Post on 01-Aug-2020
Highways: Invisible Fault Lines in America’s Social Fabric
Anshul Bhatnagar
Individual Paper
Senior Division
"It's not a question of if [the highway] should be torn down. The question is when will it be torn down. [Syracuse] was a city divided. In fact, I immediately, at that time ... called [the highway] the 'Berlin Wall.’"
Van Robinson NPR
July 2012 Introduction:
In 1956, the United States Congress passed the Federal-Aid Highway Act, a
decision that would change the social and economic landscape of America forever. By
dedicating 26 billion dollars for the creation of a national highway system, this bill
ensured that the American people would be able to travel quickly and easily from coast to
coast using state of the art highways. After the highways were built, more and more
people started driving across the country, and the interactions and exchanges between
people from different parts of the country went up exponentially. This was to be expected
as explorations invariably lead to increased encounters and exchanges between people
from different regions. For instance, when Christopher Columbus discovered the “New
World”, he sparked an era of trade, warfare, and interaction between the Native
Americans and Europeans. Marco Polo’s expeditions into the Far East led to increased
encounters and exchanges between citizens of Europe, China and the Middle East.
However, while the highways increased encounters between citizens across the
country, they surprisingly decreased encounters between citizens within a city. The
creation of suburbs and the increase in automobile ownership, facilitated by highways,
split neighborhoods, divided racial groups, and isolated commuters. By promoting new
types of living habits, city structures, and transportation, highways decreased encounters
and exchanges between different segments of citizens in a city. This unintended
consequence of highways had a devastating effect on our society, and needs to be studied
in detail.
Background:
While the need for a national highway system had been felt for many years, the
different reasons for its creation simultaneously gained urgency in the mid-fifties of last
century. One of the driving factors was the number of cars on the road. Cars started being
mass produced only in early 1900s, but by 1950s their number had zoomed to 55 million
(Loss Caused By). The pre-highway road network was a patchwork of narrow mostly
single-lane streets, which frequently crisscrossed each other, and was embedded with
speed obstacles, such as traffic lights and stop signs. As the number of cars increased,
they clogged this archaic road network; the frequency of traffic jams and road accidents
shot up and the need for a better road system became a crying need (Wider Roads For).
Second driving factor arose due to the end of World War II and Korea War. After the
wars, the US army started disbanding its soldiers and returning them to civilian life,
creating an urgent need to find employment for thousands of these disbanded soldiers.
During the Depression, the government successfully created mass employment through
public works project, and the government in the 50s wanted to follow a similar path and
setup a public works project for the war veterans. The highways looked like a good
public works project as it could generate employment all over the country.
The third and probably the dominant reason has to be the ascent of Dwight
Eisenhower as the President of USA in 1953. President Eisenhower was firmly convinced
of the absolute necessity of highways, due to two life-changing experiences. First, when
he was a young Army officer, he was involved in the Army’s first Transcontinental
Motor Convoy that traveled across the US by automobile. He personally witnessed the
dilapidated state of roads where vehicles got stuck, and bridges that failed under heavy
load (Eisenhower, Report on Transcontinental Trip). Second, while leading the Allied
Army in Germany, he saw the highly efficient German highway system, the Autobahn,
and was greatly impressed by it. As a military commander, he realized the defense value
of an efficient highway system (Eisenhower, At Ease, 166). Eisenhower got a chance to
fulfill his vision of a national highway system when he became the President in 1953.
Immediately after his election, he set up a commission to study the pros and cons of
building a highway network, but his inclination was clear by his choice of Lucius Clay as
the chairman of the committee. Lucius Clay was a director at General Motors, a company
that was guaranteed to benefit from improvement in the quality of highways, and
therefore his decision was in favor of highways (Jackson 249).
A number of highway acts had been passed in the period 1920 - 1950, but they all
failed because they had no funds earmarked specifically for building highways (The
Interstate Highway System). The Act of 1956 turned out to be effective because it had
expressly assigned $26 billion for the construction of a national highway network, with
the federal government assuming responsibility for 90% of it, and the states for the other
10% (National and Interstate). To convince the members of Congress to spend such a
large amount of money, President Eisenhower wrote a letter to them listing out the
reasons why a national network is needed: reduce accident rates, transportation costs,
traffic congestions, and increase the mobility of the army in the event of an atomic attack
(Eisenhower, Letter to Congress). In the following years, the highways achieved these
four goals successfully, but more than that, impacted American life in myriad other ways.
From influencing city structures, retailing to environment, the highways had many
unintended consequences, some of which unfortunately led to decreased interactions
between citizens.
Suburbs – Decreasing Encounters between Neighbors
The industrial growth of the eighteenth century led to city structures that were
anchored to factories. The factories generated lots of soot, smoke, flyash and other highly
harmful pollutants that were dispersed into the areas surrounding the factories. But these
were also the areas where the workers of the factories lived as they had to live within
walking distance of the factories. Moreover, these pollutants smelled dreadful (Edey
156). The workers could escape these harmful living conditions by living far from the
factories, but before the automobile era, it would have required hours of walking.
The early nineteenth century witnessed the development of public transportation
and the invention of the automobile technology. These twin developments made it
possible to live in the suburbs, but still suburbs remained unpopular because of the
archaic road system (An Overview of Suburbanization). With mass production, prices of
cars dropped and it became possible for middle class America to own cars, but most
citizens still vacillated in committing to suburban life, as commuting time on the old
roads, due to frequent stop signs and congestion, was high (Mohl 10). The new highway
system dramatically reduced the commuting time, and made it possible to live in suburbs.
Consequently, the number of suburbs went up exponentially (Changing Face). “We are
mushrooming,” as one citizen put it, when his suburb population went up by 16% in a
year (Lueck). Throughout history, the proportion of population living in cities had
increased due to more and more people taking up industrial jobs that were located in
cities. After the construction of highways, the proportion of population living in cities
started decreasing, and in suburbs started increasing (Baum-Snow 1).
