon, Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism involved creating

industrial democracy, a system where workplaces would be handed

over to democratically organised workers' associations

1 According to Bruce M

1 *Tibor R. Machan, Private Rights Public Illusions, Transaction

Publishers, 1995, [http://books.google.com/books?id=W1WFgQLS-RcCpg=PA99dq=

%22Big+Business+and+the+Rise+of+American+Statism

%22hl=ensa=Xei=htkjUZ2bIMHB0AGC6oGYCQved=0CD4Q6AEwAw#v=on

epageq=%22Big%20Business%20and%20the%20Rise%20of

%20American%20Statism%22f=false p. 99], ISBN 141283192X,

9781412831925

1 Taft and Woodrow Wilson passed as progressive reforms centralizing laws like The Federal Reserve Act of 1913

that gave control of the monetary system to the wealthiest bankers; the formation of monopoly public

utilities that made competition with those monopolies illegal; federal

inspection of meat packers biased against small companies; extending Interstate Commerce Commission to regulating telephone companies and

keeping rates high to benefit ATT; and using the Sherman Anti-trust Act

against companies which might combine to threaten larger or

monopoly companies.Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism: A

Reinterpretation of American History, 1900–1916, Chapter Two:

Competition and Decentralization: The Failure to Rationalize Industry,

Simon and Schuster, 2008, [http://books.google.com/books?id=jTyfQk1zMTYCpg=PA309dq=

%22Gabriel+Kolko%22+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=60UkUeCWGbG80QHOjICICQved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=decentr

alizationf=false p

1 2], ISBN 0754674150, 9780754674153 Her 1980 book The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty supported

secession of Quebec from Canada.Jane Jacobs, The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty, (1980

Random House and 2011 Baraka Books), ISBN 978-1-926824-06-2 Her 1984 book Cities and the Wealth of Nations proposed a solution to the

various ills plaguing cities whose economies were being ruined by centralized national governments: decentralization through the

multiplication of sovereignties, i.e., acceptance of the right of cities to secede from the larger nation states that were squelching their ability

to produce wealth.Gopal Balakrishnan, Mapping the Nation, Verso, 1996, [http://books.google.com/books?

id=hdrfDqF3fLoCpg=PA277dq=Jane+Jacobs+Cities+and+the+wealth+of+nations+multiplication+of+sovereigntieshl=ensa=Xei=y-

EbUdzvOcLi0gHkvoCIAQved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepageq=Jane%20Jacobs%20Cities%20and%20the%20wealth%20of%20nations

%20multiplication%20of%20sovereigntiesf=false p

1 Foldvary, Daniel Bruce Klein, Editors, The Half-Life of Policy Rationales: How New

Technology Affects Old Policy Issues NYU Press, 2003,

[http://books.google.com/books?id=pEg2pC6entUCpg=PA184dq=Half-

Life+Policy+Rationales+Decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=wRwtUY7NKeqw0AHElIGACAved=

0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=Half-Life%20Policy%20Rationales

%20Decentralizationf=false phttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

Decentralization - Information technology

1 Information technology encompasses computers and computer networks, as well as information distribution

technologies such as television and telephones. The whole computer industry of computer hardware, software, electronics, internet,

telecommunications equipment, e-commerce and computer services

are included. https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

1 Decentralization is particularly applicable to business or

management units which have a high level of independence, complicated

products and customers, and technology less relevant to other units.John Baschab, Jon Piot, The Executive's Guide to Information

Technology, John Wiley Sons, 2007, [ http://books.google.com/books?

id=YokHUkRBZoACpg=PA119dq=decentralization+information+technologyhl=ensa=Xei=OtwqUYr3CMzH0AHs94CIBAved=0CHsQ6AEwCw#v=onep

ageq=decentralization%20information

%20technologyf=false p

1 David Garson, Modern Public Information Technology Systems: Issues and Challenges, IGI Global,

2007, [ http://books.google.com/books?

id=mf_kb6MKrOYCpg=PT128dq=information+technology+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=D7cqUbnwLtCr0AGw

0IDgBwved=0CFgQ6AEwBQ p

1 316], ISBN 0596553897, 9780596553890 Wikipedia itself has been described as decentralized.Axel Bruns, Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life,

and Beyond: From Production to Produsage, Peter Lang (publishing

company)|Peter Lang, 2008, [ http://books.google.com/books?

id=xWxmFNMKXhECpg=PA231dq=wikipedia+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=JMsqUbfjJJC70AGyjIHYDwved=0CEs

Q6AEwBA p

1 Decentralization continues throughout the industry, for example as the decentralized architecture of wireless routers installed in homes and offices supplement and even

replace phone companies relatively centralized long-range cell towers.Adi

Kamdar and Peter Eckersley, [https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2013/02/fcc-public-super-wifi-networks Can

the FCC Create Public Super WiFi Networks?], Electronic Frontier Foundation, February 5, 2013.

