Post on 29-Mar-2018
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
1
BOTANY
Carol Brouwer, Ph.D.Horticulturist
http://www.flourishandbits.com
Botanical Studies
Taxonomy: classification and naming of plants
Morphology: study of plant structures
Physiology: study of plant functions
Genetics: study of heredity
TAXONOMYClassification of Plants
Classification Systems
2 million living things
Organize into groups
Improves communication
Different groups for different reasons
Habitat
Physical similarities
Hierarchical Classification
Taxonomy employs a hierarchical system of classification
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
2
Binomial System of Nomenclature
All species are named according to this system, which includes the authority for the name.
Genus – noun
Species – adjective
Spearmint: Mentha spicata L.
History: Aristotle (384 BCE –322 BCE)
1st to classify organisms
All plant essays lost
History: Theophratus (370‐285 BCE)
Classified 500 species of plants on the basis of leaf characteristics.
History: PedaniusDioscorides (40‐90 CE)
Materia Medica
Five‐volumes in Greek
One of the most influential herbal books in history
Remained in use until about CE 1600
History: Leonhart Fuchs (1501‐1566)
German physician
Baccalaureus Artium(BA)
1524 ‐Magister Artium(MA)
1524 ‐ doctor of medicine (MD)
History: Leonhart Fuchs (1501‐1566)
Fuchs’s History of Plants –1542
Offered botanical field days for the students
Demonstrated the use of medicinal plants in situ
Founded one of the first German botanical gardens
Plant and color Fuchsia are named for him by Charles Plumier
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
3
History: John Gerard (1545‐1611 or 12)
Gerard’s Herbal or General Histoire of Plantes ‐ 1597
English herbalist
History: Andrea Cesalpino (1519‐1603)
De plantis libri XVI ‐ 1583
Foundation for the morphology and physiology of plants
First scientific classification of flowering plants
Used the fruit as the foundation of his botanical system
Made original, acute observations on flowers, fruits, and seeds before the discovery of the microscope
Genus Cesalpinia
History: GaspardBauhin (1560 – 1624 )
Pinax theatri botanici(1596)
Classified thousands of plants
Used a precursor to binomial nomenclature
Bauhinia sp. is named for him
History: John Ray (1627‐1705)
English naturalist
Catalogus plantarum
626 plants listed
Historia Plantarum
Used system similar to Bauhin
First to use term “species”
History: Carl von Linne’ (1707‐1778)
Classify all known plants and animals according to their genera
Based on flower parts
Used Latin phrases to reflect relationships
Placing one to many kinds of species in each genus
SystemaNaturae– 1735
Limited Latin phrase to 12 words
Abbreviated names to two parts (binomials).
Organized all known plants into 24 classes
based mainly on the number of stamens in flowers
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
4
Kingdoms over time
Linnaeus1735[56]
Haeckel1866[57]
Chatton1925[58]
Copeland1938[59]
Whittaker1969[60]
Woese et al.
1990[61]
Cavalier‐Smith1998[54]
2 kingdoms 3 kingdoms 2 empires 4 kingdoms 5 kingdoms 3 domains 6 kingdoms
(not treated) Protista
Prokaryota Monera MoneraBacteria
BacteriaArchaea
Eukaryota
Protoctista Protista
Eucarya
Protozoa
Chromista
Vegetabilia Plantae Plantae
Plantae Plantae
Fungi Fungi
Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylogenetic Tree of Life
Taxonomy Today
Lumpers
phenetics – classification of organisms based on overall similarity
Linneaus’s classification based on resemblances between organisms (not evolutionary relationships)
Splitters
Phylogenetics (systematics, cladograms) ‐ study of evolutionary relatedness among various groups of organisms
CLASSIFICATIONSConvenient groupings of plants
Plant Divisions
Informal group Division name Common nameNo. of living
species
Green algaeChlorophyta
green algae(chlorophytes)
3,800
Charophytagreen algae(desmids& charophytes)
4,000 ‐ 6,000
Bryophytes Marchantiophyta liverworts 6,000 ‐ 8,000
Anthocerotophyta hornworts 100 ‐ 200
Bryophyta mosses 12,000
Pteridophytes Lycopodiophyta club mosses 1,200
Pteridophytaferns, whisk ferns & horsetails
11,000
Seed plants Cycadophyta cycads 160
Ginkgophyta ginkgo 1
Pinophyta conifers 630
Gnetophyta gnetophytes 70
Magnoliophyta flowering plants 258,650
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant
Plant Categories
Angiosperms (Magnoliophyta)
Monocots
Dicots
Gymnosperms (Pinophyta)
Conifers
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
5
Classes
Grasses
Grass‐like plants
Sedges
Bullrushes
Rushes
Forbs
Herbaceous flowering plants
Woody plants
Grasses
Jointed, hollow stems
Leaves in 2 rows and flattened
Parallel venation
Poaeaceae family
Texas – 545 native species
Monocots
Grass‐like Plants
Sometimes confused with grasses
Parallel venation
No nodes
Sedges triangular stems
Flattened leaves in 3 rows
Ruses hollow or pithy
Rounded and not branched
Leaves near base of plant are round or flattened
Forbs
Broad‐leaf plants
Herbaceous flowering plant that is not a graminoid (grasses, sedges and rushes).
