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I. THE NOUN........................................................................................................................................................................... ...21.1. Kinds and function.............................................................................................................................................................2
1.2. Gender................................................................................................................................................................................2 1.3. Plurals............................................................................................................................................................................3
1.3.1. Uncountable nouns (also knon as non!count nouns or "ass nouns#........................................................................$1.%. T&e for" of t&e 'ossessie)*enitie case...........................................................................................................................+
1.,. Use of t&e 'ossessie)*enitie case and of - noun...........................................................................................................+1.. /E0IN ! NOUN..........................................................................................................................................................
II. TI45E/.............................................................................................................................................................................1%2.1. T&e definite article...........................................................................................................................................................1%
2.2. O"ission of t&e................................................................................................................................................................12.3. T&e indefinite article........................................................................................................................................................1
2.%. T&e 6ero article.................................................................................................................................................................1
2.,. /E0IN ! TI45E....................................................................................................................................................27III. 89E4TI:E/.......................................................................................................................................................................23
3.1. Kinds of ad;ecties...........................................................................................................................................................23
3.2. Order of ad;ecties of
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I. THE NOUN
1.1. Kinds and function
A There are four kinds of noun in English:
Common nouns: dog, man, table
ro!er nouns:France, Madrid, Mrs Smith, Tom
A"stract nouns: beauty, charity, courage, fear, joy
Collecti#e nouns: crowd, flock, group, swarm, team
1.$. %ender
A &asculine: men' "o(s and male animals )!ronoun he/they).
*eminine: +omen' girls and female animals )!ronoun she/they).
Neuter: inanimate things' animals +hose se, +e don-t kno+ and sometimes
"a"ies +hose se, +e don-t kno+ )!ronoun it/they).
E,ce!tions: shi!s and sometimes cars and other #ehicles +hen regarded +ith
affection or res!ect are considered feminine.
Countries +hen referred to "( name are also normall( considered feminine.
The ship struck an iceberg, which tore a huge hole in her side.
Scotland lost many of her bravest men in two great rebellions.
&asculine/feminine nouns denoting !eo!le
1 0ifferent forms:
boy, girl
gentleman, lady
son, daughter
bachelor, spinster
husband, wife
uncle, aunt
bridegroom, bride
man, woman
widower, widow
father, mother
nephew, niece
duke, duchess
king, queen
prince, princess
earl, countess2
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lord, lady
$ The maorit( of nouns indicating occu!ation ha#e the same form:
artist cook driver guide assistant dancer doctor etc.
&ain e,ce!tions:
actor, actress
host, hostess
conductor, conductress
manager, manageress
heir, heiress
steward, stewardess
2ometimes person is used instead of man, woman! salesperson, spokesperson.
C 0omestic animals and man( of the larger +ild animals ha#e different forms:
bull, cow
duck, drake
ram, ewe
stallion, mare
cock, hen
gander, goose
stag, doe
tiger, tigress
dog, bitch
lion, lioness
1.3. lurals
A The !lural of a noun is usuall( made "( adding s to the singular:
day, days
dog, dogs
house, houses
s is !ronounced /s/ after p' kor fsound. Other+ise it is !ronounced /4/.
5hen s is !laced after ce' ge' se or zean e,tra s(lla"le )/i4/6 is added to the
s!oken +ord.
Other !lural forms
Nouns ending in oor ch' sh' ss or xform their !lural "( adding es:
tomato, tomatoes
brush, brushes
bo", bo"es
church, churcheskiss, kisses
3
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Nouns
The nouns hoof, scarf and wharf takeeither sor vesin the !lural:
hoofs or hooves
scarfs or scarves
wharfs or wharves
Other +ords ending inforfeadd sin the ordinar( +a(:
cliff, cliffs
handkerchief, handkerchiefs
safe, safes
A fe+ nouns form their !lural "( a #o+el change:
foot, feet
louse, lice
mouse, mice
woman, women
goose, geese
man, men
tooth, teeth
child children
o", o"en.
Names of certain creatures do not change in the !lural.fish is normall(
unchanged'fishes e,ists "ut is uncommon. 2ome t(!es of fish do not normall(
change in the !lural:
#arp pike salmon trout cod plaice squid turbot mackerel"ut if
used in a !lural sense the( +ould take a !lural #er". Others add s:
crabs herrings sardines eels lobsters sharks
$eer and sheep do not change: one sheep, two sheep.
The +ord game, used "( s!ortsmen to mean an animal/animals hunted' is
al+a(s in the singular and takes a singular #er".
Collecti#e nouns' crew, family, team etc.' can take a singular or !lural #er"7
singular if +e consider the +ord to mean a single grou! or unit:
%ur team is the best or !lural if +e take it to mean a num"er of indi#iduals.