1 Related ideas coming out of Silicon Valley included the free software and creative commons movements which

produced visions of a networked information economy.Jennifer Holt,

Alisa Perren, Media Industries: History, Theory, and Method, John

Wiley Sons, 2011, [ http://books.google.com/books?

id=SJ1ZYY-8kj4Cpg=RA4-PA1996dq=%22free+market

%22+decentralization+of+corporations+libertarianhl=ensa=Xei=R9QjUfyxJNO20AGUnYA4ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepageq=%22free%20market

%22%20decentralization%20of%20corporations

%20libertarianf=false p

1 Because human interactions in cyberspace transcend physical

geography, there is a necessity for new theories in legal and other rule-

making systems to deal with decentralized decision-making

processes in such systems

Decentralization - Centralization and redecentralization of the Internet

1 The New Yorker reports that although the Internet was originally

decentralized, in recent years it has become less so: a staggering

percentage of communications flow through a small set of corporations—

and thus, under the profound influence of those companies and

other institutions [...] One solution, espoused by some programmers, is

to make the Internet more like it used to be—less centralized and

more distributed.

1 Examples of projects that attempt to contribute to the redecentralization

of the Internet include ArkOS, Diaspora (social network)|Diaspora, FreedomBox and Namecoin, as well

as advocacy group Redecentralize.org, which provides

support for projects that aim to make the Web less centralized.

1 In an interview with BBC Radio 5 Live one of the co-founders of Redecentralize.org

explained that:

Decentralization - Appropriate technology

1 Appropriate technology, originally described as intermediate technology by economist E

1 If there is a loss of economies of scale in procurement of labor or

resources, the expense of decentralization can rise, even as central governments lose control

over financial resources.

1 Decentralization will cause greater disparities between rich and poor regions, especially during

times of crisis when the national government may not be able to help regions needing it.Summary of

Remy Prud’homme, [http://government.cce.cornell.edu/doc/summary.a

sp?id=prudhomme1995 The Dangers of Decentralization], World Bank Research Observer,

10(2):201, 1995, linked from [http://government.cce.cornell.edu/doc/viewpage_r.asp?ID=Decentralization Decentralization], article

“Restructuring local government project” of Dr

Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol - Decentralization and addressing

1 The XMPP network uses a Client–server model|client–server

architecture (clients do not talk directly to one another)

Organizing (management) - Centralization, decentralization, and formalization

1 *'Centralization' - The location of decision making authority near top organizational

levels.

1 *'Decentralization' - The location of decision making authority near lower organizational

levels.

1 *'Formalization' - The written documentation used to direct and control employees.

Decentralisation - Libertarian socialist decentralization

1 For Proudhon, Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism involved creating

industrial democracy, a system where workplaces would be handed

over to democratically organised workers' associations

Decentralisation - Free market decentralization

1 2], ISBN 9780754674153 Her 1980 book The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty supported secession of

Quebec from Canada.Jane Jacobs, The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty, (1980 Random House and 2011 Baraka Books), ISBN 978-1-926824-06-2 Her 1984 book Cities

and the Wealth of Nations proposed a solution to the various ills plaguing cities whose economies were being ruined by centralized

national governments: decentralization through the multiplication of sovereignties, i.e., acceptance of the right of cities to secede from the

larger nation states that were squelching their ability to produce wealth.Gopal Balakrishnan, Mapping the Nation, Verso, 1996,

[http://books.google.com/books?id=hdrfDqF3fLoCpg=PA277dq=Jane+Jacobs+Cities+and+the+wealth

+of+nations+multiplication+of+sovereigntieshl=ensa=Xei=y-EbUdzvOcLi0gHkvoCIAQved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepageq=Jane%20Jacobs%20Cities%20and%20the%20wealth%20of%20nations

