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4
Background to the Project The project is going forward in stages, eventually integrating policies at Union (national) with state, region and township levels. Statements have already been agreed and drafted in Mon and Kayin and work has commenced in Kachin and planning work is underway for Chin, Kayah and Shan states, and eventually all territories, regions and districts of the country, through 2016.
At the national level useful input and influence was offered to legislators, and in research projects, program design as well as policy debates and public understanding of what a language policy entails and how it can benefit the whole society. The key methods used in this process are research, consultations and collective decision making through ‘facilitated dialogues’.
These facilitated dialogues include three groups of people: i) officials, representing government; ii) community representatives, who bring the voices of ordinary people, and iii) experts, who contribute the findings of research. The dialogues are mediated by a guide who helps participants discuss language problems and challenges, identifies research relevant to the topics being discussed and explores alternative responses and best practices (from other countries or from other parts of Myanmar).
At these dialogues participants resolve misunderstandings and disagreements, discuss research evidence and explore viable alternatives. Topics include multilingualism in society, literacy learning, equal access to schooling, how to raise education standards, mother tongue teaching, endangered languages, acquisition of Myanmar language, the role of English, inclusive education, the special needs of disadvantaged groups, as well as communication needs in health, law, diplomacy, trade and commerce.
Initially four Facilitated Dialogues were held (Mae Sot, Thailand, 12-‐14 February 2014, Mawlamyine 27-‐28 May and 6-‐7 November, 2014 and Naypyitaw, 29-‐30 July 2014). These proved so successful the LESC Initiative was expanded in late 2014 and December 2015, at the request of the Naypyitaw dialogue partners, and UNICEF-‐Myanmar and the Ministry of Education have requested the preparation of a ‘peace promoting national language policy’. To date 16 facilitated dialogues have been held across the country, along with several research projects, many direct consultations and site visits, interviews, observations and professional training activities.
The basic philosophy guiding the approach is that language is a key and valuable resource that every society should value in the same way it values its natural resources.
The Mandalay Conference is the first of its kind in Myanmar. It is an important step in the process of discussing options for a national language policy. At the conference national and international delegates will debate a variety of language issues, compare multilingual education practices across countries and reflect on what has been achieved so far and what still needs to be done.
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6
Language Policy Process The following diagram shows the various steps that are contributing to the discussion and drafting of ideas for government to consider on national language policy, as well as the intended final outcome.
An agreed dra@ language policy
(Approval will be requested from government of the principles, policy aims and implementagon plans)
ConsultaDon * Observagons, field visits, interviews all across Myanmar 2013-‐2016 * Circulagon of principles with working groups at the state and Union level * Incorporagon of feedback and quesgonnaire responses
~ 20 Facilitated Dialogues
at Union, region and state levels
Specialist inputs * The languages of Myanmar * English in Myanmar and ASEAN * Special needs (Sign Language and educagon for disadvantaged groups) * Case studies of mulglingualism, at community and local school level * Policy Environment Scan
The Mandalay Conference Feb 8-‐11, 2016
Combining all these inputs into a consolidatedpolicy proposal
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Education Myanmar is the sole language of government administration and the mass media and the main language of instruction for education. Exceptions do exist for medium of instruction for schooling including the use of English and Chinese in private schools and the use of mother tongues in certain local contexts.
The Myanmar Language Commission, a department of the Ministry of Education, is responsible for the development of the Myanmar language. Ethnic Burmans situated in the central areas of Myanmar are largely monolingual, while the ethnically diverse peoples in the border areas also know Myanmar language (Bradley, 2015).
Although English became the official language during British rule, indigenous groups continued to speak and learn their languages. After some years of being discouraged, English is again popular, mostly in urban areas and among more educated populations (Kirkpatrick, 2015).
During the colonial period, writing systems for many languages such as Chin, Kachin and Lahu were developed by missionaries. The first constitution of the Union of Burma (1947) guaranteed that all citizens could practice their own cultures and religions. Public schools taught in some of the major ethnic languages such as Chin, Karen, Kayah, Mon, and Shan, and some Buddhist monasteries and Christian churches taught in some of the smaller ethnic languages (Hlaing, 2007).
In 1962, the language then called Burmese became the only language of instruction for university and pre-‐university classes (except for English language classes). Some allowance for the teaching of minority languages at the early primary level in a small number of areas continued, with the Ministry of Education publishing textbooks in some minority languages until the early 1980s.
