Chapter 27 (LeUnes)Exercise Psychology

Psychology of Sport

Nov 30, 2009

Class #38

Exercise Psychology

exercise addictionadherence to exercisemotivationsatisfaction

Uses principles from psychology to study human behavior in sport to enhance performance

Physical Fitness The ability to perform daily tasks with vigor

and without undue fatigue, and with sufficient energy to engage in leisure-time pursuits, to meet unforeseen emergencies, and the vitality to perform at one’s fullest capacity

Physical Fitness Terms

Physical activity: any bodily movement produced by the contraction of the skeletal muscles that increases energy expenditure above the baseline level.

Exercise: physical activity that is planned, structured, and repetitive with the purpose of developing, improving, or maintaining physical fitness.

Physical Fitness Health-related Fitness

Cardiovascular endurance

Body composition Flexibility Muscular endurance Muscular strength

Performance-related Fitness– Agility– Speed– Coordination– Power– Reaction time– Balance

Psychological Benefits

Stress Reduction Alleviation of Depression Socialization Thrill of Competition Enhancement of Creativity

Physical Education, Exercise Science and Sport

The ProfessionAn occupation requiring specialized training in

an intellectual field of study that is dedicated to the betterment of society through service to others.

Some examples of professional organizations:

Allied Fields

HealthHealth InstructionHealth ServicesEnvironmental Health

Recreation Dance

These fields share many purposes with physical education, exercise science, and sport, but the content of the subject matter and methods to reach their goals are different.

Exercise Behavior and AdherenceExercise Behavior and Adherence

Despite the current societal emphasis on fitness, a small percentage of children and adults participate in regular physical activity

Despite the current societal emphasis on fitness, a small percentage of children and adults participate in regular physical activity

Why Study Exercise Behavior?Why Study Exercise Behavior?

50% of adults are completely sedentary. 50% of adults are completely sedentary.

50% of youth (ages 12-21) do not participate in regular physical activity.

50% of youth (ages 12-21) do not participate in regular physical activity.

25% of children and adults report doing no physical activity.

25% of children and adults report doing no physical activity.

Only 15% of adults participate in vigorous and frequent activity.

Only 15% of adults participate in vigorous and frequent activity.

Why Exercise Behaviorand Adherence Are Important

Why Exercise Behaviorand Adherence Are Important

Only 10% of sedentary adults are likely to begin a program of regular exercise within a year.

Only 10% of sedentary adults are likely to begin a program of regular exercise within a year.

(continued)(continued)

Among boys and girls, physical activity declines steadily through adolescence.

Among boys and girls, physical activity declines steadily through adolescence.

Physical inactivity is more prevalent among women, African-Americans, and Hispanics, as well as among older and less affluent adults.

Physical inactivity is more prevalent among women, African-Americans, and Hispanics, as well as among older and less affluent adults.

50% of people starting an exercise program will drop out within six months.

50% of people starting an exercise program will drop out within six months.

Daily attendance in physical education classes dropped from 42% to 25% between 1990 and 1995.

Daily attendance in physical education classes dropped from 42% to 25% between 1990 and 1995.

Why Exercise Behaviorand Adherence Are Important

Why Exercise Behaviorand Adherence Are Important

Reasons to ExerciseReasons to Exercise

Exercise combined with proper eating habits can help people lose weight; but weight loss should be slow and steady, occurring as changes in exercise and eating patterns take place.

Exercise combined with proper eating habits can help people lose weight; but weight loss should be slow and steady, occurring as changes in exercise and eating patterns take place.

Reasons to ExerciseReasons to Exercise

Both the physiological and psychological benefits of exercise can be cited to help persuade sedentary people to initiate exercise.

“Maintenance” as well as initiation of physical activity is critical.

Both the physiological and psychological benefits of exercise can be cited to help persuade sedentary people to initiate exercise.

“Maintenance” as well as initiation of physical activity is critical.

Reasons for Not ExercisingReasons for Not Exercising

Lack of time Lack of time

Lack of energy Lack of energy

Lack of motivation Lack of motivation

Reasons for Not ExercisingReasons for Not Exercising

Exercise professionals should highlight the benefits of exercise and provide a supportive environment to involve sedentary people in physical activity.

Exercise professionals should highlight the benefits of exercise and provide a supportive environment to involve sedentary people in physical activity.

People often cite time constraints for not exercising, but such constraints are more perceived than real and often reveal a person’s priorities.

People often cite time constraints for not exercising, but such constraints are more perceived than real and often reveal a person’s priorities.