%ur team are wearing their new jerseys.
Certain +ords are al+a(s !lural and take a !lural #er":
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#lothes, garments consisting of t+o !arts breeches pants pyjamas
trousers etc. and tools and instruments consisting of t+o !arts:
&inoculars pliers scissors spectacles glasses scales shears
etc.
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A num"er of +ords ending in ics, acoustics, athletics, ethics, hysterics,
mathematics, physics, politics etc.' +hich are !lural in form' normall( take a
!lural #er":
'is mathematics are weak. ut names of sciences can sometimes "econsidered singular:
Mathematics is an e"act science.
5ords !lural in form "ut singular in meaning include news!
The news is good
And certain diseases:
mumps rickets shinglesand certain games:
billiards darts draughts bowls dominoes
$ The first +ord is made !lural +ith com!ounds formed of #er" 8 er
nouns 8 ad#er"s:
hangerson lookerson runnersup and +ith com!ounds
com!osed of noun 8 !re!osition 8 noun: ladiesinwaiting sisters
inlaw wards of court
3 Initials can "e made !lural:
M(s )&em"ers of arliament6 )*(s )#er( im!ortant !ersons6 %+(s )old
age !ensioners6 F%s )unidentified fl(ing o"ects6
1.3.1. Uncounta"le nouns )also kno+n as non9count nouns or mass nouns6
1 Names of su"stances considered generall(:
&read, cream, gold, paper, tea, beer, dust, ice, sand, water, cloth, gin,
jam, soap, wine, coffee, glass, oil, stone, wood
- A"stract nouns:
advice, e"perience, horror, pity, beauty, fear, information ,
relief, courage, help, knowledge, suspicion, death, hope, mercy, work
3 Also considered uncounta"le in English:
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"aggage' damage' luggage' sho!!ing' cam!ing' furniture' !arking
+eather
1.. The form of the !ossessi#e/geniti#e case
A -s is used +ith singular nouns and !lural nouns not ending in s:
a mans job the peoples choice
mens work the crews quarters
a womans intuition the horses mouth
the butchers /shop0 the bulls horns
a childs voice womens clothes
the childrens room 1ussias e"ports
A sim!le a!ostro!he )-6 is used +ith !lural nouns ending in s:
a girls school the students hostel
the eagles nest the Smiths car
C Classical names ending in s usuall( add onl( the a!ostro!he:
(ythagoras Theorem +rchimedes 2aw Sophocles plays
0 Other names ending in s can take -s or the a!ostro!he alone:
Mr 3oness /or Mr 3ones house0 4eatss /or 4eats0 poems
1.;. Use of the !ossessi#e/geniti#e case and of 8 noun
A The !ossessi#e case is chiefl( used of !eo!le' countries or animals as
sho+n a"o#e. It can also "e used:
1 Of shi!s and "oats: the ships bell, the yachts mast
2 Of !lanes' trains' cars and other #ehicles' though here the of
construction is safer:
a gliders wings or the wings of a glider
the trains heating system or the heating system of the train
3 In time e,!ressions:
a weeks holiday, todays pape, tomorrows weathe, in two years time,
ten minutes break, two hours delay,
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. 5ith for 8 noun 8 sake:for heavens sake, for goodness sake
, In a fe+ e,!ressions such as:
a stones throw journeys end the waters edge
E=CI2E. Turn into the plural!
1. Englishman $. 2!aniard 3. Chinese . *renchman ;. ole
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13. %reek 1. Australian 1;. a!anese 1E=CI2E #hoose the right form of the verb !
1. a6 The committee )consist' consists6 of 1$ mem"ers.
"6 The committee )has' ha#e6 come to a common !oint of #ie+.
$.a6 &( friend-s famil( )is' are6 small.
"6 The famil( )+as' +ere6 aslee! +hen +e arri#ed.
3. a6 The !ress )is' are6 kindl( reDuested to lea#e the Conference Hall'
"6 The !ress )is' are6 al+a(s !resent on such occasions.
%. a6 The audience )+as' +ere6 taking their seats.
"6 The audience )+as' +ere6 a!!lauding enthusiasticall(.
,. a6 The mo" )has' ha#e6 "een fighting among themsel#es for some time'
"6 A mo" )is' are6 a disorderl( cro+d.
. a6 The Education oard )is' are6 arguing a"out the cost of te,t"ooks'
"6 The 2election oard )has' ha#e6 selected the "est !u!ils from the can9
didates.
$. a6 The go#ernment )has' ha#e6 announced further +age rises.
"6 The go#ernment )stand' stands6 firm in refusing to make further
concessions.