The growth of suburban living led to the exploration of new types of housing
structures, which subsequently led to decrease in encounters between neighbors. Houses
in the suburbs are fundamentally different than those in cities. Suburban houses are
usually designed for single-families as opposed to city houses, such as apartments and
tenement houses, which are designed for multiple families to live together (Baum-Snow
8-9). Apartments and tenement houses are common in cities, but rare in suburbs
(Rybczynski and Linneman 3). The houses in suburbs also tend to have much bigger
yards, which have the effect of physically moving houses (and the people living inside
them) away from each other.
Before migration to the suburbs was made possible, people lived in close
communication with their neighbors, as they were in constant contact with them. When
people live in apartments or tenement houses, they share common spaces, such as
stairwells, yards, rooftops, basements, and have no choice but to interact with each other
every time they go out of their houses. Not only that, there is very little privacy as
neighbors can easily hear each other through open windows and common walls. The
neighbors know each other, and their problems. This creates a much closer community.
The new types of houses in the suburbs physically isolate neighbors from each other by
removing any opportunity to interact. This led to communities where neighbors did not
interact with each other, and the sense of community was lost forever. Thus, while the
highways led to the exploration of new types of city and housing structures, it also led to
decreased encounters between neighbors, and the loss of community feeling.
(See Appendix B).
Segregation – Decreasing Interracial Encounters
Despite the best efforts of civil rights activists who fought hard to end racial
segregation, America remained largely segregated well into the middle of last century.
Then, in the mid-twentieth century, civil rights advocates won some important victories.
For example, the Supreme Court’s momentous decision in Brown vs. Board of Education
ended racial segregation in colleges and schools. At this point in time, it appeared that the
momentum of the civil rights movement would eventually lead to our cities becoming
racially integrated (Orfield and Eaton 13). However, the establishment of highways,
unexpectedly, reversed this progress and led to a decrease in interracial encounters.
During the construction of the freeways, on an average thirty-seven thousand
people were forced to relocate annually in order to clear space for the construction of
highways (Mohl, Raymond. Urban Expressways 2) (see Appendix A). The freeways
were almost always routed through the city slums, which were mostly inhabited by racial
minorities such as Latinos and African-Americans (Swift 229). Local and state
governments often tried to justify this by arguing that land there was inexpensive (Mohl,
Raymond. Urban Expressways 28). However, secretly local governments chose land to
build highways based on the racial composition of inhabitants. For example, politicians
of Baltimore decided to construct a costlier freeway through African-American
communities, rather than a cheaper one through white neighborhoods (Swift 266).
Dislodged citizens, who were mostly racial minorities, were then forced to move
to urban areas mostly populated by whites, as most minorities were not wealthy enough
to relocate to suburban areas. Whites, who were most often much wealthier than other
races, generally responded to the presence of these new neighbors by moving out to
suburban areas, a move made possible by the highways (Super 450). This phenomenon
has now been termed “white flight.”
In exceptional cases, when African-Americans moved to the suburbs, violent riots
often broke out. Many suburban residents took drastic actions to discourage blacks from
moving there. For example, in Levittown, a New York City suburb, blacks were
forbidden to purchase homes (Mead). One black leader even termed residents of white
suburbs “the real enemies,” due to their intense discriminatory behavior against
minorities (All White Suburbs). In the rare cases when blacks were permitted to reside in
the suburbs, they accounted for a very small percentage of the total suburban population.
For example, not even 1% of the population was black in many suburbs of Milwaukee
(Milwaukee Fights State). This unfortunate trend continues even to this day. Although, in
the city, 38% of the population is black, in suburban areas only 7% of the population is
black, a depressing indicator of the segregation facilitated by the interstate highways
(Rawlings 5).
By separating whites from other races, the highways decreased interracial
exchanges and encounters. People from different races rarely interact with each other, as
they usually live and work in separate places. Thus, the highways greatly changed the
racial makeup of American cities. Before the construction of the highways, our cities
were gradually becoming integrated. However, the construction of the highways led to
the reversal of this movement and the creation of intensely segregated cities, where
whites dominate the suburbs and the minorities the city centers (Mohl 4).
Decline of Public Transport – Decreasing Encounters between Commuters
Before the birth of modern transport systems, workers had to walk to their
workplaces. By the early 20th century, the development of streetcars led to easier and
faster commuting. The years afterwards were marked by the rising popularity of mass
transit. In addition, the variety of public transportation options available to commuters,
such as, intercity railways, buses, and streetcars, increased rapidly. The era of mass
transit finally lost favor towards the latter half of the twentieth century, as cars and
freeways became more popular (Singleton 384). This development led to a decrease in
encounters between commuters, as cars were designed for individual use, while public
transportation was designed for use by multiple people and forced a variety of individuals
to interact with each other.
The increasing suburban population thus facilitated the decline of public
transportation, as it cannot remain economically viable in areas with low population
densities. Mass transit, such as intercity railways, is specifically intended to transport a
large number of people in a single trip (Fink and Taylor 10). In general, public
transportation is costly; only when utilized by many people is public transportation
cheaper, as this spreads the high operating costs over a larger customer base. In suburban
areas, the inhabitants are spread out over a larger area, thus decreasing population density
(Swift 239). The freeways also lowered the workplace density, such as those factories, by
allowing them to move out of urban locations and into the suburbs, as well. The
Presidential Advisory Committee declared, “The nation’s highways have been able to
disperse our factories, our stores, our people, in short creating a revolution in living
habits” (Shipler). Thus, as both population and office densities declined in urban and
suburban areas, public transportation systems have not been able to garner enough users
in order to stay economically feasible in many cities (Swift 239).
In addition, mainly travelers who do not own automobiles use public
transportation. Living in the suburbs forces one to own a car, and thus suburban
inhabitants will not usually use mass transit. One public transportation business owner
angrily declared, “And where have these commuters gone? Most of them are riding in a
car in from suburbia and sitting bumper to bumper on the most magnificent highways
money can buy” (Rothberg). The use of automobiles instead of public transportation led
to a decrease in encounters between people. In buses, trains, and streetcars, patrons had
the opportunity to interact with each other. However, cars were not designed to transport
many people, and users lost the opportunity to interact with others while traveling,
thereby decreasing encounters. The highways thus led to the exploration of new ways of
commuting that led to a decrease in encounters between citizens.
