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COMMUNICATION
2
What Is Communication?
• Communication
– The transfer and understanding of meaning.
• Transfer means the message was received in a form that can be interpreted
by the receiver.
• Understanding the message is not the same as the receiver agreeing with the
message.
– Interpersonal Communication
• Communication between two or more people
– Organizational Communication
• All the patterns, network, and systems of communications within an
organization
Four Functions of Communication
Functions of
Communication
Control Motivation
Emotional
Expression Information
Functions of Communication
• Control
– Formal and informal communications act to control
individuals’ behaviors in organizations.
• Motivation
– Communications clarify for employees what is to
done, how well they have done it, and what can be
done to improve performance.
Functions of Communication
(cont’d)
• Emotional Expression
– Social interaction in the form of work group
communications provides a way for employees to
express themselves.
• Information
– Individuals and work groups need information to
make decisions or to do their work.
Interpersonal Communication
• Message
– Source: sender’s intended meaning
• Encoding
– The message converted to symbolic form
• Channel
– The medium through which the message travels
• Decoding
– The receiver’s retranslation of the message
• Noise
– Disturbances that interfere with communications
Exhibit 11–1 The Interpersonal Communication Process
Distortions in Communications
• Message Encoding
– The effect of the skills, attitudes, and knowledge of the sender on the
process of encoding the message
– The social-cultural system of the sender
• The Message
– Symbols used to convey the message’s meaning
– The content of the message itself
– The choice of message format
– Noise interfering with the message
Distortions in Communications
(cont’d) • The Channel
– The sender’s choice of the appropriate channel or multiple channels for
conveying the message
• Receiver
– The effect of skills, attitudes, and knowledge of the receiver on the
process of decoding the message
– The social-cultural system of the receiver
• Feedback Loop
– Communication channel distortions affecting the return message from
receiver to sender
Interpersonal Communication
Methods • Face-to-face
• Telephone
• Group meetings
• Formal presentations
• Memos
• Traditional Mail
• Fax machines
• Employee publications
• Bulletin boards
• Audio- and videotapes
• Hotlines
• Computer conferencing
• Voice mail
• Teleconferences
• Videoconferences
Evaluating Communication
Methods
• Feedback
• Complexity capacity
• Breadth potential
• Confidentiality
• Encoding ease
• Decoding ease
• Time-space constraint
• Cost
• Interpersonal warmth
• Formality
• Scanability
• Time consumption
Exhibit 11–2 Comparison of Communication Methods
Note: Ratings are on a 1–5 scale where 1 = high and 5 = low. Consumption time refers to who controls the
reception of communication. S/R means the sender and receiver share control.
Interpersonal Communication
(cont’d) • Nonverbal Communication
– Communication that is transmitted without words.
• Sounds with specific meanings or warnings
• Images that control or encourage behaviors
• Situational behaviors that convey meanings
• Clothing and physical surroundings that imply status
– Body language: gestures, facial expressions, and other body movements
that convey meaning.
– Verbal intonation: emphasis that a speaker gives to certain words or
phrases that conveys meaning.
Interpersonal Communication Barriers
Defensiveness
National Culture Emotions
Information Overload
Interpersonal
Communication Language
Filtering
Barriers to Effective Interpersonal
Communication • Filtering
– The deliberate manipulation of information to make it appear
more favorable to the receiver.
• Emotions
– Disregarding rational and objective thinking processes and
substituting emotional judgments when interpreting messages.
• Information Overload
– Being confronted with a quantity of information that exceeds an
individual’s capacity to process it.
Barriers to Effective Interpersonal
Communication (cont’d) • Defensiveness
– When threatened, reacting in a way that reduces the ability to
achieve mutual understanding.
• Language
– The different meanings of and specialized ways (jargon) in
which senders use words can cause receivers to misinterpret
their messages.
• National Culture
– Culture influences the form, formality, openness, patterns and
use of information in communications.
