Post on 31-Jul-2020
Husbandry Guidelines for
TASMANIAN DEVIL Sarcophilus harrisii
Third Edition
© DPIPWE/ZAA Husbandry Guidelines for Tasmanian Devil 2013 2
Edited by Carolyn Hogg, ZAA and Jocelyn Hockley, DPIPWE
© DPIPWE/ZAA 2013
For enquiries please contact:
Zoo and Aquarium Association
PO Box 20
Mosman NSW 2088
Australia
admin@zooaqaurium.org.au
Citation: Hogg, C.J. and Hockley, J. (eds). 2013. DPIPWE/ZAA Husbandry Guidelines
for Tasmanian Devil, Sarcophilus harrisii, 3rd
Edition. Zoo and Aquarium Association,
Australia
Cover Photo Credit: Androo Kelly, Trowunna Wildlife Park, Tasmania.
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Table of Contents
1 PREFACE ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... 4
2 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Taxonomy ................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Conservation Status ..................................................................................................... 5
3 IDENTIFICATION METHOD ............................................................................................ 6
4 NATURAL HISTORY ........................................................................................................ 7
4.1 Weights and measurements .......................................................................................... 7
4.2 Body Condition Index .................................................................................................. 8
4.3 Distribution and habitat ................................................................................................ 9
4.4 Social structure ............................................................................................................ 9
4.5 Feeding behaviour ....................................................................................................... 9
4.6 Reproduction ............................................................................................................. 10
4.7 Threats in the wild ..................................................................................................... 11
5 CAPTIVE HUSBANDRY ................................................................................................. 13
5.1 Housing/Environment Guidelines............................................................................... 13
5.2 Health Care Standards ................................................................................................ 17
5.3 Behavioural Notes ..................................................................................................... 27
5.4 Feeding Standards ...................................................................................................... 29
5.5 Breeding Requirements .............................................................................................. 31
5.6 Incubation/rearing young ........................................................................................... 32
5.7 Transport Requirements ............................................................................................. 37
6 RECORD KEEPING ......................................................................................................... 39
6.1 Individual records ...................................................................................................... 39
6.2 End of breeding season reports ................................................................................... 40
7 References ......................................................................................................................... 41
8 Appendices ........................................................................................................................ 42
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1 PREFACE
These guidelines are targeted to animals held in intensive and semi-intensive situations.
Separate guidelines are being developed for free range approaches. Those facilities
already built under their existing State/Territory Regulatory Authority requirements are
exempt from these guidelines. It is recognised by both the Zoo and Aquarium Association
and the Tasmanian DPIPWE that there are differences in relation to regulatory
requirements within Australia.
1.1 Acknowledgements
The first edition of these guidelines was developed in 2006 for the Tasmanian devil
insurance population by A. Kelly and C. Lees. The second edition was produced in 2011
by A. Kelly, J. Hockley and D. Schaap. This third edition was revised in April 2013 at a
Husbandry Workshop at Healesville Sanctuary attended by C. Hibbard, A. Kelly, J.
Hockley, C. Srb, K. Starr, and T. Eastley, with contribution from T. Faulkner. The
veterinary section was revised by S. Peck, D. McLelland, F. Scheelings, B. Bryant, and
A. Reiss.
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2 INTRODUCTION
Tasmanian Devils were once widespread over Australia, but are now found wild only in
Tasmania. They are the largest living marsupial carnivore, about as large as a
small/medium-sized, robustly built dog. They are black all over with white marks,
usually on the chest but sometimes on the rump as well. The males grow to an average of
8kg, and the females to an average of 6kg (Guiler, 1983). The head and body length is
approximately 63cm for a male, and 57cm for a female.
The name Sarcophilus harrisii means “Harris’ Flesh-lover”, as their diet consists of
opportunistically predated fresh meat and carrion. They were one of the first mammals
observed by the earliest settlers in Van Dieman’s Land and were described by Lieutenant
George Harris, the first general surveyor for the Van Dieman’s colony. Their forbidding
expression and black colour earned for them the rather severe popular name of “Devil” or
“Native Devil” (Troughton 1973). Despite the name, appearance and reputation, the
Tasmanian devil is a rather shy creature, which is more skilled at finding animal
carcasses than killing for itself.
The Save the Tasmanian Devil Program (STDP) is operated under auspices of
Tasmania’s Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Wildlife and Environment
(DPIPWE) with Devils being held on loan from DPIPWE. Species management is
provided by ZAA’s Australasian Species Management Program (ASMP), with Dr
Carolyn Hogg (ZAA) as Species Coordinator and Carla Srb (Healesville Sanctuary) as
Studbook Keeper. The ASMP Program provides for management of a captive population
that acts as an Insurance population, is disease-free, preserve natural behaviours and
genetic variation and may be source of individuals for release. Participation in the
program is subject to various agreements. These Husbandry Guidelines should be read in
conjunction with the MoU, and for those zoos not in Australia, the Australian Department
of the Environment Ambassador Agreement. Further information on the Save the Devil
Project may be found at Save the Tasmanian Devil.