@.a6 The ne+ Ca"inet )+as' +ere6 the result of his "argaining +ith the
center9left !arties'
"6 The ne+ Ca"inet )is' are6 reluctant to look into it.
.a6 A flock of shee! )has' ha#e6 in#aded m( garden.
"6 ook outF Gour flock )is' are6 stra(ing in all directions.
1B.a6 The Arm( )has' ha#e6 sei4ed !o+er.
"6 The in#ading Arm( )+as' +ere6 defeated.
11. a6 Canada )is' are6 "ilingual.
"6 Canada )has' ha#e6 got into the semi9finals again.
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E>E=CI2E. #hoose the singular or plural form. Translate into 1omanian!
1. colour a6 I sim!l( hate this . . ..
b#Gou must stand still +hen the countr(-s ... is "eing raised.
c# &( fa#ourite . .. are "lue and "eige.$. custom a6 Gou ha#e to declare e#er(thing at the ....
b# 2he +as !ri#ileged to get acDuainted +ith this ... of the
urundians.
c# Hand shaking is one of the most freDuent... in Euro!e.
3. damage a6 I-ll ha#e to !a( for the ...
"6 In case of fire the insurance com!an( +ill !a( the ..... ground a6 Gou must ha#e solid . . . if (ou +ant to ask for a di#orce.
b#5hat +as the .. . of this Duarrel
c# Children ha#e taken good care of their s!orts . . .
;. minute a6 Ho+ man( . . . does it take to get to the office
b#5e +anted him to read the ... of the !re#ious meeting.
c#5ait a . . . F
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1B. s!irit a6 That-s the right. . .
b# Ho+ can (ou "elie#e in ...
c# I shall ne#er touch . . . again.
d# Is there no ... in (our lighter
E>E=CI2E.Form feminine nouns from the following masculine nouns using
the following suffi"es! 9ess' 9i,' 9a' 9ine:
Actor' host' she!herd' administrator' sultan' god' lion' !rior' negro' hero'
!rince' tiger' heir' +aiter.
E>E=CI2E. a6 7ive the corresponding masculine nouns of the following femi
nine nouns9 b0 then give the generic term, if any!
&O0E: a6 mother father
"6 mother father !arent
Jueen' +oman' +ife' daughter' nun' lad(' sister' goose' "ee' duck' grand9
daughter.
E>E=CI2E.2ist the feminine nouns in the -nd column and the generic nouns
in the :rd column so as to correspond to the masculine nouns in the ;st
column!
hog mare !ig/s+ine
cock #i,en deer
hound hen dog"uck e+e o,
"ull "ee horse
drone "itch fo+l
stallion hind fo,
fo, co+ shee!
ram doe deer
stag so+ cattle
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E>E=CI2E. 7ive the masculine of!
ride' girl9friend' maidser#ant' female candidate' !olice+oman'
lad( foot"aller' +oman di!lomat' lad( s!eaker' s!inster' lad(' nurse' female
student.
E>E=CI2E . +rrange the following nouns into two columns according to
their usual gender when personified in poetry, etc. 1emember that the
masculine gender is usually ascribed to nouns denoting strength,
harshness, cruelty, and negative features while those denoting delicacy,
feebleness, tenderness and other positive features are feminine. %n the
other hand, the distinction sometimes depends on the authors imagination
or intentions!
*riendshi!' anger' "oat' fur(' shi!' terror' car' crime' moon' s!ring'
storm' morning' thunder' e#ening' slee!' night' sun' !ride' time' truth' fear'
soul' death.
E>E=CI2E 3. Substitute synthetic genitive forms for the prepositional
genitive forms. The former are generally used with animate nouns, mainlywith persons, with collective nouns /e.g. government, company0, and with
certain kinds of inanimate nouns denoting! a6 geographical names
/continents, countries, cities, towns09 "6 locative nouns denoting regions,
heavenly bodies, institutions /e.g. the regions welfare, the earths core, the
suns impact, the #lubs band07 c6 temporal nouns /e.g. yesterdays reception,
this years anniversaries07 d6 nouns of the type! body, mind, science, life,treaty, play, book, car, ship etc. /e.g. the plays success, the ships captain,
sciences progress0!
1. The ne+ car of his friend is a *iat 1$;. $. 5hat do (ou kno+ a"out the
climate of this countr( 3. I admired the hats of the ladies. . He has "een
stud(ing the folklore of 5Tales for three (ears. ;. 5hat-s the name of the ne+
t(!ist of the manager
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s!ring . These are the "est !aintings of Turner. 1B. He +on-t sa( a +ord
a"out the !ur!ose of his life. 11. The interests of the %o#ernment lie else+here.