Reasons for Not ExercisingReasons for Not Exercising

Individual Barriers to Physical ActivityIndividual Barriers to Physical Activity

Lack of time, energy, or motivation Lack of time, energy, or motivation

Excessive cost Excessive cost

Illness or injury Illness or injury

Feeling uncomfortable Feeling uncomfortable

Lack of skill Lack of skill

Fear of injury Fear of injury

The Problem of Exercise AdherenceThe Problem of Exercise Adherence

The Problem of Exercise AdherenceThe Problem of Exercise Adherence

Help those who start exercising to overcome barriers to continuing the exercise program.

Help those who start exercising to overcome barriers to continuing the exercise program.

Help exercisers develop contingency plans to overcome factors leading to relapses (not exercising)

Help exercisers develop contingency plans to overcome factors leading to relapses (not exercising)

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorTheories/Models of Exercise Behavior

Health Belief ModelHealth Belief Model

The likelihood of exercising depends on the person’s perception of the severity of health risks and appraisal of the costs and benefits of taking action.

The likelihood of exercising depends on the person’s perception of the severity of health risks and appraisal of the costs and benefits of taking action.

(Becker and Maiman, 1975)(Becker and Maiman, 1975)

Overall “inconsistent” support for Health Belief Model predictions of exercise behaviorOverall “inconsistent” support for Health Belief Model predictions of exercise behavior

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorHealth Belief Model

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorHealth Belief Model

intentions, intentions,

subjective norms and attitudes, and subjective norms and attitudes, and

Exercise behavior is made up ofExercise behavior is made up of

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorTheory of Planned Behavior

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorTheory of Planned Behavior

perceptions of ability to perform behavior. perceptions of ability to perform behavior.

(Ajzen and Madden, 1986)(Ajzen and Madden, 1986)

The theory of planned behavior is a useful theory for predicting exercise behavior.The theory of planned behavior is a useful theory for predicting exercise behavior.

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorTheory of Planned Behavior

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorTheory of Planned Behavior

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorTheories/Models of Exercise Behavior

Social Cognitive TheorySocial Cognitive Theory

Exercise behavior is influenced by both personal and environmental factors, particularly self-efficacy.Exercise behavior is influenced by both personal and environmental factors, particularly self-efficacy.

(Bandura, 1986, 1997)(Bandura, 1986, 1997)

Social cognitive theory has produced some of the most consistent results in predicting exercise behavior.

Social cognitive theory has produced some of the most consistent results in predicting exercise behavior.

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorSocial Cognitive Theory

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorSocial Cognitive Theory

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorTranstheoretical Model

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorTranstheoretical Model

1.Precontemplation stage (does not exercise)1.Precontemplation stage (does not exercise)

2.Contemplation stage (has fleeting thoughts of exercising)2.Contemplation stage (has fleeting thoughts of exercising)

An individual progresses through five stages of change:An individual progresses through five stages of change:

3.Preparation stage (exercises, but not regularly enough)3.Preparation stage (exercises, but not regularly enough)

(Prochaska, DiClemente, and Norcross, 1992)(Prochaska, DiClemente, and Norcross, 1992)

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorTranstheoretical Model

Theories/Models of Exercise BehaviorTranstheoretical Model

4.Action stage (has been exercising regularly, but for less than six months)4.Action stage (has been exercising regularly, but for less than six months)

5.Maintenance stage (has been exercising regularly for more than six months)5.Maintenance stage (has been exercising regularly for more than six months)

An individual progresses through five stages of change:An individual progresses through five stages of change:

(Prochaska, DiClemente, and Norcross, 1992)(Prochaska, DiClemente, and Norcross, 1992)

Many factors, from demographics to physical and social environment, affect exercise participation.Many factors, from demographics to physical and social environment, affect exercise participation.

Factors Associated With Participationin Supervised Exercise Programs

Factors Associated With Participationin Supervised Exercise Programs

Determinants of Exercise Adherence:Highlights

Determinants of Exercise Adherence:Highlights

Demographic variables (e.g., education, income, gender, socioeconomic status) have a strong association with physical activity.

Demographic variables (e.g., education, income, gender, socioeconomic status) have a strong association with physical activity.

Early involvement in sport and physical activity should be encouraged, because there is a positive relation between childhood exercise and adult physical activity patterns.

Early involvement in sport and physical activity should be encouraged, because there is a positive relation between childhood exercise and adult physical activity patterns.

Barriers to exercise are similar for white and nonwhite populations.

Barriers to exercise are similar for white and nonwhite populations.

Self-efficacy and self-motivation consistently predict physical activity.

Self-efficacy and self-motivation consistently predict physical activity.

Spousal support is critical to enhance adher-ence rates for people in exercise programs. Spouses should be involved in orientation sessions or in parallel exercise programs.