Conclusion
Over the latter half of the 20th century, the highways have led to the exploration of
new ways of living, and commuting. These explorations increased encounters between
people in different geographic regions. However, by dividing communities, highways
have also, arguably, isolated Americans. While they did connect America, thereby
allowing for faster travel and communication with other regions, they did this from a
city-to-city perspective. On a grand scale, highways may have brought us closer together.
However, at a micro scale, the highways have brought us further apart through promoting
new modes of housing and commuting. These developments have thereby created a
distinctly American culture, one dominated by automobiles and suburbia. The variety of
ways the highways have changed America only assure us of one thing: the highways have
transformed the very fabric of America. Since its construction, the highways have
touched almost every aspect of our lives. Even though, highways have provided several
advantages, it has come at a great cost to our sense of community. These problems
caused by the splitting of neighborhoods due to the highways, thus, may never be
resolved.
Word Count: 2488
Appendix A: Destruction Caused by Building of the Highways
Source: http://atdetroit.net/forum/messages/107211/116784.jpg Caption: This aerial photo of a highway being constructed in Detroit, Michigan clearly shows how highways cut straight into the heart of cities. Previously, all the land that the highway now sits on, used to have businesses and homes. All those buildings had to be demolished and its owners and residents relocated to make space for these roads. Usually, these lands were often homes and business owned by racial minorities, thus harming them the most.
Appendix B: Neighborly Contact in Urban vs. Suburban Areas
Sources: 1. http://affordablehousinginstitute.org/blogs/us/wp-
content/uploads/new_york_crowded_street.jpg 2. http://cdn.history.com/sites/2/2013/12/1950s-Levittown-AB.jpeg
Captions: Clearly, one can see that in the first photo, in crowded urban areas, there is much more contact between people. Many people are packed into a crowded area, and thus there will be more encounters and exchanges in this type of urban environment. In the second photo of a traditional suburban area, one can see the houses and buildings are much more spread out. This suburban environment makes it harder to have an environment where there is a lot of encounters and exchanges between residents.
Works Cited:
Primary Sources:
"The 1950s." History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web. 15 Feb. 2016.
<http://www.history.com/topics/1950s>.
I used a photo from this website to help show a picture of suburbia in Appendix
A. It is clear by contrasting the two photos in this appendix that suburban
environments lead to a decrease in encounters and exchanges between neighbors
as homes and businesses are more spread out from each other.
"'All-White Suburbs Our Real Enemies,' Black Leader Says." Chicago Tribune
[Chicago] 23 Apr. 1970, W2: n. pag. ProQuest. Web. 11 Jan. 2016.
<http://search.proquest.com/docview/169074069/13BA447ACA57A51E79B/1
?accountid=285>.
This piece from the Chicago Tribune discusses an African-American leader who
declared all-white suburbs to be “the real enemies.” This person found the
relatively peaceful citizens who resided in the suburbs to be worse than the Ku
Klux Klansmen or other members of white supremacy groups. This piece showed
me that suburbs were actually very discriminating towards African-Americans as
most citizens were only white. White citizens would often ban blacks from living
there.
The City - 1939 Housing in America Documentary / Educational Film. Prod.
Ralph Steiner and Willard Van Dyke. YouTube. Google, n.d. Web. 1 Nov.
2015. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cag7q8QlHY4>.
The Regional Planning Association of America created this movie in the
early part of the 20th century, hoping to put an end to the creation of dirty,
polluted cities and instead advertise clean places outside of the cities which
would be better for the desires and health of people. It shows how awful city life
was and was an informative source to find. By portraying polluted cities, and
declaring that even local and state governments were advising people to leave the
city and move to the suburbs, this movie helped to increase migration to the
suburbs for a cleaner environment. .
Conquering Roads 1937 Vintage Higway Film. YouTube. Google, n.d. Web. 2 Oct.
2015. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_AO4TVoaCPI>.
This film portrayed the road system as it existed before the interstate highway
system, and the poor driving conditions that car users had to deal with. I liked
viewing the historical road system and the problems it caused, because it clearly
showed the impact the highways have had on our commuting time and traffic
congestion.
Cutler, Richard W. Greater Milwaukee's Growing Pains, 1950-2000: An Insider's
View. N.p.: n.p., 2001. Print.
Richard Cutler’s novel clearly had bias towards the highways. Being one of the
principal creators of the interstate system in the Wisconsin area, he was very
much different from someone like Milwaukee Mayor Norquist. From his novel I
saw how highways were first constructed and governed at the local levels in
Wisconsin, in particular and in addition also view the politics behind the
construction of the interstate system.
Eisenhower, Dwight. At Ease: Stories I Tell to Friends. Garden City: Doubleday
and Company, 1967. Print.
Dwight D Eisenhower’s autobiography showed the president’s motives for
making the freeways. In this autobiography, Eisenhower, in great detail discusses
the Transcontinental Motor Convoy, on which he embarked on as a young soldier.
After recounting his experience in the expedition and in what way it persuaded
him to improve the road system, Eisenhower continued to examine the essentiality
of the autobahns to Nazi Germany’s defense and mobility. This was simply one of
the many sources I used from Eisenhower’s own experiences, and helped me gain
a better understanding of the motives for the creation of the freeway system.
Eisenhower, Dwight David. "Message to Congress." Letter. 22 Feb. 1955.
Eisenhower Archives. Eisenhower Presidential Libary and Museum, Abeline.
Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum. Web. 12 Oct. 2015.
<http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/interstate_
highway_system/1955_02_22_Message_to_Congress.pdf>.
This message is a fantastic primary source, which aimed to convince leaders of
Congress to pass the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956. To do this, President
Eisenhower listed motives for the construction of the freeways, including
increased mobility in case of an Atomic Attack. As this was during the Cold War
period, many citizens were afraid of nuclear war with the Soviet Union, and the
highways was one way the government could alleviate those fears. At first, the
highway system, to me, seemed unnecessary. However, after reading this primary
source, I gained a better understanding of in how many different way the highway
system impacts daily lives of millions of Americans, including improving
congestion and decreasing accident rates.