Overcoming the Barriers to Effective
Interpersonal Communications
• Use Feedback
• Simplify Language
• Listen Actively
• Constrain Emotions
• Watch Nonverbal Cues
Exhibit 11–3 Active Listening Behaviors
Types of Organizational
Communication
• Formal Communication
– Communication that follows the official chain of command
or is part of the communication required to do one’s job.
• Informal Communication
– Communication that is not defined by the organization’s
hierarchy.
• Permits employees to satisfy their need for social interaction.
• Can improve an organization’s performance by creating faster and
more effective channels of communication.
Communication Flows
Lateral
Downwa r d
Upwa r d
Direction of Communication Flow
• Downward
– Communications that flow from managers to employees to
inform, direct, coordinate, and evaluate employees.
• Upward
– Communications that flow from employees up to managers
to keep them aware of employee needs and how things can
be improved to create a climate of trust and respect.
Direction of Communication Flow
(cont’d) • Lateral (Horizontal) Communication
– Communication that takes place among employees on
the same level in the organization to save time and
facilitate coordination.
• Diagonal Communication
– Communication that cuts across both work areas and
organizational levels in the interest of efficiency and
speed.
Types of Communication Networks
• Chain Network
• Communication flows according to the formal chain of
command, both upward and downward.
• Wheel Network
– All communication flows in and out through the group leader
(hub) to others in the group.
• All-Channel Network
– Communications flow freely among all members of the work
team.
Exhibit 11–4 Three Common Organizational Communication Networks and How They
Rate on Effectiveness Criteria
The Grapevine
• An informal organizational communication network
that is active in almost every organization.
– Provides a channel for issues not suitable for formal
communication channels.
– The impact of information passed along the grapevine can be
countered by open and honest communication with
employees.
PMI Project Communication
Management
27
Communications Management • This process is necessary to ensure timely and appropriate generation,
collection, dissemination, and storage of project information
29
Project stakeholder management
30
“Stakeholder management is critical to the
success of every project in every organization I
have ever worked with. By engaging the right
people in the right way in your project, you can
make a big difference to its success....”
- In its’ original use, Stakeholder would infer a person or group of persons having a stake or
share in something, predominantly, in the past, a financial stake or share
- In modern terms, particularly in the field of project management, this extends beyond purely
financial stakes and considers a wider remit of individuals and/or organisations having an
interest in the success of an organisation, association, partnership or project
- Stakeholders can be both internal (manager, employee, shareholder) and external
(government, community, investor, general public)
“Stakeholders are affected either directly or indirectly by the activities and achievements of an
organisation, association, partnership or project”
What is a Stakeholder?
- In the past, organisations often adopted a passive approach to informing Stakeholders of
recent developments, relying upon traditional communication methods such as newsletters,
printed publications and annual (general) meetings and frequently adopting a one-way
communication strategy
- Increasingly, organisations choose to more actively involve Stakeholders in the decision-
making process, particularly with regard to new developments or in relation to change
management, with the aim of encouraging and hopefully ensuring wider, more positive
acceptance of the project outcomes or results
“traditional, passive approaches to informing Stakeholders of decisions made,
need to make way for modern incorporative approaches”
Why Manage Stakeholders?
34
Relationship between stakeholders and project
“involve Stakeholders at all stages of your project”
When to Involve Stakeholders
Identification / Idea
… confirm needs with
Stakeholders
Design / Creation
… involve Stakeholders in
proposing relevant solutions
Implementation
… involve and inform
Stakeholders throughout
(research, testing, review)
Integration
… project success can be measured
through acceptance & active take-up of
results by Stakeholders
Stakeholder Analysis
• It is the technique used to identify the key
people who have to be won over.
• You then use Stakeholder Planning to build the
support that helps you succeed
Steps in Stakeholder Analysis..
• Identifying your stakeholders.
• Prioritizing your stakeholders
• Understanding your key stakeholders
After you created a stakeholder map, you can use the
stakeholder planning tool to plan
how you will communicate with each stakeholder.