Over time increasing restrictions applied and by the mid 1980s many schools had stopped teaching in minority languages (Aye and Sercombe, 2014). In 1989 the government changed the name of the country from Burma to Myanmar and the name of the main national language from Burmese to Myanmar. Many other place names were also changed from the British equivalents in use since the time of the establishment of the British colony in 1886. These are examples of language status planning which set up the roles of different languages in society, discussed below.
Education is important in alleviating and preventing poverty, increasing health, political participation and social tolerance. Universal quality education is a key goal of creating a fair, healthy and socially inclusive world. UNESCO has argued, ‘education enables people to escape from the trap of chronic poverty and prevents the transmission of poverty between generations’ (UNESCO, 2014, p.144).
There is a strong link between education and healthier populations due to a range of factors including the willingness to seek professional help in health issues, including vaccinations, and awareness of basic health standards in relation to the transmission of, and protection from diseases (UNESCO, 2014; Lo Bianco, 2016). Languages can pass into disuse and die, or they can be killed, but languages can also be revived and restored to health. The most famous example of this is Hebrew during the nineteenth
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11
Language Planning The process of producing language policy is called language planning. There are many aspects to language planning but mostly it is a response to language problems, with three main activities language.
Status language planning: the constitutions and laws of different societies vary a great deal with respect to language recognition. Different languages can have different social, economic and legal roles. There are eleven official languages in South Africa: Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Northern Sotho, Sotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa and Zulu. Canada has English and French across all its national territory but differing arrangements in some provinces. Switzerland has three official languages (French, German and Italian) and four ‘national languages’, the official languages plus Romansch. Some cities have official languages recognizing districts or areas according to language. The status of a language is also influenced by the strength economies where that language is used, or its spread across the world, or its strength in science, technology, research or other fields.
Corpus language planning: Unlike status language planning which is work mostly done by legislators, or which recognizes social power of different languages, another kind of language planning is done by professional linguists working directly with a community of speakers. This work is technical in nature but it must always be done in close collaboration the speakers of the language being developed. Corpus planning means finding new words for a language, to extend the topics that can be discussed, or to introduce that language into education, or to expand its role in education. Other kinds of corpus planning are when speakers and expert supporters produce a writing system for a language that is only spoken, or when an existing writing system is reformed or changed.
Language-‐in-‐education planning: This kind of language planning happens mostly in schools, colleges and universities, but not exclusively. It involves literacy and language study. When people make language in education planning decisions they are deciding which languages will be taught in school, whether they will be taught as a subject or used to teach concepts and material in the school, as a medium of instruction and examination, which languages literacy will be taught in, what language will be used in higher education lectures or tutorials or for reading and research. There are many kinds of language in education planning
Myanmar has a very rich language situation, and at any time all of these kinds of language planning are occurring. When the outcome of language planning is decided that becomes a language policy. The most effective policies are those that are constantly evaluated and reviewed to make sure they meet the needs of the society and its people. The most effective language planning is that which combines ‘bottom up’ processes, in which ordinary people along with technical experts, work with public officials to make decisions about language choices. Top-‐down language policy is when authorities decide language questions without consultation and impose these on the community. The most effective language planning and policy combines bottom up processes with clear decisions by the national authorities.
12
Comprehensive Language Planning Because language and communication are part of all social, personal, and economic life, the ideal approach to language policies is to integrate action at local, regional and national levels and to address all the language questions of a community. In this way, all action can be coordinated.
This is the approach we are taking in Myanmar that is discussed in this brief report and at the Mandalay conference. One way to think about this is set out below:
Sub-‐National
This involves the ‘ethnic races’ in Myanmar discussing their ethnic languages and their place in the education of their children, but also in the delivery of services and in the local economy. This has been done so far in the Facilitated Dialogues across Myanmar. Part of this discussion is the relationship of local languages with the Myanmar language for national participation and with English. The state and township level is a suitable level to discuss language policy. The language planning can be related to language in education, language status and also corpus development. To be most effective this should link to the Union level.
National
This refers to access to the official language for all citizens, literacy for all and English for the mainstream education system. Through Facilitated Dialogues held in the national capital, Naypyitaw, the project has been coordinating national and state level policy discussion. The scope of the planning work extends beyond education to health, law and the economy.
Extra-‐National
This refers to the role of English and other languages of opportunities for international relations, development, diplomacy and trade. The world beyond any nation today is a source of influence on the choices that individuals and nations make about language. Whether it is through social media or other communication technologies, through travel, study, and work abroad, the ‘extra’ national links to the language choices a country makes domestically,
In summary, and guided by the Naypyitaw Principles, we are aiming for a policy of shared knowledge of Myanmar, widespread knowledge of English, strong support for mother tongues, and ethnic education rights and high standards of literacy for all learners in Myanmar education, as well as a wider culture of appreciation of linguistic and cultural diversity and language rights.
