Post on 16-Dec-2015
Basics about CultureGuest lecture in course
“Culture and Economic Behaviour”Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen
22th November 2012Geert Hofstede
Three meanings of “culture”
1. Literally: tilling the soil, cultivation2. Training or refining of the mind:
civilization3. Collective ways of acting, thinking, and
feeling: “collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category* of people from another”
*) nation, region, occupation, organization, gender
But: “Culture” (3) does not exist
“Culture” (3) is a construct, that is a product of our imagination. We have defined it into existence
“A construct is not directly accessible to observation but inferable from verbal statements and other behaviors and useful in predicting still other observable and measurable verbal and nonverbal behavior”
T. Levitin, 1973
Levels of mental programming
symbols
heroes
rituals
practicesvisible
valuesinvisible
practices
• Symbols: words, gestures and objects whose meaning has to be learned. They include language and jargon. The easiest to acquire and fastest changing level of culture
• Heroes: persons, alive or dead, real or imaginary, who serve as models for behavior. More difficult for an outsider to recognize
• Rituals: shared activities that are technically superfluous but socially essential. Can be learned given enough effort; can be changed
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values
• Core of our mental programming. Mostly unconscious : in our guts, not in our heads
• Values are strong emotions with a - and a + such as: evil-good, abnormal-normal, ugly-beautiful, dangerous-safe, immoral-moral, indecent-decent, unnatural-natural, dirty-clean, paradoxical-logical, irrational-rational
• What is rational is a matter of values
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Unconscious values are acquiredearly in our lives
• We humans are born incompletely programmed• During the first 10 years of our lives we have a
physiologically determined ability for absorbing complex information: additional programming
• This programming is provided by our social environment and includes all our basic values
• It also includes learning languages accent-free• After age 10, basic values don’t change – not even
if we migrate to another country• And if we learn new languages, we keep an accent
Practices are learned and unlearned throughout life, nearly always conscious
• Similar practices (symbols, heroes and rituals) can be learned by persons with very different values
• Practice learning is also provided by our social environment
• Working together means sharing practices, not necessarily sharing values
Acquiring mental programming
unconscious,unchangeablevalues
conscious, changeable practices
age
0
10
20
place
family
school
work
pre-puberty
post-puberty
National versus organizational culturesa definition
• National cultures oppose otherwise similar individuals, institutions and organizations across countries. Example: different national subsidiaries of same company
• Organizational (or corporate) cultures oppose different organizations within the same countries. Example: different companies within one country
National versus organizational cultures• National culture differences are rooted in
values learned before age 10• They pass from parents to children• For management, they are given facts• For academics, they belong to anthropology
• Organizational cultures are rooted in practices learned on the job
• Given enough management effort, they can be monitored and changed
• For academics, they belong to sociology• International organizations function through
shared practices, rarely shared values
Which culture is transferred when
values
practices
age
0
10
20+
culture levelgender, national
social class, occupation
business, organization
The dimension concept in studyingthe social world
• Dimensions are a conceptual way of unpackaging complex realities into separate basic elements
• Dimensions are found empirically and statistically• Dimensional models differ by level of analysis, e.g.
society, organization, or individual• Like “culture”, “dimensions” do not exist. They are
constructs. We have defined them into existence• Their usefulness can only be proven by validation:
their ability to predict measurable behaviour• Different applications may need different models
Dimensions of national cultures(Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov 2010)
6 dimensions of societal values:6 dimensions of societal values:
• Power Distance large vs. small• Uncertainty Avoidance strong vs. weak• Individualism vs. Collectivism • Masculinity vs. Femininity • Long vs. Short term orientation• Indulgence vs. Restraint
National culture dimensionPower Distance
• Extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations expect and accept that power is distributed unequally
• Transferred to children by parents and other elders
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National culture dimension Uncertainty Avoidance
• Extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous and unknown situations
• Not to be confused with risk avoidance: risk is to uncertainty as fear is to anxiety. Uncertainty and anxiety are diffuse feelings – anything may happen
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SMALLER PD, WEAKER UA LARGER PD, WEAKER UA
SMALLER PD, STRONGER UA LARGER PD, STRONGER UA
NORDIC CTRS
ANGLO CTRS, USA
NETHERLANDS
GERMAN SPEAKING CTRS
BALTIC STATES
HUNGARY
CHINA
INDIA
FRANCE, LATIN CTRS
POLAND, SE EUROPE
JAPAN, KOREA