1$. 5hat do (ou kno+ a"out the 5ar of a Hundred Gears 13. The future of
Africa is in the hand of its o+n !eo!les. 1. The "louses of the sho!9girls are
the "est ad#ertisment. 1;. o" doesn-t e#en kno+ the time9ta"le of his child.
1
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C the 8 singular noun can re!resent a class of animals or things:
The whale is in danger of becoming e"tinct.
The deepfree
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The wedding breakfast was held in her fathers house.
, efore names of games:'e plays golf.
efore !arts of the "od( and articles of clothing' as these normall(
!refer a !ossessi#e adecti#e:1aise your right hand. 'e took off his coat.
ut notice that sentences of the t(!e:
She sei
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2imilarl( +e can "e:
in bed, slee!ing or resting in hospital as !atients
at church as +orshi!!ers at school etc. as students
in court as +itnesses etc.
5e can "e/get "ack )or "e/get home6from school5college5university.
5e can leave school, leave hospital,"e releasedfrom prison.
5hen these !laces are #isited or used for other reasons the is
necessar(:
/ went to the church to see the stained glass.
'e goes to the prison sometimes to give lectures.
C sea
5e go to sea as sailors. To "e at sea to "e on a #o(age )as !assengers
or cre+6. ut to go to or "e at the sea > to go to or "e at the seaside.5e
can also li#e by5near the sea.
0 work and office
work ) !lace of +ork6 is used +ithout the:
'es on his way to work. 'e is at work.
'e isnt back from work yet. Note that at work can also mean
-+orking-7 hard at work >+orking hard:
'es hard at work on a new picture, office ) !lace of +ork6 needs
the:'e is at5in the office. To "e in office )+ithout the) means to hold an
official )usuall( !olitical6 !osition. To "e out of office > to "e no longer in
!o+er.
E town
the can "e omitted +hen s!eaking of the su"ect-s or s!eaker-s o+n
to+n:
8e go to town sometimes to buy clothes.
8e were in town last Monday.
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$.3. The indefinite article
Its =omanian eDui#alent: un' o.
Ais used in front of consonants: e.g. a good man' a ma!' a +indo+ and an
is used in front of #o+els: an a!!le' an im!ortant issue.
The indefinite functions as a numeral: one hundred L a hundred
Used to sho+ the num"er of ha!!enings during a gi#en !eriod of time:
once a +eek' one a!!le a da(
Used +ith nouns denoting o"s +hen after the #er" to "e: I am a la+(er.
)eu sunt a#ocat6
5hen the noun is uniDue' then it doesnMt need the indefinite article: He
is chairman.
Used as a!!ositions: Ir#ing' a !rose +riter' ..
Used in e,!ressions: for a time' lend me a hand' once u!on a time' to set
an e,am!le' to !a( a call on' to ha#e a mind to' once in a "lue moon.
$.. The 4ero article
ero article is used to e,!ress generalities' +hole categories and not
indi#idual items.
Children +ill "e children
Clothes do not make the man
arking dogs seldom "ite.
2u"stance names: Oil is lighter than +ater7 lood is thicker than
+ater.
5ith a"stract nouns: o#e is a no"le feeling7
efore human names: &ichael' %eorge' 0ais(
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Names of continents' countries' !ro#inces' regions' counties' to+ns'
cities' #illages: Euro!e' Africa' 5allachia L e,ce!tions: the Ukraine'
the United 2tates' the Argentine' the Congo.
&onths of the (ear' da(s of the +eek
E,!ressions: from time to time' "( means of' at random' "( sea' on
sale' at da+n.
$.;. 2E&INA= 9 A=TICE
E>E=CI2E1.*nsert definite or indefinite articles.
1. I ha#e ordered . . . +ashing machine and . . . +ashing machine has
come. $ . . . climate does not suit me. 3. Ho+ did . . . !ress recei#e it .
2ince lunch +as not read( (et' m( hus"and read . . . !a!er for a +hile' then
he rose from . . . armchair and turned on . . . tele#ision. ;. I mentioned
"ridge7 he +as #er( good at. . . game.
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rature. 1B. The res!onsi"ilit( of. . . !arents is stressed in the 0eclaration on
the =ights of. . . Child. 11. . . . fello+ does a lot of cra4( things +hen he has
"een drinking. 1$. . . . man has left his im!rint here too. 13. 5hat can .
man do +hen he is cast on a far9off island 1. . . . )ru""er t(re' do' not'
make a noise6. 1;. . . . )first offender6 should "e treated +ith s(m!ath(.