Not a tree, shrub
Not always wildflowers Alfalfa
Soybean
Woody Plants
Shrubs, sub‐shrubs and trees
Perennial
Trees have a trunk
‘Brush’
Life Cycles
Annuals
Biennials
Perennials
herbaceous
woody
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
6
Seasonal Classification
Warm season
Grow during frost‐free months
Spring, summer, fall
Cool season
Tolerate frost
Fall, winter, spring MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGYPlant Parts and Functions
Plant Parts & Functions
Sexual
flower
Asexual
leaves
stems
roots
Meristems
Primary Growth apical
meristem or apex
Secondary Growth Vascular
cambium or cambium
Roots
Primary Roots
Taproot
Lateral Roots
Fibrous
Roots
Knees
Buttressed
Aerial
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
7
Tuberous Roots
No Nodes
Begonias
Beets
Dahlias
Peonies
Root Structure
Dicot Root
Monocot R
oot
Monocot Root
Tree Roots
Most trees do not have tap roots
Roots grow beyond the edge of the branches
Most roots are in the top 3 feet of soil
Finer roots in top 12”.
Damaging roots may cause dieback
Stems
Support
Vascular System
Buds
Leaf Bud
Flower Bud
Terminal
Lateral/Axillary
Adventitious
Leaves
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
8
Stems
Support
Vascular System
Buds
Leaf Bud
Flower Bud
Terminal
Lateral/Axillary
Adventitious
Leaves
Primary Growth ‐Monocot
Primary Growth – dicot or gymnosperm Secondary Growth ‐ dicots
periderm
phloem
cambium
xylem
ray
crushed cortex and past year’s phloem
32 1 pith
Section of a Yew (Taxus sp.) Modified Stems ‐ Crowns & Stolon
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
9
Modified Stems
Bulb
Tuber
Rhizome
Bulb
Corm
Types of Leaves
Simple
Types of Leaves
Seed Leaves(Cotyledons)
Types of Leaves
Tendrils
Types of Leaves
Scale
Types of Leaves
Needles
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
10
Types of Leaves
Spines
Types of Leaves
Prickle
Types of Leaves
Bracts
Poinsettia
Bougainvillea
Abelia
Types of Leaves
Thorns
Leaves
Absorb sunlight for photosynthesis
Leaf Layers
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
11
Leaf Cross‐section Leaf Cross‐Section
Stomata Leaf Venation
Reticulate
Leaf Venation
Pinnate
Leaf Venation
Palmate
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
12
Leaf Venation
Parallel
Leaf Types
Simple
Leaf Types
Pinnate Compound
Leaf Types
Double Pinnate Compound
Leaf Types
Palmate Compound
Leaf ShapesAcicularCordateDeltoidPeltateEllipticEnsiformFalcateHastateLanceolateLinearLigulateOblanceolateOblongObovateOrbicularOvalSagittateSpatulateSubulateTendril
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
13
Leaf Margins
Ciliate
Crenate
Crenulate
Dentate
Denticulate
Entire
Incised
Lobed
Palmately lobed
Pinnately lobed
Pinnatisect
Serrate
Serrulate
Sinuate
Spinse
Undulate
Leaf ApicesAcuminateAcuteApiculateAristateCaudateCirrhoseCleftCuspidateEmarginateMucronateMucronulateObcordateObtuseRetuseRoundedTruncate
Leaf Bases
Acute
Attenuate
Auriculate
Cordate
Cuneate
Oblique
Rounded
Truncate
Pubescence
Glabrous
Pilose
Villous
Strigose
Hispid
Hirsule
Scabrous
Puberulent
Tomentose
Stellate
Stipitate Glandular
Sessile Glandular
Leave Arrangement
Alternate
Leave Arrangement
Opposite
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
14
Leave Arrangement
Whorled
Leaf Arrangement
Fasicled
Leaf Arrangement
Basal
Leaf Arrangement
Equitant
SEXUAL PLANT PARTS & FUNCTIONS
(Flowers)
Parts of the Flower
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
15
Types of Flowering Plants
Monoecious = 1 House
Corn
Pecan
