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Band 4Band 4 ＆＆ 66

Types of Writing• Exposition • Argumentation

Exposition • Exposition means or explaining. An

expository paper explains or explores something, such as the process of making a machine, the causes of a natural or social phenomenon, the planning of a project, or the solution of a problem.

• Exposition mainly deals with processes and relationships. We are writing an expository essay when we explain how it is made, how it is used, and how it may change. In an expository paper, we discuss its cause and effect, its nature, and its significance in history.

Notes The most important quality of exposition is clar

ity. To achieve this the writer should:• 1. Limit his subject or the scope of discussion, for

it is impossible to explain many thing clearly in a short essay;

• 2. Prepare enough material (details or examples) to help his explanation; the ordinary reader often finds abstract discussions hard to follow if they are not illustrated by concrete examples;

• 3. Present his facts and views in proper order, in the order of time or of logical sequence depending on the nature of the subject;

• 4. Pay attention to the accuracy and clarity of words and sentences; avoid ornamental as well as ambiguous expressions; and

• 5. Make his exposition, if possible, interesting or moving _ an experienced writer can often instruct and move or entertain his reader at the same time.

Argumentation • The purpose of exposition is to inform; the purpose of

argumentation, on the other hand is to convince. While an expository paper makes known something and explains it to make the reader understand, an argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and to approve a policy or a course of action that it proposes. Speeches on polices, editorials of newspapers, articles on political or theoretical questions, and various proposals are often argumentative.

Notes If you wish to write a good argumentative essay,

you should do your best to meet the following requirements:

• 1. A debatable point

It is imperative that the paper should have a debatable point, that is, something which can be viewed from more than one angle and is therefore open to dispute.

• 2. Sufficient evidence• Since the point of your paper is not a fact, a statement of

personal taste, or a viewpoint universally accepted, you will have to provided sufficient evidence to convince the reader. Sufficient evidence includes common knowledge; specific examples; opinions of experts and authoritative; statistics; quotations from authorities, etc. valid evidence is that which is clearly and directly connected with the point to be proved.

• 3. Good logic

There are two ways of reasoning:

1) Inductive reasoning (from specific examples to a general statement)

2) Deductive reasoning (from a general statement to a specific conclusion)

• 4. Clear logic A typical argumentative essay consists of thr

ee parts:

1) introduction (to identify the issue)

2) body ( to present the evidence)

3) conclusion (to reaffirm the proposition)

The evidence you provide should be arranged:

• A. from the least to the most important

• B. from the most familiar to the least familiar

• C. from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult

• 5. Good use of the other three types of writing _ description, narration, and especially the various methods of exposition (illustration, division and classification, comparison and contrast, cause and effect, definition, etc.)

Development by examples or generalizationIntroduction• Supporting a topic sentence with examples

or illustrations (a single example or a series of example) makes a general statement specific and easy to understand. An illustration is a case, a specimen, an instance. Vivid illustrations light up abstract ideas and make them clear, interesting, memorable, or convincing.

PatternsPatterns• General-to-special patternGeneral-to-special pattern:: it starts with a topic

sentence. Then details are given to back up the opening statement.

• Specific-to-general pattern:Specific-to-general pattern: the details are mentioned first, and the general statement, which may be the topic sentence, comes at the end of the paragraph, summarizing the main idea of the paragraph.

Words and Phrases Used• for example/as an example/take (sth as) an

example/for instance/in one instance/for one thing/to illustrate/let me illustrate/as an illustration/in other words/as follows/in practice/according to statistics, etc.

Development by comparison and contrastIntroduction• The method of comparison and contrast is

often used. By comparing and contrasting we may get a clearer picture of things. Strictly speaking, a comparison points out the similarities between two or more persons or things of the same class, while a contrast, the differences between them. In practice, they often appear together.

Patterns• Block presentation (block comparison or

block contrast)/Subject-by-subject pattern( 分别比较 ) __ examining one thing thoroughly and then examining the other. In this way, the aspects examined in the two things should be identical and in the same order.

• Alternating presentation (alternating comparison or contrast)/Point-by-point pattern ( 逐点比较 )___ examining two things at the same time, discussing them point by point.

Block Presentation Alternating PresentationTopic Sentence Aspect(1):Thing One: Thing OneAspect(1) Thing TwoAspect(2) Aspect(2):Aspect(3) Thing OneThing Two: Thing TwoAspect(1) Aspect(3):Aspect(2) Thing OneAspect(3) Thing Two

Words and Phrases Used• To Compare: similar to/like/alike/likewise/as/as…so/the same

as/correspond to/resemble/to have…in common/to be parallel in/common characteristics, etc.

• To Contrast: differ from/ different from/however/otherwise/in

contrast to/ in opposition to/on the contrary/on the other hand/on the opposite side

Development by cause and effect

Introduction• In our daily conversation, questions with w

hy are often asked and answered. This shows that causal analysis is very common.

• Sound reasoning or logic is naturally the most important quality of any causal analysis.