1E=CI2E3.Supply the necessary article! E=CI2E.Supply the necessary article! definite or
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. (outh look do+n on oldtimers. ;. A humane leader is lo#ed "( . . . !eo!le.
E=CI2E ;. *nsert definite or
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Atlantic.
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amused, horrified, tired etc.' are !assi#e and mean -affected in this
+a(-.
The play was boring. )The audience +as "ored.6
The work was tiring. )The +orkers +ere soon tired.6
The scene was horrifying. )The s!ectators +ere horrified.6
an infuriating woman )2he made us furious.6
an infuriated woman )2omething had made her furious.6
C Agreement
Adecti#es in English ha#e the same form for singular and !lural'
masculine and feminine nouns:
a good boy, good boys, a good girl, good girls
The onl( e,ce!tions are the demonstrati#e adecti#es this and that,
+hich change to these and those"efore !lural nouns:
this cat, these cats that man, those men
3.$. Order of adecti#es of Dualit(
A 2e#eral #ariations are !ossi"le "ut a fairl( usual order is: adecti#es of(a# si4e
(b# general descri!tion )e,cluding adecti#es of !ersonalit(' emotion6
(c# age
(d# sha!e
(e#colour
(f#material(*# origin
)h6 !ur!ose )these are reall( gerunds used to form com!ound
nouns: walking stick, riding boots0.
a long sharp knife
a small round bath
new he"agonal coins
blue velvet curtains
an old plastic bucket
an elegant French clock
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TO&:&ut the smaller it is, the less it will cost us to heat.
C %radual increase or decrease is e,!ressed "( t+o com!arati#es oined
"( and:
The weather is getting colder and colder. 'e becameless and less interested.
the 8 adecti#e +ith a !lural meaning
A blind, deaf, disabled, healthy/sick, living/dead, rich/poor,
unemployed and certain other adecti#es descri"ing the human
character or condition can "e !receded "( the and used to re!resent a
class of !ersons. These e,!ressions ha#e a !lural meaning7 the( take a!lural #er" and the !ronoun is they:
The poor get poorer9 the rich get richer. the can "e used in the same
+a( +ith national adecti#es ending in ch or sh:
the $utch the Spanish the 8elsh and can "e used similarl( +ith
national adecti#es ending in se or ss:
the &urmese the #hinese the 3apanese the Swiss
though it is ust !ossi"le for these to ha#e a singular meaning.
:.A. ossessi#e adecti#es
my
your
his5her5its
ouryour
their
A ossessi#e adecti#es in English refer to the !ossessor and not to the
thing !ossessed. E#er(thing that a man or "o( !ossesses is his thing7
e#er(thing that a +oman or girl !ossesses is her thing:
Toms father is his father"ut
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Marys father is her father. E#er(thing that an animal or thing
!ossesses is its thing:
+ tree drops its leaves in autumn.
+ happy dog wags its tail. ut if the se, of the animal is kno+n'
his/her+ould often "e used. If there is more than one !ossessor'
their is used:
The girls are with their brother.
Trees drop their leaves in autumn. Note that the !ossessi#e
adecti#e remains the same +hether the thing !ossessed is singular or
!lural:
my glove, my gloves his foot, his feet
C To add em!hasis' own can "e !laced after my, your, his etc. and
after one#s:
my own room her own idea own can "e an adecti#e'
as a"o#e' or a !ronoun:
a room of ones own
Note the e,!ression:
*m on my own > *m alone.
3.E=CI2E1. #hoose the appropriate adjective. 6ote that $ic alternates
with $ical with a difference of meaning!
1. I am fond of classic / classical languages. $. Caragiale-s !la( QThe ost
etterQ is a comic / comical master!iece. 3. E#er("od( has reali4ed that "ig
cars are not economic / economical to run. . It has taken long (ears of I
historic B historical research to gather all the data a"out this historic /
historical building. ;. The =o(al allet-s !erformance of QThe Nut9crackerQ
+as a classicC classical one.
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that comic B comical old hat on. @. &an( an innocent man has gone to the
electric B electrical chair. . He is Duite an e,!ert in electric / electrical
engineering.
E>E=CI2E$. 7roup the adjectives listed below under the three heads ofthe table.