Eisenhower, Dwight David. "Report on Trans-Continental Trip." Letter. 3 Nov.
1919. Eisenhower Archives. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum,
Abeline. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum. Web. 24 Nov. 20125
<http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/1919_conv
oy/1919_11_03_DDE_to_Chief.pdf>.
The Eisenhower Online Archives, supported by the Eisenhower museum has
many great sources, this being one of them. After partaking in the
Transcontinental Military Convoy across America, Eisenhower produced an essay
detailing his feelings about the trip. In this journal, of sorts, Eisenhower declared
that the pre-freeway network to be terrible for multiple reasons. Numerous trucks
and automobiles broke on the long journey, causing the journey to be extended for
more time. By opening his eyes to the perils of an awful road system, the
transcontinental motor convoy also indirectly had a major influence on American
society.
Eisenhower, Dwight David. Waging Peace: Dwight D. Eisenhower's Personal
Account. Garden City: Doubleday and Company, 1965. Print. The White
House Years.
As I stated before, President Eisenhower had many sources, many of which I
used. This primary source, Dwight D. Eisenhower's autobiography, this time
showed his life and experience as president. This autobiography also discussed
everything Eisenhower did as president and as the Allied Commander of WW2, in
addition to a chapter about the freeways. As shown by this novel, Eisenhower is
clearly someone to be respected for all the presidential decisions he made.
Gordon, Peter. "A Mass Transit to the Suburbs." New York Times [New York City]
27 Jan. 1988: n. pag. ProQuest. Web. 14 Oct. 2015.
<http://search.proquest.com/docview/398102367/139C75DF351213DFF00/2?
accountid=35516>.
This piece conducted a poll where most Americans believed that the interstate
freeway/highway system was the primary reason for the construction and growth
of suburbs. This piece has many interesting facts about the growth of the suburbs.
For example, I did not know what the popular opinion was of the highway system.
Would people like the highways? Would they despise the highways for breaking
up their homes?
Hayes, Paul G. 28 April 1966. “Critics of Freeway Receive Support.” Milwaukee
Journal, pg12. Microfilm Collection, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Archives. University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee.
UWM (University of Wisconsin Milwaukee) libraries have a microfilm archives,
which I used extensively. Malcom Whyte, a leader of protests against the
construction of the highways, believed that the government lied to the American
people about the construction of the highways. Many Americans would be
relocated due to the construction of the highways, and the government apparently
glossed over these facts.
Jordan, Robert Paul. "Our Growing Interstate Highway System." National
Geographic Feb. 1968: 194-219. Print.
This National Geographic piece allowed me to better comprehend the legacy of
the highways. I was able to get this print National Geographic from our school
library which has many old national geographic magazines. Some of the
information it included was the reasons for the freeways and the reasons why
some people despised the building of the freeways. It also talked about how it
split up neighborhoods, which helped me gain a better understanding of how it
separated citizens.
"Loss Caused By Traffic Congestion: It Is Major Problem Of Cities in U. S.,
Smith of Yale Says." Hartford Courant [Hartford] 17 June 1953, A8: n. pag.
ProQuest. Web. 22 Jan. 2016. <http://search.proquest.com/docview/
562292592/13BCA3229371D48AA66/24?accountid=285>.
Dwight Eisenhower stated that traffic congestion was one of the main reasons for
the building of the highways. This article helped me gain a better understanding of
that fact, as it was written before the Federal Aid Highway Act, and thus
complained about the amount of traffic congestion in the United States. The
article also told me the amount of automobiles in America, which was an
important figure for me.
Lueck, Thomas J. "New Ring of Suburbs Springs Up Around City." New York
Times [New York City] 29 Apr. 1986, A1: n. pag. ProQuest. Web. 6 Jan. 2016.
<http://search.proquest.com/docview/425825839/13BA46574933136CB07/1?a
ccountid=285>.
This piece discussed the rise of the suburbs in New York, as this magazine was
part of the New York Times, a very reputable source. I also utilized a quote from
this paper to emphasize the suburban growth in American cities.
Mead, Julia C. "Memories of Segregation in Levittown." New York Times [New
York City] 11 May 2003: n. pag. ProQuest. Web. 13 Jan. 2015.
<http://search.proquest.com/docview/432406658/13B96E584D8742BF64/1?ac
countid=285>.
I used many interviews that this article from the New York Times contained,
which allowed me greater insight into the segregation and racism that African
American families faced in white suburbs, which could only be inhabited by the
richest segments of the population. For example, after an African-American
family moved to Levittown, a suburban area, they were immediately kicked out
due to their race, which was also encouraged by the government.
"Midwest Holiday" - 1952 Road Trip Across America. YouTube. Google, n.d. Web. 2
Dec. 2015. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WW1mQb4BBf8>.
“Midwest Holiday”, a very old black and white movie, shows
characters traveling on roads throughout the Midwest. The interesting things is I
recognized many of the areas shown in the film, as many parts were filmed in
Wisconsin, particularly around the Lake Michigan and Wisconsin Dells Areas,
both of which, I know well. This film was created before the freeway system was
constructed, so I could clearly see how the roads were in bad conditions and very
cramped.
Miller, Loren. "Committee Against Housing Discrimination." Philadelphia. 12 Dec.
1958. Civil Rights in Pennsylvania. Historical Society of Pennsylvania, n.d.
Web. 7 Jan. 2016.
<http://173.203.96.155/sites/www.hsp.org/files/migrated/millerspeech.pdf>.
Similar to an article from the New York Times, this was a speech given to discuss
the violent actions that white citizens took after African-Americans moved to
Levittown, which is a suburban area near New York City. By clearly showing the
racism that numerous African-Americans faced in suburbs, it is quite safe to say
that the construction of the highways facilitated the segregation of the population.