Identifying your stakeholders
• The first step in your stakeholder analysis is to brainstorm who
your stakeholders are. As part of this, think of all the people who
are affected by your work, who have influence or power over it, or
have an interest in its successful or unsuccessful conclusion.
• For example:
– Project Owner
– Users
– Financial Controllers
– Project champion
“Stakeholders can be organisational, financial, sectoral, public or private”
MANAGEMENT
SENIOR EXECUTIVES;
SHAREHOLDERS
ORGANISATIONAL
EMPLOYEES;
COLLEAGUES
EDUCATIONAL
TEACHERS/TRAINERS;
STUDENTS/TRAINEES
COMMUNITY
REGION AUTHORITIES;
CCOMMUNITY BODIES
NATIONAL
GOVERNMENT;
POLITICIANS
FRONTLINE
CUSTOMERS;
CONTRACTORS
Stakeholder Map
SECTORAL
SECTOR ASSOCIATION;
IDUSTRY BODY
FINANCIAL
INVESTORS;
LENDERS
PROJECT
+++ positive
influence
--- negative
influence
• You may now have a long list of people and
organizations that are affected by your work.
Some of these may have the power either to
block or advance it. Some may be interested in
what you are doing, others may not care.
• Map out your stakeholders on a Power/Interest
Grid and classify them by their power over your
work and by their interest in your work.
Prioritize your stakeholders
• High power, interested people: these are the people you must fully engage with, and make the greatest efforts to satisfy.
• High power, less interested people: put enough work in with these people to keep them satisfied, but not so much that they become bored with your message.
• Low power, interested people: keep these people adequately informed, and talk to them to ensure that no major issues are arising. These people can often be very helpful with the detail of your project.
• Low power, less interested people: again, monitor these people, but do not bore them with excessive communication.
• You now need to know more about your key
stakeholders. You need to know how they are
likely to feel about and react to your project.
You also need to know how best to engage
them in your project and how best to
communicate with them.
Understanding your stakeholders
• What financial or emotional interest do they have in the outcome of your work? Is it positive or
negative?
• What motivates them most of all?
• What information do they want from you?
• How do they want to receive information from you? What is the best way of communicating your
message to them?
• What is their current opinion of your work? Is it based on good information?
• Who influences their opinions generally, and who influences their opinion of you? Do some of these
influencers therefore become important stakeholders in their own right?
• If they are not likely to be positive, what will win them around to support your project?
• If you don't think you will be able to win them around, how will you manage their opposition?
• Who else might be influenced by their opinions? Do these people become stakeholders in their own
right?
Key Questions?
• A very good way of answering these questions
is to talk to your stakeholders directly - people
are often quite open about their views, and
asking people's opinions is often the first step in
building a successful relationship with them.
Stakeholder Communication Worksheet
Name of
Stakeholder
Name of
Contact
Stakeholder
Type
Influence
Level
Interest
Level
Support
Level
Required
Action
Ministry of Labour A. Smith Government Medium Medium Orange MONITOR
(minimal effort)
Orientra Paul
Guest Sector Low High Red KEEP INFORMED
European
Commission
A. N.
Other Contractor High Medium Green
KEEP SATISFIED and
BUILD INTEREST
… … … … … … …
Use detail from Stakeholder
Mapping exercise
Use detail from Interest &
Influence Chart
Positive, Negative or
Neutral stance?
Project Reporting
47
Χαρακτηριστικά Αναφορών
• Τις αναφορές τις ζητάει κάποιος ανώτερος
• Αν ήταν δυνατόν δεν θα τις δίναμε
• Οι αναφορές είναι οργανωμένες και μεθοδικές
• Οι αναφορές δίνουν έμφαση στην παρουσίαση των
γεγονότων και όχι των υποκειμενικών απόψεων
• Οι αναφορές προετοιμάζονται για ένα συγκεκριμένο κοινό
που συνήθως γνωρίζει το θέμα
Τι είναι αναφορά;
• Μια αναφορά είναι ένα οργανωμένο μήνυμα
από μια οργάνωση σε μια άλλη οργάνωση με
σκοπό την μεταφορά πληροφορίας που
απαιτείτε για την καλύτερη πληροφόρηση,
οργάνωση της εργασίας, ή την επίλυση
προβλημάτων.