Note that there are t+o regular +a(s of marking the categor( of
com!arison in English7 a6 "( means of 9er in the com!arati#e and )the6 9est
in the su!erlati#e )the s(nthetic com!arison6 +ith monos(lla"ic adecti#es7
"6 "( means of the !eri!hrastic forms +ith more and the) most )the
anal(tic com!arison6' incase of !luris(lla"ic adecti#es. A series ofmonos(lla"ic adecti#es' such as: calm, cross, fit, fond, frank, scarce, grave,
prompt dis!la( "oth !atterns. &an( dis(lla"ic adecti#es dis!la( "oth
!atterns too. It is t(!icall( the case +ith adecti#es ending in 9(' 9o+' 9le' $er
such as: clumsy, sallow, humble, clever, as +ell as the follo+ing adecti#es:
handsome, common, polite, quiet, pleasant, precise, sincere etc.
sl(' +icked' con#enient' foolish' acti#e' #ague' afraid' common' red'+ounded' thin' !rett(' startling' stu!id' "ig' health(' correct' ali#e' fertile'
+orth(' !leasant' minute' eager' cruel' tiring' remote' earl(' comic' sim!le'
eas(' tender' lo+' calm' sore' fast' ust' docile' !ro!er' distinct' high'
sincere.
a6 9er "6 more8Ad. S6 a6 9er7 )the6 9est /
)the6 9est )the6 most8Ad. "6 more 8 Ad. )the6
most 8 Ad.
E>E=CI2E3.(rovide the irregular degrees of comparison of the following
adjectives. 1emember that some of them have two forms of degrees of
comparison !
1. good' $. "ad / ill' 3. little' . near' ;. much / man('
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E>E=CI2E. se the correct form of the adjectives in brackets!
1. 5hat is the )late6 information (ou-#e got $. Her )old6 "rother is called
im. 3. 5e +ere in a hurr( to catch the )late6 "us. . 5hich is )old6 of the
t+o ;. 5ho is the )old6 mem"er of the students- clu"
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E>E=CI2E
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2entence: certainly, definitely, luckily, surely
0egree:fairly, hardly, rather, quite, too, very
Interrogati#e: when@ where@ why@=elati#e: when, where, why
.$. *orm and use
The formation of ad#er"s +ith ly
A &an( ad#er"s of manner and some ad#er"s of degree are formed "(
adding l( to the corres!onding adecti#es:
final, finally immediate, immediately slow, slowly
2!elling notes
(a#A finaly changes to i: happy, happily.
(b# A final e is retained "efore ly: e"treme, e"tremely.
E,ce!tions: true, due, whole"ecome truly, duly, wholly.
(c#Adecti#es ending in a consonant 8 le dro! the e and add (: gentle,
gently simple, simply
Note that the ad#er" of good iswell.
Adecti#es ending in ly
daily, weekly, monthly etc.' kindly and sometimes leisurely can "e
adecti#es or ad#er"s' "ut most other adecti#es ending in ly, e.g.
friendly, likely, lonely etc.' cannot "e used as ad#er"s and ha#e no
ad#er" form. To su!!l( this deficienc( +e use a similar ad#er" or
ad#er" !hrase:
likely )adecti#e6probably )ad#er"6
friendly )adecti#e6 in a friendly way )ad#er" !hrase6
C 2ome ad#er"s ha#e a narro+er meaning than their corres!onding
adecti#es or differ from them. coldly, coolly, hotly, warmly are
used mainl( of feelings:
8e received them coldly, )in an unfriendl( +a(6
They denied the accusation hotly, )indignantl(6
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She welcomed us warmly, )in a friendl( +a(6
utwarmly dressed +earing +arm clothes.
coolly % calmly/courageously or calmly/impudently:
'e behaved very coolly in this dangerous situation. presently
% soon:'ell be here presently.
Ad#er"s and adecti#es +ith the same form
A back hardD little rightE
deepE highE long shortE
directE ill low still
early justE much5more5mostE straight
enough kindly nearE well
far lateE prettyE wrongE
fast left
Used as ad#er"s: Used as adecti#es:
#ome back soon. the back door
4ou can dial 1ome direct.the most direct route
The train went fast. a fast train
They worked hard, )energeticall(6 The work is hard
an illmade road 4ou look ill5well
Turn right here. the right answer
She went straight home. a straight line
'e led us wrong. This is the wrong way.
2tarred +ords a"o#e also ha#e ly forms. Note the meanings.
deeply is used chiefl( of feelings:
'e was deeply offended.
&irectly can "e used of time or connection:
'e ;; be here directly, )#er( soon6
The new regulations will affect us directly5indirectly.
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'ighly is used onl( in an a"stract sense:
'e was a highly paid official. They spoke very highly of him.
(ustly corres!onds to the adecti#eust )fair' right' la+ful6' "utust can
also "e an ad#er" of degree.