"Milwaukee Fights State, Suburbs Over Segregation." Hartford Courant [Hartford]
22 Apr. 1987, A2C: n. pag. ProQuest. Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
<http://search.proquest.com/docview/1086385656/13B90E772E244CE1B59/5
?accountid=285>.
This Hartford Courant piece showed that the Milwaukee government declared that
the state governments and local suburban governments had increased segregation,
and whether unknowingly or knowingly, should be punished for it. As I live near
Milwaukee in a suburban area, I thought this article was very eye opening. I also
used a figure from this article about the amount of segregation that existed in
Milwaukee communities, due to the creation of the highways.
National and Interstate and Defense Highways Act of 1956. 1 USC. Print.
As this was the bill that created the freeway system, it was imperative that I read
this. It allocated billions of federal funding to the creation of the highways, and
told states to give the rest of the money. Since other highway acts did not give
federal funding, they were not as useful as the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956.
This bill has thus led to the creation of the interstate highways.
Photo of Urban New York City. Digital image. AHI: United States -Month in Review.
Affordablehousinginstitute.org, n.d. Web.
This photo which helps create appendix B clearly shows how in an urban
environment, neighbors would have much closer contact with each other, thus
leading to a greater amount of encounters and exchanges.
1950's Car Documentary - "Key To Our horizons." Prod. Jam Handy. Youtube.
Google, n.d. Web. 2 November. 2015. <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=YpBsilggoBo>.
This was a youtube film, which showed how the highways have helped the
American economy. Although not a principal focus of this paper, the highways
did have many positive results too. They created new types of business and
promoted the automobile industry, which in turn, led to millions of people
acquiring jobs. Although this is tempered by the fact that they also separated
millions of the people, it is important to look at both sides of any argument.
Rothberg, Donald M. "Nation's Cities Fight Decay in Mass Transit: Mass Transit
Biggest System Typifies Every City's Problems." Los Angeles Times [Los
Angeles] 7 Dec. 1972: 14. ProQuest. Web. 3 Jan. 2016.
<http://search.proquest.com/docview/157147611/13B90E380F64A60838F/3?a
ccountid=285>.
Due to the creation of the highways, mass transit rapidly declined all over
America. While the government tried to aid mass transit businesses, it was not
enough to overcome the power of the automobile. I also used a quote from this
article in my paper to emphasize the decline of mass transit due to automobiles
and the highways.
“Segment 2 and 3.” Video. 27 April 1966 . WTMJ-4 TV News Film Collection.
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Archives, Milwaukee. UWM Libraries. 13
November 2015.
The UWM (University of Wisconsin Milwaukee) libraries have great video
collections of old WTMJ-4 news segments. In this particular segment, I saw the
protests against highways in Milwaukee in a city council meeting. People said
that the government was not being fully honest into the negative aspects of the
highways. They were not covering the people who would lose their homes and
businesses, and be forced to look for jobs elsewhere. It showed that although the
government was trying their best to create the highway system, many people were
fighting just as hard to stop the construction of the highways, due to the mass
destruction it would cause to both communities and local economies.
“Segment 2.” Video. 23 June 1966. WTMJ-4 TV News Film Collection. University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee Archives, Milwaukee. UWM Libraries. 13 November
2015.
The UWM (University of Wisconsin Milwaukee) libraries have great video
collections of old WTMJ-4 news segments. In this particular segment, I saw that
the government wasn’t paying the owners of houses, which would be demolished
proper amounts of money, as just the fact that their houses would be destroyed,
lowered the value of their homes. This also led to an increase in crime in these
areas.
“Segment 5.” Video. 16 Feb 1966. WTMJ-4 TV News Film Collection. University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee Archives, Milwaukee. UWM Libraries. 13 November
2015.
The UWM (University of Wisconsin Milwaukee) libraries have great video
collections of old WTMJ-4 news segments. The most interesting part about this
part was the people were talking about areas that would be demolished for the
construction of the highways. I realized the place they were talking about was a
place I pass by quite often, and this really made me think about the impact of the
highways on the landscape.
“Segment 5.” Video. 19 May 1966. WTMJ-4 TV News Film Collection. University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee Archives, Milwaukee. UWM Libraries. 13 November
2015.
The UWM (University of Wisconsin Milwaukee) libraries have great video
collections of old WTMJ-4 news segments. This was also a very interesting
segment. I found that Milwaukee citizens desired an independent study performed
by researchers who were not affiliated with the government on the highways and
the destruction it would cause. However, the government did not follow this idea,
as it would have led to the stoppage of the highways. Thus, this segment showed
the opposition that many highways faced.
“Segment 6.” Video. 23 June 1966. WTMJ-4 TV News Film Collection. University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee Archives, Milwaukee. UWM Libraries. 13 November
2015.
The UWM (University of Wisconsin Milwaukee) libraries have great video
collections of old WTMJ-4 news segments. In this particular segment, I saw a
speech by leaders of West Allis. Similar to the Frontier Thesis of Frederick
Jackson Turner, he stated that their was no land available in the suburbs, as it had
already been taken up. This infuriated many people who wanted to move to the
suburbs, and leave the poor living conditions in the cities. However, no longer
would they be able to move to this particular area, as there was no more land
available.
“Segment 9.” Video. 16 Feb 1966. WTMJ-4 TV News Film Collection. University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee Archives, Milwaukee. UWM Libraries. 13 November
2015.
The UWM (University of Wisconsin Milwaukee) libraries have great video
collections of old WTMJ-4 news segments. This segment showed areas that were
marked for destruction due to the construction of the highways. Even in these
locations, people were still living and working, and these people would now lose
their homes and jobs.
Shipler, David K. "New Highways Shaping Future of City's Suburbs: New
Superhighways Shaping Future of City's Suburbs." New York Times [New
York City] 19 Aug. 1971: 1+. CultureGrams. Web. 12 Jan. 2016.
<http://search.proquest.com/docview/119207417/13B96F0959E70A2E4BE/4?
accountid=285>.