Power Distance x Uncertainty Avoidance(first 4 dimension scores for 76 countries)
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National culture dimensionIndividualism vs. Collectivism
• Individualism: A society in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after self and immediate family only
• Collectivism: A society in which individuals from birth onwards are part of strong in-groups that last a lifetime and oppose other in-groups
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National culture dimensionMasculinity vs. Femininity
• Masculinity: A society in which emotional gender roles are distinct: men should be assertive, tough and focused on material success, women on the quality of life
• Femininity: A society in which emotional gender roles overlap: both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and focused on the quality of life
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Individualism/Collectivism x Masculinity/Femininity(first 4 dimension scores for 76 countries)
National culture dimension Long-Term vs. Short-Term Orientation
• Long Term Orientation seeks future rewards through perseverance, thrift and adaptation
• Short Term Orientation respects tradition and social obligations and seeks immediate rewards
• Originally based on Chinese Value Survey scores for 23 countries
• New, revised scores based on 1995-2004 World Values Survey for 93 countries
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National culture dimension Indulgence vs. Restraint
• Indulgence allows relatively free gratificationof basic human drives leading to enjoying life
• Restraint curbs gratification and enjoying life and regulates it by strict social norms
• Scores for 93 countries based on 1995-2004 World Values Survey
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• Few restrictions on behavior
• People value freedom of expression
• People feel healthier and happier
• People are fatter• Leisure ethic• Loose sexual mores• Higher crime rates• Smaller police force
Restrained societies
• Restrictive regulations on behavior
• People value strong government
• People feel less happy and less healthy
• People are slimmer• Work ethic• Strict sexual mores• Lower crime rates• Larger police force
Indulgent societies
INDULGENT, SHORT-TERM INDULGENT, LONG TERM
RESTRAINED, SHORT-TERM RESTRAINED, LONG-TERM
NIGERIA, SOUTH AFRICA
SOUTH AMERICA
USA, CANADA, AUSTRALIA
SWEDEN, NETHERLANDS
AUSTRIA, SWITZERLAND
BELGIUM, FRANCE
POLAND, PORTUGAL
ZIMBABWE, BURKINA FASO
ISLAMIC COUNTRIES
ITALY, GERMANY
BALTICS, EASTERN EUROPE
CHINA, JAPAN, INDIA
Long/Short Term Orientation x Indulgence/Restraint (scores for 90 countries)
Validations of national culture dimension scores against data from other sources - examples
• Power distance: income inequality; respect for elders; polarization and violence in national politics
• Uncertainty avoidance: number of laws and rules; belief in experts; xenophobia; terrorism; faster driving
• Individualism: national wealth; faster walking; weaker family ties; frequency of using the word “I”
• Masculinity: fewer women elected; stress on growth Femininity: care for the weak and the environment
• Long Term Orientation: economic growth; savings rates; fewer prisoners; adapting to changed reality
• Indulgence: higher birthrates, fewer police, more active sports, more obesitas, more private internet
Dimensions of organizational cultures(Hofstede, Neuijen, Ohayv & Sanders 1990)
6 dimensions of organizational practices:6 dimensions of organizational practices:• Process vs. results oriented• Employee vs. job oriented• Parochial vs. professional• Open vs. closed system• Loose vs. tight control• Normative vs. pragmatic
Rooted in practices; based on comparative survey among members of different organizations in same countries; validated against characteristics of these organizations
Dimensions of individual personality(McCrae & John, 1992; Hofstede, 2007)
the “Big Five” with a Chinese sixth:the “Big Five” with a Chinese sixth:
• Openness to experience• Conscientiousness• Extraversion• Agreeableness• Neuroticism
• Dependence on others
Switching levels : differences in Big Five norms explained by national culture (Hofstede & McCrae, 2004)
Personality dimension
Culture dimension total % explained
Neuroticism 1. Uncertainty Avoidance
2. Masculinity
31
55
Extraversion 1. Individualism
2. Femininity
39
46
Openness to experience
1. Masculinity
2. Small Power Distance
3. Uncertainty Avoidance
13
29
36
Agreeableness 1. Weak Uncertainty
Avoidance
28
Conscientiousness 1. Power Distance 24
Summary: National cultures, organizational cultures and the role of management
1. “Culture” does not exist, it is a product of our imagination and only useful as far as it helps us understand and predict phenomena in the world
2. National cultures and organizational cultures are quite different things: national cultures belong to anthropology, organizational cultures to sociology
3. Management can never change a national culture It can only understand and use it. It can build and sometimes change an organizational culture
4. The concept of “culture” does not apply at the level of individuals. Individuals have personalities, influenced by the culture in which they grew up.
Academic book, 1980 and 2001 (600 pages, two columns)
General reader book 2010 (2005, 1991)
• Co-authors 3rd ed. Gert Jan Hofstede & Michael Minkov
• So far available in 6 languages; previous editions in 19 • Dutch version: Allemaal andersden- kenden: Omgaan met cultuurverschillen
• More on website www.geerthofstede.eu