*ately % recently:'ave you seen him lately@
.3. Com!arati#e and su!erlati#e ad#er" forms
A 5ith ad#er"s of t+o or more s(lla"les +e form the com!arati#e and
su!erlati#e "( !utting more and most"efore the !ositi#e form:
ositi#e Com!arati#e 2u!erlati#e
quickly more quickly most quickly
fortunately more fortunately most fortunately
2ingle9s(lla"le ad#er"s' ho+e#er' and early, add er, est:
hard harder hardest
early earlier earliest )note the ( "ecomes i6
Irregular com!arisons:
well better best
badly worse worst
little less least
much more most
far fartherfarthest )of distance onl(6
furtherfurthest )used more +idel(6
. osition of ad#er"s
Ad#er"s of manner
A Ad#er"s of manner come after the #er":
She danced beautifully or after the o"ect +hen there is one:
'e gave her the money reluctantly. They speak =nglish well.
0o not !ut an ad#er" "et+een #er" and o"ect.
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5hen +e ha#e #er" 8 !re!osition 8 o"ect' the ad#er" can "e either
"efore the !re!osition or after the o"ect:
'e looked at me suspiciously or'e looked suspiciously at me. ut if
the o"ect contains a num"er of +ords +e !ut the ad#er" "efore the
!re!osition:
'e looked suspiciously at everyone who got off the plane.
Ad#er"s of time
A afterwards, eventually, lately, now, recently, soon, then,
today, tomorrow etc. and ad#er" !hrases of time: at once, since
then, till )
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4ou have often been told not to do that.
'ave you ever ridden a camel@
Order of ad#er"s and ad#er" !hrases of manner' !lace and time +hen the(
occur in the same sentence
E,!ressions of manner usuall( !recede e,!ressions of !lace:
'e climbed awkwardly out of the window.
'e d study happily anywhere.
Time e,!ressions can follo+ e,!ressions of manner and !lace:
They worked hard in the garden today.
'e lived there happily for a year.
.;. In#ersion of the #er"
In#ersion of the #er" after certain ad#er"s
Certain ad#er"s and ad#er" !hrases' mostl( +ith a restricti#e or negati#e
sense' can for em!hasis "e !laced first in a sentence or clause and are then
follo+ed "( the in#erted )i.e. interrogati#e6 form of the #er". The most
im!ortant of these are sho+n "elo+. The num"ers indicate !aragra!hs
+here an e,am!le +ill "e found.
hardly ever on no account
hardly . . . when 6 only by
in no circumstances only in this way
neither5nor only then5when
never scarcely ever
no sooner . . . than scarcely . . . when
not only seldom
not till so
nowhere
;. 'avent got a ticket. 6either56or have *.
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-. * had never before been asked to accept a bribe. 6ever before
had * been asked to accept a bribe.
:. They not only rob you, they smash everything too. 6ot only do
they rob you, they smash everything too.
G. 'e didn t reali
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)"ad' "adl(6. 13. &r. ones held it )tight' tightl(6. 1. It +as si, o-clock as
)near' nearl(6 as he could guess. 1;. )last' lastl(6 I must account for m(
sister-s "eha#iour.
E>E=CI2E 3. 1ewrite these sentences substituting 9l( adverbs for the
italiciE=CI2E. 7ive the degrees of comparison of the following adverbs!
&uch' "rightl(' Duietl(' e,!ressi#el(' "adl(' Duickl(' late' fast' high'
often' +ell' s+iftl(' far' little' slo+l(.
E>E=Ci2E ;. 1ewrite the following sentences using the adverbs in
parantheses in the correct degree of comparison!
1. In a large cit( (ou must cross the street )carefull(6 than in a small one.
$. He +alked )far6 than I did. 3. lease s!eak )slo+l(6' so that I can take
notes. . 2he mo#ed )a+k+ardl(6 an ele!hant. ;. He re#ie+ed her +ork
)unfa#ora"l(6 than 0i,on did.
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E>E=CI2EA&E: ohn "roke ohnMs arm.
AN25E=:ohn "roke his arm.
The noun that a !ronoun re!laces is the antecedent of the !ronoun.
E>A&E:
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Carmen and oan +alked into the theatre. It +as so dark that the(
could "arel( see the floor.
)Theatre is the antecedent of it. Carmen and oan are the antecedents
of the(.6
he antecedentusuall( a!!ears "efore the !ronoun. ronouns ma( "e
the antecedents of other !ronouns
E>A&E: HE eno(s HI2 free time. )He is the antecedent of his6
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number.
If the antecedent is singular' the !ronoun must "e singular. If the
antecedent is !lural' the !ronoun must "e !lural
There are se#en kinds of !ronouns:
!ersonal'
demonstrati#e'
refle,i#e'
intensi#e'
interrogati#e'
relati#e' and
indefinite.
;.1. ersonal !ronouns
ersonal ronouns are the largest grou! of !ronouns. The( ha#e different
form to e,!ress !erson' num"er' and gender.