This newspaper piece from the New York Times showed how the highways had
now spread businesses and homes over a large area, thus making mass transit less
viable. Mass transit can only exist in places with high-density populations, and the
suburbs allowed for people to spread horizontally instead. It also somewhat
discussed the rise of suburban areas due to the highways.
"Streetsblog USA." 7 Photos Show How Detroit Hollowed Out During the Highway
Age. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Feb. 2016. <http://usa.streetsblog.org/2014/06/24/7-
photos-show-how-detroit-hollowed-out-during-the-highway-age/>.
A photo from this website was shown to emphasize the destruction cause by the
highways’ construction in Appendix B. This particular image is of a highway
being built in Detroit, Michigan.
Transportation History in the USA - "The American Road" - 1953 + 1970. Dir.
Raymond Massey. Youtube. Google, n.d. Web. 2 January. 2016.
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5FcuVtX_bXs>.
This documentary, made in 1953, about the state of the American road system
prior to the construction of the highways clearly expressed and enforced the need
for better road networks. Many people wanted to move away to the suburbs
because of the dirty, polluted cities, but this remained unviable as road systems
were poor. It would have been hard to commute to jobs in the city place, while
living in the suburbs, prior to the freeways. It also showed some of the road
systems, and the congestion and high accident rates that occurred due to the poor
road systems.
"U.S. Rail Aid Is Set For Intercity Lines: Compromise Railroad Plan Set for
Federal Aid to Intercity Lines." New York Times [New York] 29 Apr. 1970: n.
pag. ProQuest. Web. 13 Dec. 2015.
<http://search.proquest.com/docview/119014496/13B6287ED519862CC8/5?a
ccountid=285#>.
As the highways led to the decline of mass transit, one of the major mass transit
types being intercity railways, the government tried to bail out these companies
by giving them large amounts of money. However, even this was still
unsuccessful.
"Wider Roads For Traffic Relief: Necessity of Broad Motor Highways Widely
Recognized." New York Times [New York City] 22 Aug. 1926: n. pag.
ProQuest. Web. 22 Dec. 2015. <http://search.proquest.com/docview/
103724891/13BCA3B81B376DF1747/7?accountid=285>.
This extremely old newspaper piece showed that even one hundred years ago, far
before the interstate freeways, people had recognized the absolute need for more
efficient roads to improve traffic congestion and accident rates. Thus, although
people have wanted highways for many years, it remains a relatively recent
development in American history.
Williams Jr., Harrison A. "Transportation Ills In Urban Areas." Hartford Courant
[Hartford] 1 July 1960: 18. ProQuest. Web. 23 Dec. 2015.
<http://search.proquest.com/docview/551910179/13BA45544BA4515B719/1?
accountid=285>.
This piece from the Hartford Courant discusses the problems that mass transit
faced due to the growth of the automobile industry and suggested ways to
improve mass transit. However, mass transit, even with millions of dollars of
loans from the federal government still remained too weak to fight back against
the growth of the automobile industry, facilitated by the highways.
Secondary Sources:
"Activity One." The Henry Patterson Collection: Letters on Levittown. Historical
Society of Pennsylvania, n.d. Web. 16 Nov. 2015.
<http://173.203.96.155/node/2776>.
This website, which really served as an online archive, helped me with writing my
chapter on how highways split cities by racial factors. It provided me with even
more facts about Levittown, the racist suburb of New York, which kicked out
African American families. This archive contained many letters from both white
citizens and black families, pertaining to Levittown.
Badger, Emily. "How Railroads, Highways and Other Man-made Lines Racially
Divide America’s Cities." Washington Post. The Washington Post, 16 July
2015. Web. 12 Feb. 2016. <https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/
wp/2015/07/16/how-railroads-highways-and-other-man-made-lines-racially-
divide-americas-cities/>.
This newspaper article discussed how all transport systems, including railways
and highways, all increased segregation. This article from the Washington Post
also includes many maps and charts to show how communities were split by
"these man made lines" anuses statistics and figures to back up their claims. This
really shows how highways were specifically routed to either separate white
communities from black ones, or separate black communities from each other.
Baum-Snow, Nathaniel. "Did Highways Cause Suburbanization?" The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 122.2 (2007): 775-805. Print.
This scholarly journal article provided me with very factual information and
statistics about the growth of the suburbs and how the highways clearly correlated
with the growth of the suburbs. I used many of the statistics I gained from this
paper into my chapter on the suburbs.
Bessert, Christopher J. "Milwaukee Freeways: Park Freeway." Wisconsin
Highways.
N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2016. <http://www.wisconsinhighways.org/
milwaukee/park.html>.
This photo helped me visually see the destruction the highways’ construction
caused to the physical landscape. This photo from the air specifically was of a
part of a highway being built in Milwaukee. It is easy to see the destruction
caused by the highways to the neighboring areas.
"Changing Face of America." Map. Interstate Density Map. US Department of
Transportation, n.d. Web. 31 October. 2015.
<http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/densitymap.htm>.
This fantastic secondary source is a map that showed where the Department of
Transportation wanted to build highways and the houses and businesses that
would have to be purchased in order to do this. It also showed how the population
of America has grown around the location of the highways, showing a clear
correlation between locations of suburbs and locations of highways.
"City Life in the Late 19th Century." Rise of Industrial America, 1876-1900. Library
of Congress, n.d. Web. 7 Dec. 2015.
<http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/
presentations/timeline/riseind/city/>.
City life prior the construction of the highways was very polluted, smelly, and
frankly, disgusting. While public transportation could help somewhat with this
problem to spread cities horizontally away from these places, it did not do as
much to improve environmental lifestyle as the highways.
Connecting America: Making the Case for Intercity Rail. N.p.: American Public
Transportation Association, 2005. Reconnecting America. Web. 14 Dec. 2015.
<http://www.reconnectingamerica.org/assets/Uploads/gasfinnercityrail.pdf>.
This paper declared that the highways were responsible for the decline of mass
transit, in particular, inner city railways, and the federal government should have
done more to prevent the decline and loss of these businesses, which in turn led to
millions of people losing their jobs.