Ροή αναφορών προς ανώτερα στρώματα
ΜΕΤΟΧΟΙ
ΑΝΑΦΟΡΑ
ΔΙΟΙΚΗΤΙΚΟ ΣΥΜΒΟΥΛΙΟ
ΔΙΕΥΘΥΝΩΝ ΣΥΜΒΟΥΛΟΣ
ΑΝΑΦΟΡΑ
ΑΝΑΦΟΡΑ ΑΝΑΦΟΡΑ ΑΝΑΦΟΡΑ
ΕΠΙΧΕΙΡΗΜΑΤΙΚΕΣ ΛΕΙΤΟΥΡΓΙΕΣ
ΠΟΛΙΤΙΚΗ ΕΤΑΙΡΕΙΑΣ
ΑΠΟΦΑΣΕΙΣ
ΛΕΙΤΟΥΡΓΙΑ
Είδη αναφορών
• Επίσημες – ανεπίσημες
• Σύντομες – μακροσκελείς
• Πληροφοριακές – Αναλυτικές
• Κατακόρυφες – Πλάγιες
• Εσωτερικές – Εξωτερικές
• Περιοδικές – μη περιοδικές
• Λειτουργικές (αγοράς, πωλήσεων παραγωγής κλπ.)
Το ύφος της αναφοράς
• Αποφύγετε τους συναισθηματισμούς
• Εξηγείστε τις παραδοχές σας
• Χρησιμοποιείτε βιβλιογραφικές αναφορές
• Αναφέρεται ξεκάθαρα γνώμες άλλων
• Αποφύγετε τη χρήση του πρώτου προσώπου (Εγώ, εμείς)
• Χρησιμοποιείτε συγκεκριμένες περιγραφές αντί για αόριστες
• Χρησιμοποιείτε τον ίδιο χρόνο συνεχώς
• Χρησιμοποιείτε πίνακες και αρίθμηση
• Χρησιμοποιείτε την σωστή ορολογία. Για κάθε όρο που χρησιμοποιείτε
δώστε ένα ορισμό
•
Μέρη της αναφοράς
• Εξώφυλλο
• Στοιχεία Εγγράφου
• Ιστορία του Εγγράφου
• Πίνακας Περιεχομένων
• Πίνακας Εικόνων
• Πίνακας Πινάκων
• Κυρίως θέμα
• Βιβλιογραφία
• Παραρτήματα
• Ευρετήριο
Τεχνικά στοιχεία
• Επικεφαλίδες
• Αναφορές
• Χρήση Στυλ
• Χρήση Λεζάντας
• Χρήση ακρώνυμων και συντομέυσεων
• Εισαγωγή βιβλιογραφίας
Γενικοί κανόνες
• Standard font (γραμματοσειρά)
• Tables captions
• Figure captions
• Cross references
Εξώφυλλο
• Λογότυπο πελάτη και αναδόχου
• Το όνομα του έργου
• Το είδος του εγγράφου
• Ημερομηνία ή ένδειξη του γεγονότος
• ‘Πρόχειρο’ όσο δεν έχει εγκριθεί ακόμη από τον πελάτη
• Εμπιστευτικότητα και ασφάλεια αν υπάρχουν
• Ο αριθμός του συμβολαίου
Επικεφαλίδα, υποσέλιδο
• Η επικεφαλίδα περιλαμβάνει
– Τον τίτλο
– Τον τίτλο του section
– ΣΕΛΙΔΑ X ΑΠΟ Y
– Το όνομα του αρχείου
ΤΙΤΛΟΣ ΕΓΓΡΑΦΟΥ Σελίδα 112 από 145
Header ή Heading XYZ-PMP-V1.00-EN.DOC
Στοιχεία εγγράφου
• Συγγραφέας : Κ. Κωστόπουλος
• Ελεγκτής : Π. Πανόπουλος
• Τίτλος: Πρακτικά Σύσκεψης Έργου #18
• Κωδικός εγγράφου: XYZ-MOM-PM18-V1.00-EN.doc
• Έκδοση: 1.00
• Κατάσταση Εγγράφου: Τελική
• Ημερομηνία έκδοσης: 19η Δεκεμβρίου 2002
• Εκδότης: ABC S.A.
