Career Counseling & GuidanceCSL6803.21Winter 20111/15/11Overview of Main Theories

Holland’s TheoryTheory of Vocational Personalities

Personality TypesRealistic, Investigative, Artistic,

Social, Enterprising and Conventional

describes personalitiescharacteristic set of attitudes and

skills preferences for vocational and

leisure activities, life goals and values, beliefs about oneself, and problem-solving style

also describes environments

Holland’s Types

RealisticInvestigative

Artistic

SocialEnterprising

Conventional

Leslie- from Holland’s perspectiveWhat would her “type” be? What environment has she been

in, and what’s the congruence?How does Holland’s theory help

understand Leslie and her choices?

What hypotheses would you make from this perspective?

Developmental Theory-SuperChapter 5

Central Premisevocational development is a

process of making several decisions

process culminates in vocational choices

Vocational choice is an implementation of the self-concept

Assumptions of Stage Theories

Behavior develops continuouslyStages are irreversible (though

contemporary theorists are less definite about this)

There are characteristic patterns to each stage

There are tasks that must be accomplished at each stage to go to next stage

Increasing levels of maturity and independence

Developmental vs. Trait Factor TheoriesProcess orientedInclusive of roles outside career

focusLongitudinalMultidisciplinarySelf concept is critical

Self ConceptIs formed by vocational

preferences and competencies, changes and evolves over time in

interaction with situations, Is a product of social learning, is increasingly stable over the life

span

Career MaturityIs the readiness of the individual

to cope with the demands of the environment

Predicts successful coping with the requirements of each stage

Involves both attitudinal factors and cognitive factors.

In adults, term is career adaptability, “readiness to cope with changing work and work conditions”

Developmental StagesGrowth (ages 4 to 13)Exploration (ages 14 to 24)Establishment (ages 25 to 44)Maintenance (ages 45 to 65)Disengagement (over age 65). Individuals do not necessarily go

through these stages at these ages, may recycle through

GrowthAges 4-13Tasks include:

◦ becoming concerned about the future,

◦increasing personal control over one’s own life,

◦convincing oneself to achieve in school and at work,

◦acquiring competent work habits and attitudes

Explorationages 14-24 tasks are:

◦ crystallizing- focusing in on a broad occupational area

◦ specifying-narrowing down to a specific choice

◦implementing career choice

Establishment ages 25-40entering and becoming

established in one’s career and work life

tasks include:◦ stabilizing-- settling in and learning

about job requirements◦Consolidating- feeling secure in job◦Advancing--assuming greater

responsibility

MaintenanceAges 45-65Tasks include:

◦Acceleration- continuing to grow and change

◦Stagnation

DeclineAges 65 and olderTasks include:

◦Specialization◦disengagement

Life RolesChildStudentHomemakerWorkerCitizenLeisuriteRoles interact and vary in

intensity over life-span

Goals of CounselingDevelop and accept an

integrated and adequate picture of themselves and their life roles,

Test the concept against realityConvert it into reality by making

choices that implement the self-concept and lead to job success and satisfaction as well as benefit to society

C-DAC Model AssessesLife structure and work-role

salience, Career development status and

resources, Vocational identity, including

values, interests, abilities, Occupational self-concepts and

life themes.

Gottfredson’s theoryExplains why individuals’

vocational expectations vary by sex, race, and social class.

Views vocational choice first as an implementation of the social self and then implementation of self concept

Choices circumscribed by social variables such as gender or social class

Vocational Aspirationsproduct of accessibility (choices

that are most realistic), andcompatibility (person-

environment fit).

StagesStage One (ages 3 to 5)-

orientation to size and power Stage Two (ages 6 to 8) -

orientation to sex roles Stage Three (ages 9 to 13) -

orientation to prestige and status Stage Four (ages 14 and older)-

orientation to the internal self

Gottfredson’s theoryExplains why individuals’

vocational expectations vary by sex, race, and social class.

Views vocational choice first as an implementation of the social self and then implementation of self concept

Choices circumscribed by social variables such as gender or social class

Vocational Aspirationsproduct of accessibility (choices

that are most realistic), andcompatibility (person-

environment fit).

StagesStage One (ages 3 to 5)-

orientation to size and power Stage Two (ages 6 to 8) -

orientation to sex roles Stage Three (ages 9 to 13) -

orientation to prestige and status Stage Four (ages 14 and older)-

orientation to the internal self

Self efficacy theory:Chapter 7

Backgroundindividuals’ perceptions of reality are

greater determinants of their behavior than objective reality

behavior changes and decisions are mediated by expectations of self-efficacy

Self efficacy is the confidence one has to accomplish tasks in a specific situation

Level and Strength of Self-efficacy Will Determine:

Whether or not a coping behavior will be initiated

How much effort will result How long the effort will be

obtained in the face of obstacles

Sources of Self Efficacy:Performance accomplishmentsVicarious experienceVerbal persuasionEmotional arousal

Outcome ExpectancyLead to an expected outcomeSuccessfully execute behavior to

produce outcome Effort varies in magnitude,

generality, and strength based on outcome expected

Development of InterestsOutcome expectancies and self-

efficacy beliefs both predict interests

Interests (together with self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectancies) predict goals

Goals lead to choosing and practicing activities, which then

Lead to performance attainments

Choice ModelPerson inputs and background

context influence learning experiences, which

influence self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectancies, which

influence interests, which influence choice goals, which influence actions, whichinfluence performance

attainments

Performance Modelpredicts the level of performance

as well as the persistence past performance

accomplishments influence self-efficacy and outcome expectancies, which

influence performance goals, which lead to performance attainment level.

Career CounselingIdentify those options that clients

have foreclosed because they have unrealistic or faulty self-efficacy beliefs or outcome expectancies.