Cox, Wendell, and Jean Love. The Best Investment a Nation Ever Made: A Tribute to
The Dwight D. Eisenhower System of Interstate and Defense Highways.
Collingdale: Diane, 1996. Print.
This book is clearly biased towards the highways, showing only how the
highways positively influenced American life, such as by reducing commuting
time and accident rates. I felt it was important to consider both positive and
negative aspects of the highways.
Edey, Maitland A., ed. This Fabulous Century: 1950-1960. Illus. Robert G. Mason.
Vol. 6. N.p.: Time Life Books, 1970. Print. This Fabulous Century.
This encyclopedia about the 1950' has a chapter on suburbs where I found useful
facts for my paper, such as people moved to cities for less polluted air. As it is a
relatively old encyclopedia, it did not have up to date information, but it was
interesting to see different opinions on a timeless topic- the interstate highways
and its impact.
"FAQ's." Eisenhower Interstate Highway System FAQ's. US Department of
Transportation, n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2015.
<http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/faq.htm>.
This website supported and funded by the American Department of
Transportation has many interesting graphs, photos, and quotes about the
highway. This particular part of the website shows a chart that supports the idea
that the suburbanization of America was caused primarily and solely by the
highways, which in turn led to a rise in automobiles.
Grabkowski, Leonardo R. "Negative Effects of Urban Sprawl." San Fransisco
Chronicle: n. pag. Web. 28 Dec. 2015. <http://homeguides.sfgate.com/neative-
effects-urban-sprawl-1716.html>.
According to this piece from the San Francisco Chronicle, this unique perspective
on suburbs declared that suburbs were actually worse for the environment than
urban centers of cities. In addition, it commented on the splitting of the races due
to the highways.
Hampson, Rick. "In the Future, Living in the USA Will Be More
Neighborly." USATODAY.COM. USA Today, n.d. Web. 15 Feb. 2016.
<http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/story/2012-09-13/american-
city-living/57779436/1>.
This article has an interview with one of the founders of New Urbanism, a
movement revolving around the regroth of the urban areas instead of suburban
areas. The interviewee believes that the suburbs have less neighborly encounters
because the people are so spread out. When people live in the same apartment
they can much easier interact with each other. This happened very often in the
"olden times" when cities used to be the cultural centers of the country. this is
because they served as melting pots of different people, where different ideas
from different groups of people could be exchanged with each other.
"Homogenization, Protests & Outright Rebellion: 1950s: Highways to
Suburbanization." Picture This: California Perspectives on American History.
Oakland Museum of California, n.d. Web. 19 Oct. 2015.
<http://www.museumca.org/picturethis/timeline/homogenization-protests-
outright-rebellion-1950s/highways-suburbanization/info>.
This article believed that the splitting of the races was an unintended impact of the
highways and not meant by the architects of the act. Eisenhower, clearly, did not
design the highways to segregate cities, but it was simply an unfortunate aspect
that it caused due to the wealth disparity between the races.
Horizontal Growth of Cities. Environmental Spectrum Files. N.p., n.d. Web. 24
Jan. 2016. <http://www.laapush.org/environmentalspectrum_files/images/
000001ad.jpg>.
I used this photo from this to learn how cities first grew vertically due to
technological advancements, but then grew horizontally, as highways allowed
people to live far from their workplaces. This photo supports that idea.
"The Interstate Highway System." Topics. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2016.
<http://www.history.com/topics/interstate-highway-system>.
Although I primarily discuss the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, there were
bills before. However, they did not have proper methods to fund the construction
of the highways and were not useful. This website helped me learn more about the
road system prior the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956.
Jackson, Kenneth T. Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United
States. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987. Print.
This book allowed me to better comprehend the political decisions behind the
construction of the highway system, in particular the impact of Lucius D. Clay.
Eisenhower nominated Clay to set up a committee to learn about the need for a
national highway system. Since he was the chairman of General Motors, his
support for the highways was thus a foregone conclusion.
Lamb, Charles M. Housing Segregation in Suburban America since 1960:
Presidential and Judicial Politics. New York: Cambridge UP, 2005. Print.
This book primarily discusses the segregation of suburban American areas, where
whites are often separated from blacks and other minorities. People of these racial
groups were hardly ever allowed to stay in white suburbs, where only the richest
could move to. The book, written by a knowledgeable and reputed historian, also
draws connections between the segregated suburbs and the role the Interstate
highways system had in creating this separation of the racial inhabitants.
Marshall, Alex. How Cities Work: Suburbs, Sprawl, and the Roads Not Taken. 3rd ed.
N.p.: University of Texas Press, 2001. Print.
This novel declared that mass transportation systems are still vitally important to
the functioning of cities. However, they are not important now, as before.
Transportation really leads to the growth of cities and mass transportation can
lead to the vertical growth of cities internally. However, for external purposes, the
highways help grow cities horizontally.
Mohl, Raymond A. "Stop the Road: Freeway Revolts in American Cities." The
Interstate and the Cities: Highway, Housing, and the Freeway Revolt 30.5
(2004): 674-706. Print.
This scholarly journal article had many interesting facts and statistics about the
segregation caused by the highways. Many people opposed the building of the
highways leading to the stoppage of the construction of the highways. In addition,
local and state governments would sometimes re-route highways through minority
communities, instead of breaking apart white communities, a shocking example of
how racist intentions fostered the segregation of cities and suburbs.
Mohl, Raymond A. Urban Expressways and the Central Cities In Postwar America.
N.p.: Poverty and Race Research Action Council, 2002. Print.
This scholarly journal article, from an author who I used before, shows how the
rise of segregated cities was linked to the growth of the highways. The highways
were constructed specifically in minority neighborhoods, instead of through white
communities. In addition, whites could then move to the suburbs, because they
relatively on average had more money than minorities, allowing them to move the
suburbs which were expensive places to live.
Obrinksky, Mark. "Overcoming Opposition to Multifamily Rental Housing." Joint
Center for Housing Studies (2007): n. pag. Print.
This journal article, written by Harvard students, discusses the decline in
popularity of multi family housing, mostly popular in urban areas. People have
started to prefer single-family housing as it provides more space. However, the
author worries that this will also decrease neighborly contact in addition to
hurting urban areas.
