Editor ：何育甄 1

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• What’s difference between leadership and management ？– Management is about coping with complexity.– Leadership is about coping with change.

• Leadership ： The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals.– A person may assume a leadership role simply

because of the position he or she holds in the organization.

– Not all leaders are managers, nor, for that matter, are all managers leaders.

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• Trait theories of leadership differentiate leaders from nonleaders by focusing on personal qualities and characteristic.

• Theories that consider personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from nonleaders.

• Leadership Traits:

•Ambition and energy 、 The desire to lead 、 Honest and integrity 、 Self-confidence 、 Intelligence 、 High self-monitoring 、Job-relevant knowledge

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• Limitations:

•No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.

•Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than “strong” situations.

•Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.

•Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.

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• Two conclusions ：– Traits can predict leadership. The Big Five seems

to have rectified that.– Traits do a better job at predicting the

emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than in actually distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders.

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• They began looking at the behaviors exhibited by specific leaders.

• Behavioral Theories of Leadership ： Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders.

• Trait theory: Leaders are born, not made.

• Behavioral theory: Leadership traits can be taught.

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• Initiating Structure

– The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of sub-ordinates in the search for goal attainment.

• Consideration

– The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s ideas, and regard for their feelings.

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• Employee-Oriented Leader

– Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among members.

• Production-Oriented Leader

– One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.

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• A nine-by-nine matrix outlining 81 different leadership styles.

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• Fiedler’s Contingency Model

– The theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader.

• Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire

– An instrument that purports to measure whether a person is task- or relationship-oriented.

• Leader-Member Relations

– The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader.

• Task Structure

– The degree to which the job assignments are procedurized.

• Position Power

– Influence derived from one’s formal structural position in the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases. 11

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• Cognitive Resource Theory

– A theory of leadership that states that stress can unfavorably affect a situation and that intelligence and experience can lessen the influence of stress on the leader.

• Research Support:

– Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals.

– Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people. 13

• Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)

– A contingency theory that focuses on followers’ readiness.

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• Leaders create in-groups and out-groups, and subordinates with in-group status will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction.

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• The theory that it is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide them the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization.

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• A leadership theory that provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations.

• Contingency Variables in the Revised Leader-Participation Model （ Exhibit 12-5 ）

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• Framing:– A way of communicating that shapes

meaning.– Selective highlighting of facts and events.– Ignored in traditional leadership studies.

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• Two contemporary leadership theories: – Charismatic Leadership.– Transformational Leadership.

Charismatic Leadership

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• Followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors.

• Four characteristics of charismatic leaders:– Have a vision.– Are willing to take personal risks to achieve the

vision.– Are sensitive to follower needs.– Exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary.

• Traits and personality are related to charisma.• People can be trained to exhibit charismatic

behaviors.

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• A four-step process:1)Leader articulates an attractive vision

-Vision Statement: A formal, long-term strategy to attain goals.

-Links past, present, and future.

2)Leader communicates high performance expectations and confidence in follower ability

3)Leader conveys a new set of values by setting an example

4)Leader engages in emotion-inducing and often unconventional behavior to demonstrate convictions about the vision

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• Importance of vision• Must be inspirational, value-centered, realizable,

and given with superior imagery and articulation.

• Charismatic effectiveness and situation• Charisma works best when:

– The follower’s task has an ideological component.– There is a lot of stress and uncertainty in the

environment.– The leader is at the upper level of the organization.– Followers have low self-esteem and self-worth.

• Dark Side of Charisma• Ego-driven charismatics allow their self-interest

and personal goals to override the organization’s goals.

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• Level-5 Leaders• Very effective leaders who possess the four

typical leadership traits • Individual competency.• Team skills.• Managerial competence.• Ability to stimulate others to high performance.

• Plus one critical new trait… • A blend of personal humility and professional will.• Personal ego needs are focused toward building a

great company.• Take responsibility for failures and give credit to

others for successes.

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• Transactional & Transformational Leadership ？– Transactional Leaders

• Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.

– Transformational Leaders• Inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests

for the good of the organization; they can have a profound and extraordinary effect on followers.

• Not opposing, but complementary, approaches to leadership

• Great transformational leaders must also be transactional; only one type is not enough for success.