Spousal support is critical to enhance adher-ence rates for people in exercise programs. Spouses should be involved in orientation sessions or in parallel exercise programs.

Exercise intensities should be kept at moderate levels to enhance the probability of long-term adherence to exercise programs.

Exercise intensities should be kept at moderate levels to enhance the probability of long-term adherence to exercise programs.

Determinants of Exercise Adherence:Highlights

Determinants of Exercise Adherence:Highlights

Group exercising generally produces higher levels of adherence than exercising alone, but tailoring programs to fit individuals and the constraints they feel can help them adhere to the program.

Group exercising generally produces higher levels of adherence than exercising alone, but tailoring programs to fit individuals and the constraints they feel can help them adhere to the program.

Post-exercise participation predicts exercise behavior.

Post-exercise participation predicts exercise behavior.

Determinants of Exercise Adherence:Highlights

Determinants of Exercise Adherence:Highlights

Exercise leaders influence the success of an exercise program. They should be knowledge-able, give lots of feedback and praise, help participants set flexible goals, and show concern for safety and psychological comfort.

Exercise leaders influence the success of an exercise program. They should be knowledge-able, give lots of feedback and praise, help participants set flexible goals, and show concern for safety and psychological comfort.

A convenient location is an important predictor of exercise behavior.

A convenient location is an important predictor of exercise behavior.

Determinants of Exercise Adherence:Highlights

Determinants of Exercise Adherence:Highlights

Settings for Exercise InterventionsSettings for Exercise Interventions

Schools Schools

Work sites Work sites

Home Home

Community Community

Health care facilities Health care facilities

Guidelines for ImprovingExercise Adherence

Guidelines for ImprovingExercise Adherence

Match the intervention to the participant’s stage of change.

Match the intervention to the participant’s stage of change.

Provide cues for exercises (signs, posters, cartoons).

Provide cues for exercises (signs, posters, cartoons).

Make the exercises enjoyable. Make the exercises enjoyable.

Tailor the intensity, duration, and frequency of the exercises.

Tailor the intensity, duration, and frequency of the exercises.

Guidelines for ImprovingExercise Adherence

Guidelines for ImprovingExercise Adherence

Promote exercising with a group or friend. Promote exercising with a group or friend.

Have participants sign a contract or statement of intent to comply with the exercise program.

Have participants sign a contract or statement of intent to comply with the exercise program.

Offer a choice of activities. Offer a choice of activities.

Provide rewards for attendance and participation.

Provide rewards for attendance and participation.

Give individualized feedback. Give individualized feedback.

Guidelines for ImprovingExercise Adherence

Guidelines for ImprovingExercise Adherence

Find a convenient place for exercising. Find a convenient place for exercising.

Have participants reward themselves for achieving certain goals.

Have participants reward themselves for achieving certain goals.

Encourage goals to be a self-set, flexible, and time based (rather than distance based).

Encourage goals to be a self-set, flexible, and time based (rather than distance based).

Remind participants to focus on environmental cues (not bodily cues) when exercising.

Remind participants to focus on environmental cues (not bodily cues) when exercising.

Guidelines for ImprovingExercise Adherence

Guidelines for ImprovingExercise Adherence

Use small-group discussions. Use small-group discussions.

Have participants complete a decision balance sheet before starting the exercise program.

Have participants complete a decision balance sheet before starting the exercise program.

Obtain social support from the participant’s spouse, family members, and peers.

Obtain social support from the participant’s spouse, family members, and peers.

Suggest keeping daily exercise logs. Suggest keeping daily exercise logs.

Help participants choose purposeful physical activity.

Help participants choose purposeful physical activity.

Who says Physical Activity is Good?

National Reports:“Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the

Surgeon General”“Healthy People 2010”“Promoting Better Health for Young People

through Physical Activity and Sports”

Our Physical Activity Challenge:Improve Participation of Populations with Low Rates of

Physical ActivityCurrent Participation Patterns:

Women are generally less active than men at all ages.

African Americans and Hispanics are generally less active than whites.

People with low incomes are typically not as active as those with high incomes.

People with less education are generally not as active as those with higher levels of education.

Adults in the Northeast and South tend to be less active than adults in the North Central and Western States

People with disabilities are less physically active than people without disabilities.

Participation in physical activity declines with age. By age 75, one in 3 men and one in two women engage in no physical activity.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2010: Understanding and

Improving Health. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, November, 2000.

Bottom line...

Exercise Any age…

Credits

http://www.d.umn.edu/~mniereng/documents/chap1.ppt#256,2, Goals for Physical Educators

http://course1.winona.edu/sjuaire/classes/per280new/website/18%20WeinbergGP%20Pt6Ch18.ppt