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21
Mandalay Conference This flyer announces the Conference, an important step in the “peace promoting national language policy” for Myanmar. Over 300 delegates, many from abroad, will discuss options, research and principles and contribute to language policy for the children and community of Myanmar, and all its peoples.
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References Aye, K.K. and Sercombe, P. (2014), Language, Education and Nation-‐building in Myanmar, in P. Sercombe and R. Tupas, editors, Language, Education and Nation-‐Building. Palgrave Macmillan, pp.
Bradley, D. (2015). The languages of Myanmar. Report Commissioned for UNICEF Myanmar project, Towards a Peace Promoting National Language Policy for Myanmar. University of Melbourne.
Chumbow, B. S. (2013). Mother tongue-‐based multilingual education: Empirical foundations, implementation strategies and recommendations for new nations. In H. McIlwraith (Ed.), Multilingual education in Africa: Lessons from the Juba Language-‐in-‐Education Conference. (pp. 37-‐55). London: British Council.
Foote, E. (2015). Special Communication Needs, Deaf Education in Myanmar. Report Commissioned for UNICEF Myanmar project, Towards a Peace Promoting National Language Policy for Myanmar. The University of Melbourne.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2015). English in Myanmar Education and Society. Report Commissioned for UNICEF Myanmar project, Towards a Peace Promoting National Language Policy for Myanmar. The University of Melbourne.
Kosonen, K., Young, C., & Malone, S. (2006). Promoting Literacy in Multilingual Settings. Bangkok: UNESCO.
Lall, M and A. South, (2014), Comparing Models of Non-‐state Ethnic Education in Myanmar: The Mon and Karen National Education Regimes. Journal of Contemporary Asia. 44, 2, 298-‐321. DOI:10.1080/00472336.2013.823534
Lewis, M., Simons, G. and Fennig, C (eds.). 2015. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Eighteenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. http://www.ethnologue.com
Lo Bianco, J. (2016) Synthesis Report; Language, Education and Social Cohesion (LESC) Initiative in Malaysia Myanmar and Thailand. UNICEF, EAPRO. Bangkok, Thailand.
MEWG (Multilingual Education Working Group, Asia Pacific). (2013). Mother Tongue-‐Based Multilingual Education. Lessons Learned from a Decade of Research and Practice. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002318/231865E.pdf
Michaels, S. (2014, 21 February), Pan-‐Ethnic Network Launches to Promote Multilingual Education in Burma. The Irrawaddy. Retrieved from http://www.irrawaddy.org/burma/pan-‐ethnic-‐network-‐launches-‐promote-‐multilingual-‐education-‐burma.html
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Premsrirat, S. (2015). Patani Malay-‐Thai mother tongue-‐based bilingual education in southern Thailand. In C.A Volker and F.E. Anderson (Eds). Education in Languages of Lesser Power: an Asia-‐Pacific Perspective (pp. 91-‐110). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
SEAMEO and The World Bank (2009). Mother tongue as a bridge language of instruction -‐ policies and experiences in Southeast Asia. Bangkok, SEAMEO.
Thein, Myint. (2014). A Nation at a Critical Turning Point: A Blueprint for Educational Reform in Myanmar. Yangon: Kaung Thant Publishing House.
MoE, Ministry of Education (2013). The CESR Review Phase 1, Rapid Assessment Reports (various). Retrieved from http://www.cesrmm.org/index.php/en/documents
Tochon, F.V., (2014) Help Them Learn a Language Deeply. Madison Wisc: International Network for Language Education Policy Studies.
UNESCO. (2014). Multilingual Education Why is it important? How to implement it? : UNESCO. Retrieved from unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002265/226554e.pdf
UNESCO. (2006). Promoting Literacy in Multilingual Settings. Bangkok: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001507/150704e.pdf
UNESCO. (2007). Mother Tongue-‐based Literacy Programmes: Case Studies of Good Practice in Asia. Bangkok: UNESCO Bangkok. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001517/151793e.pdf
Watkins, J. (2007). Burma/Myanmar. Simpson, A. Language and National Identity in Asia (pp.263-‐287). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
WHO. (2012). WHO Estimates. Retrieved August 9, 2015, from http//:www.who.int/pbd/deafness/estimates/en/
Zuckermann, G., and M. Walsh, Stop, Revive, Survive: Hebrew Revival Applicable to the Reclamation, Maintenance and Empowerment of Aboriginal Languages and Cultures', Australian Journal of Linguistics31.1: 111-‐127
http://www.zuckermann.org/pdf/Revival_Linguistics.pdf