• Transactional Leader• Contingent Reward:

– Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments

• Management by Exception:– Active: Watches and

searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action

– Passive: Intervenes only if standards are not met

• Laissez-Faire: – Abdicates responsibilities,

avoids making decisions

• Transformational Leader• Idealized Influence:

– Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust

• Inspiration:– Communicates high

expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important issues simply

• Intellectual Stimulation:– Promotes intelligence,

rationality, and problem solving

• Individualized Consideration: – Gives personal attention,

coaches, advises

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• Leadership styles listed from passive to very active.

• Note the ineffective styles are mostly transactional.

• It is all about influencing followers.

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• Basis for Action:– Transformational leadership works by encouraging

followers to be more innovative and creative and by providing ambitious goals.

• Evaluation Based on the Research:– This theory does show high correlations with desired

outcomes.– This style of leadership can be taught.

• Transformational vs. Charismatic Leadership:– Similar concepts, but transformational leadership may

be considered a broader concept than charisma.– Instrument-based testing shows the measures to be

roughly equivalent .

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• Authentic Leaders:– Ethical people who know who they are, know

what they believe in and value, and act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly.

– Primary quality is trust.

• Build trust by:– Sharing information.– Encouraging open communication.– Sticking to their ideals.

• Still a new topic; needs more research.

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• Ethics touch on many leadership styles– As the moral leaders of organizations, CEOs

must demonstrate high ethical standards.– Socialized charismatic leadership: leaders who

model ethical behaviors.

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• Trust:– The positive expectation that another person will

not act opportunistically.– Composed of a blend of familiarity and

willingness to take a risk .– Five key dimensions: integrity, competence,

consistency, loyalty, and openness.

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• Trust dimensions （ Exhibit）：• Integrity

– Honesty and truthfulness.

• Competence– An individual’s technical and interpersonal knowledge

and skills.

• Consistency– An individual’s reliability, predictability, and good

judgment in handling situations.

• Loyalty– The willingness to protect and save face for another

person.

• Openness– Reliance on the person to give you the full truth.

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• Deterrence-based Trust– Trust based on fear of reprisal if the trust is

violated.

• Knowledge-based Trust– Trust based on behavioral predictability that

comes from a history of interaction.

• Identification-based Trust– Trust based on a mutual understanding of one

another’s intentions and appreciation of the other’s wants and desires.

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• Mistrust drives out trust

• Trust begets trust

• Trust can be regained

• Mistrusting groups self-destruct

• Mistrust generally reduces productivity

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• Mentor:– A senior employee who sponsors and supports a

less-experienced employee (a protégé).– Good teachers present ideas clearly, listen, and

empathize.– Two functions: • Career ： Coaching, assisting, sponsoring .• Psychosocial ： Counseling, sharing, acting as

a role model.– Can be formal or informal.– Mentors tend to select protégés who are similar

to them in background: may restrict minorities and women.

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• Self-Leadership– A set of processes through which individuals

control their own behavior.– Effective leaders (superleaders) help followers to

lead themselves.– Important in self-managed teams.

• To engage in self-leadership:1.Make a mental chart of your peers and

colleagues.2.Focus on influence and not on control.3.Create opportunities; do not wait for them.

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• Attribution Theory of Leadership

– The idea that leadership is merely an attribution that people make about other individuals.

– Qualities attributed to leaders:• Leaders are intelligent, outgoing, have strong

verbal skills, are aggressive, understanding, and industrious.• Effective leaders are perceived as consistent

and unwavering in their decisions.• Effective leaders project the appearance of

being leaders.

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• Substitutes and Neutralizers for Leadership

Relationship- Task-oriented oriented

Defining Characteristics Leadership Leadership Individual

Experience/training No effect on Substitutes forProfessionalism Substitutes for Substitutes forIndifference to rewards Neutralizes Neutralizes

Job

Highly structured task No effect on Substitutes forProvides its own feedback No effect on

Substitutes forIntrinsically satisfying Substitutes for No effect on

Organization

Explicit formalized goals No effect on Substitutes forRigid rules and procedures No effect on

Substitutes forCohesive work groups Substitutes for Substitutes for

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• Selection– Review specific requirements for the job.– Use tests that identify personal traits associated

with leadership, measure self-monitoring, and assess emotional intelligence.

– Conduct personal interviews to determine candidate’s fit with the job.

– Keep a list of potential candidates.• Training

– Recognize that all people are not equally trainable.– Teach skills that are necessary for employees to

become effective leaders.– Provide behavioral training to increase the

development potential of nascent charismatic employees.