• Έγκριση Υπευθύνου Ποιοτικής Διασφάλισης
• Όνομα: Κ. Μανόπουλος Ημ/νία: 17/01/2003
Ιστορία Εκδόσεων Εγγράφου
Έκδοση Ημ/νία Περιγραφή Ενέργεια Σελίδες
0 10 07/01/2003 Δημιουργία. Ε Όλες
1 00 17/01/2003 Κατατέθηκε για τελική έγκριση Α 5
(*) Ενέργεια: Ε = Εισαγωγή Α= Αντικατάσταση
Ονοματολογία αρχείων
<ΌΝΟΜΑ ΕΡΓΟΥ>-<ΕΙΔΟΣ ΕΓΓΡΑΦΟΥ>-<ΠΡΟΣΔΙΟΡΙΣΜΟΣ ΕΓΓΡΑΦΟΥ>- V<ΕΚΔΟΣΗ.ΑΝΑΘΕΩΡΗΣΗ>
Κύκλος έγκρισης εγγράφων
ΣΥΓΓΡΑΦΗ ΕΛΕΓΧΟΣ
Τ0
ΕΡΓΟΛΑΒΟΣ ΠΕΛΑΤΗΣ
ΑΞΙΟΛΟΓΗΣΗ ΤΟΥ ΣΧΟΛΙΑΣΜΟΥ
Τ1 ΕΛΕΓΧΟΣ
ΕΓΓΡΑΦΟ ΧΥΖ-PMP-V0.10 ΥΠΟΒΑΛΛΕΤΑΙ ΓΙΑ ΕΛΕΓΧΟ
ΣΧΟΛΙΑ ΠΑΡΑΤΗΡΗΣΕΙΣ ΕΠΙ ΤΩΝ ΣΧΟΛΙΩΝ
ΥΛΟΠΟΙΗΣΗ ΣΧΟΛΙΑΣΜΟΥ
Τ3
ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ
ΕΛΕΓΧΟΣ Τ4 ΕΓΓΡΑΦΟ ΧΥΖ-PMP-V1.00
ΥΠΟΒΑΛΛΕΤΑΙ ΓΙΑ ΑΠΟΔΟΧΗ
ΕΠΙΣΗΜΟ ΕΓΓΡΑΦΟ
Συσκέψεις
• Είδη συσκέψεων
– Τεχνικές
– Διοικητικές
• Τεχνικές που χρησιμοποιούνται στις συσκέψεις
– Brainstorming
– Creative thinking
– Delphi
– Τεχνικές διαπραγματεύσεων
• Έγγραφα συσκέψεων
– Agenda
– Πρακτικά
Διοικητική επιτροπή του έργου
(Steering Committee)
• Έγκριση των παραδοτέων
• Αξιολόγηση της απόδοσης του έργου
• Διαχείριση κινδύνου
• Εξασφαλίζει τους απαραίτητους πόρους
• Παίρνει αποφάσεις και θέτει προτεραιότητες
• Δίνει λύσει σε προβλήματα και σε συγκρουόμενα συμφέροντα
• Συζητάει θέματα της δουλειάς
• Εγκρίνει τις αλλαγές
• Ελέγχει την πρόοδο του έργου
• Προωθεί και διαφημίζει το έργο
Τεχνική επιτροπή του έργου
• Αξιολογεί και αποδέχεται τα παραδοτέα
• Αξιολογεί και αποφασίζει πάνω στα καθημερινά θέματα του έργου
• Προγραμματίζει την δουλειά και εγκρίνει τα περιεχόμενα των παραδόσεων
• Αξιολογεί και αποφασίζει πάνω σε τεχνικά θέματα
• Συζητά και εγκρίνει το Πλάνο Διαχείρισης του έργου
• Αξιολογεί την απόδοση του έργου
• Προσδιορίζει κινδύνους και προτείνει τρόπους για την αντιμετώπισή τους
• Διαφημίζει το έργο
• Προτείνει θέματα στην Διοικητική επιτροπή του έργου προς επίλυση
Chaired by Project
Manager
WORK PACKAGES (WP)
Scientific Committee
Project Co-ordination Board
Technical Committee