%20multiplication%20of%20sovereigntiesf=false p

Decentralisation - Technological decentralization

1 Foldvary, Daniel Bruce Klein, Editors, The Half-Life of Policy Rationales: How New

Technology Affects Old Policy Issues NYU Press, 2003,

[http://books.google.com/books?id=pEg2pC6entUCpg=PA184dq=Half-

Life+Policy+Rationales+Decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=wRwtUY7NKeqw0AHElIGACAved=

0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=Half-Life%20Policy%20Rationales

%20Decentralizationf=false phttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

International Brotherhood of Teamsters - Decentralization, deregulation and drift

1 Under General President Frank Fitzsimmons, authority within the Teamsters was decentralized back

into the hands of regional, joint council, and local leaders

1 But decentralization of power within the union led several Teamster

leaders in California to repudiate this agreement without Fitzsimmons' permission and organize large

numbers of field workers

1 In October 1973, Fitzsimmons ended the long-running jurisdictional

dispute with the International Union of United Brewery, Flour, Cereal, Soft Drink and Distillery Workers|United Brewery Workers, and the Brewery

Workers merged with the Teamsters.Brewery Workers Merger With Teamsters Is Backed. New York

Times. October 24, 1973.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

1 In 1979 Congress passed legislation that deregulated the freight industry, removing the Interstate Commerce

Commission's power to impose detailed regulatory tariffs on

interstate carriers

1 Deregulation had catastrophic effects on the Teamsters, opening up the industry to competition from non-

union companies who sought to cut costs by avoiding unionization and

curbing wages. Nearly 200 unionized carriers went out of business in the

first few years of deregulation, leaving thirty percent of Teamsters in the freight division unemployed. The

remaining unionized carriers demanded concessions in wages,

work rules, and hours.

1 Williams' successor, Jackie Presser, was prepared to grant most of these concessions in the form of a special freight “relief rider” that would cut

wages by up to 35 percent and establish two-tier wages. Teamsters for a Democratic Union, which had grown out of efforts to reject the

1976 freight agreement, launched a successful national campaign to defeat the relief rider, which was defeated by a vote of 94,086 to

13,082.

1 The pressure on the freight industry and the national freight agreement continued, however. By the end of

the 1990s the National Master Freight Agreement, which had

covered 500,000 drivers in the late 1970s, dropped to less than 200,000,

with numerous local riders weakening it further in some areas.

Criticism of libertarianism - Government decentralization

1 John Donahue argues that if political power were radically shifted to local authorities, parochial local interests

would predominate at the expense of the whole, and that this would

exacerbate current problems with collective action.Donahue, John. (1

May 1997). [http://www.prospect.org/print/V8/32/

donahue-j.html The Devil in Devolution.] American Prospect. 8

Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools - Decentralization

1 Regional offices known as learning communities, each with an area

superintendent, were implemented in the 2007-2008 school

year.[http://pages.cms.k12.nc.us/decentralization/ Decentralization]

Point-to-point (network topology) - Decentralization

1 This decentralization is often used to compensate for the single-point-

failure disadvantage that is present when using a single device as a

central node (e.g., in star and tree networks)

1 This is similar in some ways to a 'grid network', where a linear or ring

topology is used to connect systems in multiple directions. A

multidimensional ring has a torus|toroidal topology, for instance.

1 A 'fully connected network', 'complete topology', or '#Full mesh|

full mesh topology' is a network topology in which there is a direct

link between all pairs of nodes

Alejandro Toledo - Decentralization

1 Under Toledo's predecessor, Fujimori, the governing authority in Peru was

condensed and centralized. A Fujimori-dominated congress passed

a new constitution in 1993, which consolidated the Bicameralism|

bicameral legislature into a Unicameralism|unicameral

legislature with a single national district. Under Fujimori local

governments retained minimal legal authority including fees for utilities,

basic civil registries, and management of public spaces and

markets.

1 ISBN 978-0-271-03790-5 However, when Peru Possible's rival political

party APRA made significant gains in regional elections, the Toledo

administration halted its decentralization program by

withholding power in the areas of revenue and expenditure

1 Toledo’s plan for decentralization enjoyed widespread popular support. Most of the opposition to his program came from, and most of the difficulty

in implementing his proposals was owing to, politicians and bureaucratic agencies who were accustomed to a

centralized form of government.