Oliver, J. Eric. Democracy in Suburbia. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 2001. Print.
This book tried to form connections between the suburban residents and their lack
of neighborly contact. The author believed that the lack of neighborly contact in
the suburbs stemmed from the type of people who live in the suburbs, and the fact
that houses were far from each other, making communication harder.
Orfield, Gary, and Susan E. Eaton. Dismantling Desegregation: The Quiet Reversal
of Brown V. Board of Education. New York Cty: New Press, 1997. Print.
This book discusses the segregation of American cities. It also discusses how
even though society seemed to becoming more integrated through Supreme court
cases such as Brown V. Board of Education, in reality, society became more
separated leading to a decrease in encounters.
"An Overview of Suburbanization in the United States." NRB Suburbs Part 1.
National Park Service, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2015. <http://www.nps.gov/nr/
publications/bulletins/suburbs/part1.htm>.
This website shows how suburbs were first started by the inventions of the
streetcars. However, due to various financial and business mishaps, streetcar
companies went out of business. The automobile led to an even greater rise of
suburbanization, and the rise of the automobile was started by the rise of the
highways.
Pollard, Kelvin M., and William P. O'Hare. "America’s Racial and Ethnic
Minorities." Population Bulletin 54.3 (1999): n. pag. Print.
This website also discusses how even though society seemed to becoming more
integrated through various public government policies in reality, society became
more separated leading to a decrease in encounters. This website also contained
many interesting statistics and figures about the segregation of American cities.
"Quotations." The Quotable Interstate. Federal Highway Administration, n.d. Web.
15 Nov. 2015. <http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/quotable.htm>.
This website sponsored by the US Department of Transportation contains many
famous and inspiring quotes about the highway system. I used some of these
quotes in my paper to emphasize and highlight certain points.
Rawlings, Lynette, et al. "Race and Residence: Prospects for Stable Neighborhood
Integration." Urban Institute 3 (2004): 1-10. Print.
This scholarly journal article provided me with useful statistics about the
segregation that still exists in American cities today, which I utilized in my paper.
Rybczynski, Witold, and Peter D. Linneman. "How to Save Our Shrinking Cities."
The Public Interest (1999): n. pag. Print.
This book declares that cities initially grew vertically due to advancements such
as the elevator and air conditioning. However, after the invention of the streetcar
and primarily the highways and automobiles, cities began to grow horizontally
and spread homes and businesses over a greater area, leading to the rise of the
suburbs.
Singleton, Carl, ed. The Sixties in America. Comp. William Zimmerman. Illus.
Karrie Hyatt. Hackensack: Salem Press, 1990. Print.
This encyclopedia of the 1960’s shows the highway’s effect on public
transportation and shows how the rise of the automobile, facilitated by the
highways, led to the destruction of inner city railways and other forms of mass
transportation.
Sun, Lijun, Kay W. Axhausen, Der-Horng Lee, and Xianfeng Huang.
"Understanding Metropolitan Patterns of Daily Encounters." Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110.34 (2013):
13774-3779. Web.
This quantitive study showed a clear correlation between areas where there were a
high amount of public transportation users and the cultural knowledge/diffusion in
those areas. People who traveled on the buses were more likely to meet interesting
people from various fields and classes, which could in turn help one gain more
knowledge about other types of people.
Super, John C., ed. The Fifties in America. Vol. 2. Pasedena: Salem Press, 2005.
Print.
This book, similar to an encyclopedia, provided me with information on lifestyle
and society in the 1950’s. I could now very easily contrast society after the
construction of the highways and before, including the amount of segregation.
Clearly, highways had a large impact on the society of America.
Swift, Earl. The Big Roads: The Untold Story of the Engineers, Visionaries, and
Trailblazers Who Created the American Superhighways. 2nd ed. N.p.:
Mariner, 2012. Print.
This book discussed two important things: the role of the highways and how they
led to the growth of the suburbs and how they led to segregated cities. This book
also showed me how racist local governments would re-route highways through
minority communities, even if it meant a higher building cost.
"Telegram from Chicago businessman to the President." Primary Sources.
Smithsonian, n.d. Web. 2 Jan. 2016.
<http://www.smithsoniansource.org/display/primarysource/viewdetails.aspx?
PrimarySourceId=1143>.
This website had a primary source telegram which showed how people were
being relocated out of their homes and businesses in Chicago due to the
construction of the highways, as the highways cut straight through the heart of the
city. In addition, the author noted how the highways only cut through areas
inhabited by the poorest people, leading to the separation of people of different
races and social classes.
Vertical Growth of Cities. History. Fordham University, n.d. Web. 22 Jan. 2016.
<http://www.fordham.edu/images/academics/programs/honors_history/
ca10.jpg>.
This photo shows how cities used to grow vertically before the construction of the
highways. In addition, one can very easily see the cluttered roads, which would
have made fast and efficient car travel impossible. In addition, one can see how
people used to live in close proximities to each other, which would allow for
neighborly contact. In suburbs, neighbors are not in close contact with each other,
thus decreasing encounters.
Weingroff, Richard. "The Genie in the Bottle." The Genie in the Bottle. US
Department of Transportation, 7 Apr. 2011. Web. 12 Oct. 2015.
<http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/publicroads/00septoct/urban.cfm>.
This Richard Weingroff article gave me quotes about the highways, which helped
emphasize the importance of the construction of the highways and its importance.
Richard Weingroff is thought to be a leading historian on the highways and has
written numerous papers on the legacies of the highways.
Wilson, Helen F. "Passing Propinquities in the Multicultural City: The Everyday
Encounters of Bus Passengering." Environment and Planning A Environ Plan
A 43.3 (2011): 634-49. Web.
This fascinating article showed how the simple action of traveling on a bus can
teach the commuter many things. One meets many new people, and this stud used
advanced statistics and figures to show a correlation between how intercultural
relations are continuously developed through traveling on a bus. However, when
one stops traveling on buses, one also loses those intercultural relations.