E,!ressing !erson
5hen (ou +rite or s!eak a"out (ourself' (ou use first9!erson
!ronouns: I' me' +e' us.
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it is used in e,!ressions of time' distance' +eather' tem!erature' tide:
8hat time is it@ I *t is si". 8hats the date@ I *ts the third of
March
'ow far is it to 4ork@ I *t is G?? kilometres.
'ow long does it take to get there@ I *t depends on how you go.
*t is raining5snowing5free
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;.. 0emonstrati#e !ronouns
0emonstrati#e !ronouns tell +hich one or +hich grou! is referred to. A list
of demonstrati#e !ronouns follo+s: THAT THI2 THE2E THO2E
THI2 and THE2E !oint to !eo!le or things that are near in s!ace or time.
THAT or THO2E !oint to !eo!le or things that are farther a+a( in s!ace or
time.
E>A&E 1: THI2 is a ne+ "ook.) the antecedent of THI2 is "ook6
E>A&E $: THO2E are rare coins. )the antecedent of THO2E is rare
coins6
;.;. =efle,i#e !ronouns
=efle,i#e ronouns are used to indicate that !eo!le !erform actions TO'
*O=' or UON themsel#es. Gou form refle,i#e !ronouns +ith the suffi,es
9self' and 9sel#es.
*I=2T E=2ON: m(self' oursel#es
2ECON0 E=2ON: (ourself' (oursel#es
THI=0 E=2ON: himself' herself' itself' oneself' themsel#es.
E>A&E 1: rad "um!ed himself on the knee. )rad !erformed the
action of "um!ing u!on himself.6
E>A&E $: The Hanson CHI0=EN "uilt themsel#es a tree house. )The
Hanson children "uilt a tree house for themsel#es6
;.A&E 1: 5HO +as at the door
E>A&E $: 5HICH do (ou !refer
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E>A&E 3: 5HO& did (ou elect
;.?. =elati#e !ronouns
=elati#e ronouns introduce adecti#e clauses' +hich are +ord grou!s that
modif( a +ord or a !hrase. A list of refle,i#e !ronouns follo+s.
5ho 5hose That 5hom 5hich
E>A&E 1: I kno+ the E=2ON +ho li#es here. )E=2ON is the
antecedent of +ho6
E>A&E $:He !lanted *O5E=2 that "loom e#er( (ear. )*O5E=2 isthe antecedent of that6
=emem"er' that INTE==O%ATIRE =ONOUN2 introduce JUE2TION2
onl(.
;.@. Indefinite !ronouns
Indefinite ronouns do not refer to a definite !erson' !lace or thing7
instead the( refer to !ersons' !laces or things in general.
The follo+ing indefinite !ronouns are singular. The( are used +ith the
singular !ossessi#e !ronouns HI2' HE=' and IT2.
Another an(thing e#er("od( neither one
an("od( each e#er(one no"od( some"od(an(one either e#er(thing no one someone
E>A&E: Each of the o"s has IT2 re+ards.
The follo+ing indefinite !ronouns are !lural. The( are used +ith the !lural
!ossessi#e THEI=.
oth man( fe+ se#eral
E>A&E: &an( of the #ie+ers e,!ressed THEI= o!inions.
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The follo+ing indefinite !ronouns can "e either singular or !lural'
de!ending on their meaning in the sentence.
All 2ome None
;.. 2E&INA= L =ONOUN
E>E=CI2E1.Substitute possessive pronouns for the italiciE=CI2E$. se the possessive pronoun instead of the possessive
adjective!
&O0E: He is one of her fans. He is a fan of hers.
1. He is one of m( friends. $. Tom lent his friend one of his "ooks. 3. I
ga#e him one of our dictionaries. . 2he !la(ed one of her old records. ;.
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2ome of their neigh"ours had come o#er to tea. E=CI2E3.Fill in the blanks with the suitable refle"ive pronouns!
1. If the child eats so little he-ll make . . . ill. $. Can a fi#e9(ear9old "o(
+ash . . .' dress . . . ' feed . . . 3. 5e find it still difficult to e,!ress ... in
English. . Alice hurt. . . +hen she fell do+n the tree. ;. The( are likel( to
ha#e eno(ed ... at (our !art(.
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mone( on )them7 themsel#es6 11. 5hen he +as )him/himself6 again she
+as too ha!!( to Duestion him. 1$. 5e-ll !lace our !a!er in front of
)us/oursel#es6. 13. I am dee!l( touched to "e offered hel! "( so eminent a
man as )(ou/(ourself6. 1. He takes too much u!on )him/himself6. 1;. *or
some"od( like )me/m(self6 this is no sur!rise. 1E=CI2E