History of Somalia - Decentralization

1 Following the outbreak of the civil war and the ensuing collapse of the

central government, Somalia's residents reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, traditional or Islamic law, with a

provision for appeal of all sentences. The legal structure in Somalia is thus

divided along three lines: Civil law (legal system)|civil law, religious law

and Custom (law)|customary law.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

Hans Kelsen - Centralization and decentralization

1 In Kelsen's general assessments, centralization was to often be

associated with more modern and highly developed forms of

enhancements and improvements to sociological and cultural norms, while the presence of decentralization was a measure of more primitive and less

sophisticated observations concerning sociological and cultural

norms.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

Boulder City, Nevada - Trendsetter for decentralization

1 The nearby city of Henderson, founded in 1943 and based around the magnesium industry was another

early example of decentralization before Clark County had a significant population: “...the region

began to decentralize and regroup as a multi-centered area early in its history.”Gottdiener, Collins

Dickens, p 26 The independent governments of Henderson, Nevada|Henderson, North Las Vegas, Las Vegas, and Boulder City have perpetuated the

fragmented nature of the region, giving each city its individual character, as well as generally stymieing

the outward growth of these cities.Gottdiener, Collins Dickens, p 28

Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda - Decentralization and public-private partnerships

1 In 2000 the government began a process of decentralization, giving

the country's 30 Districts of Rwanda|districts more revenues and decision-

making authority. Districts, which were already nominally the owners of rural water infrastructure, now began to develop their capacity to plan and

execute infrastructure projects.

1 In 2002 local government in the Northern Byumba Province, inspired

by similar experiences in neighboring Uganda, contracted out service

provision to the local private sector in a form of public-private

partnership.

1 Following that local experience, the government eventually abandoned

its policy of community management and decided in 2004 to promote local public-private partnerships following the Byumba model. With the backing

up of the national government, districts thus competitively bid out and signed contracts with private service providers throughout the country. In 2007, 140 rural piped water systems (25% of the total)

were managed through public-private partnerships.

1 Investments in rural water supply increased substantially since 2002, leading to a significant increase in

access to water supply in rural areas from 57% in 2005 to 71% in 2007 according to government figures.

Administrative divisions of the Maldives - Decentralization

1 On October 15, 2010, the government released a finalized list of the administrative constituencies

established under the Decentralization Act. It listed 184

administrative constituencies. Out of these constituencies:

1 * 2 constituencies were declared “cities”, as according to the criteria

for determining cities in this act. These two constituencies were Male’ and Seenu Atoll. After a referendum among the people, Seenu Atoll was

renamed Addu City”. Each city would be served by a city council.

1 * 181 constituencies were declared “islands”, as according to the criteria

for determining islands in this act. These islands are grouped together

into 18 atolls. Each atoll shall be served by an atoll council, under

which each island has its own island council.

1 * 1 constituency, Fuvahmulah, was declared an “atoll”, and was split into 8 wards at island constituency level. Each ward will have its own island

council, who shall be governed by an atoll council. Fuvahmulah serves as

the country’s 19th atoll.

Water supply and sanitation in Mexico - 1983-1989: Decentralization

1 Under President Miguel de la Madrid, municipalities were entrusted with

providing water supply and sanitation services within the

framework of a general decentralization process

Petro Poroshenko - Decentralization of power

1 In mid-June Poroshenko started the process of amending Ukraine's

constitution to achieve Ukraine's Decentralization#Administrative|administrative decentralization

Boulder City, NV - Trendsetter for decentralization

1 The nearby city of Henderson, Nevada|Henderson, founded in 1943 and based around the magnesium

industry, was another early example of decentralization before Clark

County had a significant population: ...the region began to

decentralize and regroup as a multi-centered area early in its

history.Gottdiener, Collins Dickens, phttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html

International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas - Decentralization

1 ICARDA’s decentralization builds on and strengthens the Center’s existing

organization. Staff have been relocated to Jordan, Lebanon,

Morocco, Ethiopia, Egypt, Tunisia, and Turkey, and the Center has

established temporary headquarters in Beirut, Lebanon.

International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas - Decentralization

1 Adoption of a more decentralized system will enhance the relevance,

effectiveness, and impact of ICARDA’s research activities; better target diverse environments; and better align the Center with target

areas in the CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs) in which ICARDA is involved, including the ICARDA-led

CGIAR Research Program on Dryland Systems.

Health in Senegal - Decentralization

1 Decentralization has meant that authorities have completely failed to engage with women’s situations and

concerns

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