Dioecious = 2 Houses
Holly
Junipers
Types of Flowering Plants
Monoecious = 1 House
Corn
Pecan
Dioecious = 2 Houses
Holly
Junipers
Flowers
Complete = Pistil, Stamen, Petal, Sepals
Incomplete = Missing One
Perfect = Pistil & Stamen
How Seeds Form
Pollination
Pollen tube
Fertilization
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
16
Types of Flowers
Solitary ‐ one flower per stem
Inflorescence ‐ a cluster of flowers
racemous ‐ indeterminate (flower from the bottom up)
Racemous Flowers
Spike ‐ flowers attached to peduncle ‐gladiolus
Racemous Flowers
Raceme ‐ individual flowers attached by tiny stems to the peduncle
Bluebonnet
Racemous Flowers
Catkin
Mulberry
birch
Racemous Flowers
Corymb
yarrow
Racemous Flowers
Umbel
dill
onion
queen anne’s lace
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
17
Racemous Flowers
Head
sunflower
daisy
Flower Types
cyme ‐ determinate ‐flower from the top down ‐ top florets open first
dischasium cyme ‐baby’s breath
helicoid cyme ‐ freesia
scorpioid ‐ tomato (alternate)
Types of Inflorescence Fruit
Fruit consists of the fertilized and mature ovules (seeds) and the ovary wall.
Parts of the Fruit
seed
dry fruit(corn) fleshy fruit (peach)
exocarp
mesocarp
endocarp
pericarp
Types of Fruit
berry
pepo
pome
hesperidium
drupe
pod
aggregate
multiple
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
18
Parts of the Seed
testa (seed coat)
hilum
micropyle
dicot seed (bean)
plumule
epicotyl
cotyledon
hypocotyl
radicle
embryo
Bean Seed Germination
Water
Light
Heat
Oxygen
Corn Seed Germination
PLANT PROCESSES
Photosynthesis
Produces food
Stores Energy
Occurs only in cells containing chloroplasts
Releases Oxygen
Uses water
Uses carbon dioxide
Occurs in sunlight
Light Cycle (Photolysis, Hill Reaction)
Light reacts with pigments in the leaf causing the splitting of water molecules.
Three products: Electrons from the
hydrogen molecules
H+ ions ‐ used to form two separate energy storage molecules.
Oxygen
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
19
Dark Cycle (Calvin Cycle)
Carbon dioxide molecules are transformed into sugars using the energy that was formed during the light reaction.
C3 ‐ efficient
C4 ‐more efficient (grasses)
CAM ‐most efficient (succulents)
Respiration
Uses food for plant energy
Releases energy
Occurs in all cells
Uses oxygen
Produces water
Produces carbon dioxide
Occurs in darkness as well as light
Net Reaction
6 CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
light
carbon dioxide
water Carbohydrate(sugar)
oxygen
energy for growth (ATP)
Photosynthesis
Respiration
Transpiration
Process of water loss
Occurs through the stomata
Uses 90% of water taken up
Necessary for cooling and mineral transport
Depends on: temperature
wind
humidity
FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT GROWTH
Light
Quality
Quantity
Duration
Necessary for photosynthesis
BOTANYby Carol Brouwer
20
Light Quality Light Quantity
Intensity
Summer vs. Winter
Shade vs. Sun
Equator vs Arctic
Indoors vs Outdoors
Light Duration
Photoperiod induces flowering, bud break etc.
Short Day = > 12 hours dark
chrysanthemum, poinsettia
Long Day = < 12 hours dark
California Poppy, beet, radish, lettuce
Day Neutral = doesn’t care
Temperature
Productivity
High Temperature
increased respiration, transpiration
Low Temperature
poor growth
Temperature
Flowering ‐
Mums, Christmas Cactus, Daffodils, Tulips
Chilling Hours
Peaches, Apples
Winter Injury
USDA Zone Map
Water
Photosynthesis
Cohesion Theory
Wilt (PWP)
Managing Stress