ACTIVITY STRANDS (AS)
ACTIVITY CLUSTERS
AS1 Architectural framework
AS3 People
AS4 Prototypes
AS2 Tools
Soft ware
Hard ware
Project managmt
Dissemination
exploitation
AS5
Co-ordination
Activity Steering Groups
WP Leaders
Chaired by Technical Manager
Chaired by Project
Coordinator
Advisory Boards
Financial Administration
Legal issues & IPR management
Dissemination & public relations
Reporting, deliverables
Project Partners
Project Management
Office Exploitation
Quality managt and control
Training
Διαγράμματα για έργα/1
• Pert, CPM
• Gantt
• Ημερολόγια
• Γραμμή χρόνου
• Οργανογράμματα
• WBS
Διαγράμματα για έργα/2 Gantt
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Sep Oct Nov Dec
Functional
Specifications
2002
Technical
Specifications Design
Aug
Implementation
Διαγράμματα για έργα/3 Ημερολόγια
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26
27 28 29 30 31
JUNE 2000
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Παράδοση
Παραδοτέο
ΤΕΙ-ΤΕΕ-01
Complete assignment by 5:00 p.m. on Friday
Παράδοση
Παραδοτέο
ΤΕΙ-ΤΕΕ-02
Σύσκεψη με θέμα
την πρόδο εργασιών
Διαγράμματα για έργα/4 Γραμμή χρόνου
9/1/99 1/1/00
10/1 11/1 12/1
9/10
Web Site
Kick-off
Meeting
9/18 - 10/20
Web Site Under Development
10/23
Web Mockup 1 Presented
11/1
Review Comments
Due to Agency
11/20
Web Mockup 2 Presented
11/24
First Review
11/26 - 12/14
Design Revisions
12/20
Final Review
12/29
Launch!
Διαγράμματα για έργα/5 Οργανόγραμμα
Κατερίνα Γρηγοράκου
Ιδιοκτήτρια
Μαρία Αθανασιάδου
Υπεύθυνη πωλήσεων
Μιχάλης Ξανθούλης
Βοηθός Καθηγητές κηπουρικής
Προσωπικό γραφείων Προσωπικό πωλήσεων Μαθητές
Διαγράμματα για έργα/6
WBS
Κατασκευή οικίας1.0.0
Οικοδομικά1.1.0
Υδραυλικά1.2.0
Ηλεκτρολογικά1.3.0
Θεμέλια1.1.1
Τοίχοι /Οροφή1.1.2
Σωλήνες1.2.1
Αποχέτευση1.2.2
Καλωδιώσεις1.3.1
Κατασκευή οικίας1.0.0
Οικοδομικά1.1.0
Υδραυλικά1.2.0
Ηλεκτρολογικά1.3.0
Θεμέλια1.1.1
Τοίχοι /Οροφή1.1.2
Σωλήνες1.2.1
Αποχέτευση1.2.2
Καλωδιώσεις1.3.1
Thank you!