Notes • To explain causes and effects clearly

and logically is not always easy: an effect may have many causes and a cause may have many effects. We should be thorough in our discussion and careful in our selection of details.

Two basic ways• The first method is to state an effect

and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes.

• The second method is to state a cause and then mention or predict the effects.

Words and Phrases Used• so/thus/hence/therefore/so that/so as…to/

consequently/as a result/result in/so…that/such…that/have an effect on/it follows that, etc.

• because/since//for/due to/thanks to/for this reason/the reason for/for fear that, etc.

• 6. An honest and friendly attitude

1) To argue is not to quarrel.

2) The force of argument come from solid evidence, logical reasoning, and careful analysis instead of abuse, sarcasm, exaggeration, or fierce attacks.

3) An honest and friendly attitude will help win the trust of your readers. A domineering( 盛气凌人的 ) or hostile tone can only raise doubts about your good faith and impair the credibility of your argument.

Types of Outline• Item outline• Sentence outline

Items outline Thesis (controlling idea) Ⅰ.Introduction Ⅱ. Main idea A. Sub-idea B. Sub-idea 1. Supporting detail 2. Supporting detail a. Fact 1 b. Fact 2

Ⅲ. Main idea A. Sub-idea B. Sub-ides 1. Supporting detail 2.Supporting detail 3.Supporting detail C. Sub-idea Ⅳ. Conclusion

Revising This is an important step but it is often ne

glected. The following checklist may be helpful:

• Content: Look at the composition as a whole.A. What is the topic of the composition? Does the

draft fulfill the assignment?B. Is the thesis clear? Is it supported by enough

facts?C. Is there irrelevant materials that should be

removed?D. Is the logic sound? Are there gaps in the logic?

• Organization: Look at the arrangement of the material.

A. Does the introductory paragraph lead to the main point of the paper?

B. Does each paragraph have a separate central idea? Does it relate to the paper’s main idea or to thee previous paragraph? Are there proper transitions between sections?

Are the paragraphs arranged in climactic order?

C. Does the concluding paragraph give the reader a clear impression of what the paper intends to say?

• Sentence: A. Is there sentence clearly related to the sentence

before it and to the sentence after it?B. Are there unnecessary sentences that may be

removed?C. Are there structural mistakes?D. Are there wordy and redundant sentences?E. Is there variety in sentence type?

• Diction:

A. Are there words that are not appropriate for the topic or the style of the whole paper?

B. Are there words or phrases which are directly translated from Chinese but which may mean something different in English?

C. Are there collocations which may be incorrect because they are taken from Chinese?

• Mistakes in grammar, punctuation, and other mechanics.

对比选择型• 段落一• 提出观点段 • ① 说明支持观点一的理由一 ；②说明支持观点一的理由二；③重申观

点一。（可省略）• 段落二 • 对比论证段一• ① 说明支持观点二的理由一 ；②说明支持观点二的理由二；③重申观

点二。（可省略）• 段落三• 对比论证段二 • ① 阐明我的看法或态度；②理由一③理由二；④重申个人看法。• 段落四 • 我的观点段 • 注：其中第三段与第四段可以合并为一段。

模板一• 段落一 Recently, we may hear quite different opinions

( 指出人们不同的观点 ). Most people take it for granted that ( 一部分人观点 ).In contrast, others ( 另一部分人观点 ).

• 段落二 Those who hold the first opinion suggest ( 支持观点一的理由一 ). Besides, they argue that ( 支持观点一的理由二 ). In their view, ( 重申观点一 ).

• 段落三 However, the objectors think ( 支持观点二的理由一 ). The argue that ( 支持观点二的理由二 ). What’s more, . So, ( 重申观点二 ).

• 段落四 Considering one after another, I stand on the side of ( 我的看法 ). First of all, ( 理由一 ). Further more, ( 理由二 ). Therefore,

• ( 重申个人看法 ).

写作思路 2• 段落一提出观点段①开门见山，指出人们不同的观点；

②一部分人观点；③另一部分人观点；④阐明我的看法或态度。 ①我不支持的观点具有合理一面；②合理性表现（举例说明）；③转折指出其不足；④承上启下，引出我的观点。

• 段落二对比论证段①我支持观点的理由一；②举例说明理由一；③我支持观点的理由二；④重申个人看法。

• 段落三我的观点段①我支持观点的理由一；①我支持观点的理由一；②举例说明理由一；③我支持观点的理由二；④重申个人看法。

模板 2• 段落一 When it comes to , different people hold d

ifferent views ( 指出不同的观点 ). Some contend that ( 观点一 ). However, others think __________( 观点二 ). Considering one after another, I stand on the side of ( 引入自己的观点 ).

• 段落二 Actually, ( 我不支持的观点的合理性 ). For instance, ( 举例说明 ). However, ( 指出其不足 ). There are some reasons account for my argument.

• 段落三 For one thing, __________( 我支持观点的理由一 ). For example, ___________( 举例说明理由一 ). For another, _____________( 我支持观点的理由二 ). Therefore, as stated above, ______________( 重申个人看法 ).