Identify and evaluate barriers to various career choices

Modify and counteract faulty efficacy beliefs and faulty occupational information.

InterventionsIncreasing individuals’ self-efficacy Fostering positive and realistic

outcome expectationsSetting specific goalsIncreasing coping self-efficacy and

strong performance skillsExpanding vocational interests, Increasing decision-making skills and

exploratory behavior, Increasing consideration of non-

traditional careers

Goal of Career CounselingHelp clients find a career that

matches their interests, values, and skills.

Help clients explore possibilities that are a good match, but were discarded from consideration due to poor self-efficacy perceptions or inaccurate outcome expectations

Identifying Foreclosed Options

Focus on the results from an interest inventory, using both high and lower scoring scales.

Analyze discrepancies between occupations identified on various inventories

Use a card sort

Modifying Faulty Self-efficacy Beliefs help clients create opportunities

to experience successful performance accomplishments

Help clients develop accurate view of abilities to raise efficacy beliefs

Reanalyze previous experiences that led to faulty efficacy beliefs

Identifying BarriersIdentify barriersDetermine if realisticBrainstorm ways to overcome

them

Theory of Work Adjustment

Central PremiseCan predict satisfaction in a job

from knowing the fit between the individual and the environment.

Correspondence is a good fit.Environments require individuals

to have abilitiesIndividuals require environments

to reinforce their needs.

SatisfactorinessHow well an individual’s abilities

and skills meet what the job or organization requires. Result is a satisfactory employee.

Satisfactory employees are retained, promoted or transferred. Unsatisfactory employees are fired.

Abilities are assessed and compared to occupational aptitude patterns for jobs.

SatisfactionHow well the organization meets

the needs of an individual. Individuals have needs and

values that are met by the job (e.g., need to be autonomous or challenged). If the job meets these needs, result is satisfication.

Satisfied employees stay, if not quit.

Needs and valuesSix basic values: autonomy,

achievement, comfort, status, altruism, and safety.

Needs are assessed, and compared to the occupational reinforcer patterns of occupations (e.g., jobs are assessed to determine the pattern of needs in the environment).

Personality StylesDetermines how an individual

interacts with the environment.Celerity: speed to interact.Pace: intensity or activity level.Rhythm: pattern of pace (steady,

cyclical or erratic).Endurance: sustaining

interaction.

AdjustmentIf an employee’s needs are not

perfectly correspondent (I.e., if not all needs are met), employee is dissatisfied, and begins to adjust to increase correspondence.

Flexibility is the ability to tolerate the correspondence. This is the threshold before adjustment begins to occur. (see chart on p. 66).

Adjustment (cont).Once threshold of adjustment is

reached, dissatisfaction is too great, and individual moves into adjustment mode- to increase satisfaction (i.e., correspondence).

Reactive adjustment - change self, such as reduce level of needs

Active adjustment- change work environment to increase rewards

Adjustment (cont.)Perseverance: Continuing in the

environment after adjustment begins. Perseverance continues until the discorrespondence is too great, and individual quits.

Perseverance and flexibility are fluctuating- may tolerate discorrespondence one day, but not next.

Development StagesDifferentiation: First 20 years of

formation of abilities, values and personality style.

Stability: Adulthood, relative constancy of abilities and values.

Decline: Physiological changes that alter abilities and values.

Goals of Counseling Purposes: identifying a career

choice, clarifying decision-making, helping a client identify opportunities for adjustment, and helping a client decide on various ways to change an environment.

Self-knowledge is critical.May help client adjust to

environment or find new job.

Counseling Hypotheses Inadequate Performance due to:

◦ Actual discorrespondence between the clients’ actual abilities and the job requirements.

◦ Inaccurate perception by client of his/her abilities.

◦ Client may be able to do the job task, but is not able to perform tasks in other life roles.

◦ Abilities and requirements correspond, but inadequate performance is a result of discorrespondence in the need-reward discorrespondence.

Counseling Hypotheses (cont)Dissatisfaction due to:

◦Actual mismatch between needs and rewards

◦Needs are met vicariously rather than is a true psychological need.

◦Client is satisfied in job, but needs are not met in other domains.

Stages of Counseling Establishing a working

relationship. Exploring client’s problem. Assess client’s work personality

and self-image—identify needs and abilities.

Assess the environment in similar terms.

Assess the effect of counseling on the problem.

Chapter 10Theory Integration

Person Environment Fit Theories

Holland: how vocational personalities and work environments fit together.

Outcomes include vocational choice and adjustment; predicted by congruence with the environment.

TWA highlights individuals’ abilities and needs.

Focuses on how individuals decrease job dissatisfaction.

outcomes include vocational choice and adjustment.

Developmental TheoriesSuper: life long development Gottfredson: emphasis on childhood

and adolescence. Both explain how choices are made

and implemented. Both predict vocational choice and

development; Super’s outcomes also include implementation of the self-concept, and delineation of work as one of many life roles.

Social LearningFocuses on learning experiences, both

in the past and in the future. Emphasis is on ways that individuals

learn characteristic ways of approaching tasks and general observations about themselves and their world.

Individuals’ learning histories, their genetic endowments, and their task approach skills interact with environmental conditions to predict vocational choice.

Social CognitiveFocuses on the personal construction

individuals place on what they have learned.

Highlights how interests develop and how choices develop.

Emphasis on an individual’s beliefs about his or her competence in the related abilities and the outcomes expected of pursuing that field.

With social learning theory, consideration is given to environmental conditions and events.

Theories help counselorsHolland identifies what happens, Developmental theories describe how

it happens,TWA depicts how it happens and the

outcome, Social learning theory changes how it

will happen.Social cognitive career theory

describes how an individual’s perceptions of reality help to make it happen.