2.1 Taxonomy
Class: Mammalia
Order: Dasyuromorphia
Family: Dasyuridae
Genus: Sarcophilus
Species: harrisii
2.2 Conservation Status
Until recently the Tasmanian devil was considered a common and abundant species. The
recent occurrence of DFTD has lead to re-listing of the devil. In May 2009, the
Australian Government changed the listing for the Tasmanian devil from “Vulnerable” to
“Endangered” under national environmental law.
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Tasmania’s Threatened Species Act 1995 has also listed the devil as “Endangered” since
May 2008. The Tasmanian devil is also listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
3 IDENTIFICATION METHOD
The most common method of identification for Tasmanian devils is the implanted
microchip. ZAA supports the global standard, which requires use of an ISO compliant
transponder system. Juvenile devils should be micro-chipped at their first veterinary
check. Inserted between the scapulae, the small implant must be inserted carefully as they
can track out along the injection site. A compatible reader/scanner is needed to ‘scan’ the
implant. Readers only work at close range, so the keeper will need to be in close
proximity to the devil for it to be effective.
Tasmanian devils can be distinguished by the white markings on the fur near their chest
and/or rump. Care should be taken not to use this method as the primary means of
identification due to the risk of mistakes being made.
NB: Ear tags must not be used as they can be easily ripped out by cage mates.
Minimum Guideline 1 - Identification
• All individuals must be individually identified no later than 3 months after
weaning or within 30 days of arrival at an institution by the implantation of
microchip/transponder (ISO compliant) inserted between the scapulae by a
trained person
• All microchip/transponder information must be provided to the studbook
keeper as soon as possible after implantation
• Ear tags, ear notching and tattoos must not be used.
Note: this guideline must be read in conjunction with Minimum Guideline 11 -
Record Keeping.
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4 NATURAL HISTORY
The Tasmanian devil was widespread over the whole of Australia, but it is generally
accepted that the introduction of the Dingo around 3,500 years ago quickly resulted in its
extinction on the mainland through competition. It is now only found in the island State
of Tasmania. Tasmania was isolated from the mainland at the end of the last ice age,
around 12,000 years ago, which has meant that dingoes have never pressured its fauna
(Strahan 1995).
The wild population of Tasmanian devils is currently threatened by Devil Facial Tumour
Disease (DFTD), which is understood to be contributing to large declines in adult devil
numbers in areas of high density (Jones, 2008). DFTD was first observed in the State’s
north-east in 1996. It is a contagious cancer that is believed to be spread between
individuals through biting. The foreign cells of the tumour are not rejected by the
individual’s immune system; it is thought this may be as a result of a lack of genetic
diversity among Tasmanian devils. As at February 2010, the Tasmanian devil population
has decreased by approximately 80%. DFTD has been recorded across more than 60% of
the state, spreading between seven to 20km westerly per year (depending on the habitat).
To date, there has not been any evidence of DFTD found in the far north-west of
Tasmania although the disease front is known to be moving in that direction.
4.1 Weights and measurements
Please note that all these measurements are based on adult animals - 3 years plus.
Mass and basic body measurements (Guiler, 1983)
Female Head to Body Length: 57cm
Female Tail Length: 24cm
Male Head to Body Length: 63-65cm
Male Tail Length: 26cm
Height to Shoulders: around 30cm
Male Weight: 8 kg
Female Weight: 6 kg
A devil takes 3-4 years to reach full adult maturity and the following age table can be
used as a guide to healthy weights in captive devils (A. Kelly, pers. comm.):
Age Females Males
1 3.5 - 4.5kg 4.5 – 6.5kg
2 5 – 6 kg 6 – 8.5 kg
3 5 – 7kg 8 – 9.5 kg
4 6 – 8 kg 8.5 - 11.5 kg
5 6 - 8 kg 8.5 - 11.5 kg
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6years and older - Some devils then maintain or lose weight herein or gain some weight
depending on their somatotype/body type from 6 years of age through until death
These age/weight range give a good general health norm. Of course the odd 12plus kg
male or a 9kg female, overweight, may turn up.
4.2 Body Condition Index
A system of scoring has been designed to assess and document a Devil’s Body Condition.
Body condition may be interpreted as the distribution and amount of subcutaneous fat
and muscle tone. The age, disease presentation or breeding status of the animal is not
considered – this is simply an evaluation of body condition. In this way all animals in a
population are graded according to an uncomplicated system of observation and
palpation.
A Devil’s condition can be scored by assigning a number from 1 (emaciated) to 5
(obese).
Condition
Score
Neck Shoulder,
forearms
Rib, back Pelvis,
hindlimbs
1
emaciated
Negligible fat
and muscle
present.
Cervical
vertebrae
palpable.
Jugular furrow
visible on
extension of
neck.
Scapular
prominent.
Muscle wastage
from scapular >
scapular spine
visible or
palpable as a
sharp edge.
Forearms –
muscle wastage
and thin.
Individual ribs
easily visible.
Skin furrows
between ribs.
Lumbar spinous
processes easily
visible.
Ischial
tuberosity (pin
bone) and peri-
pubic bone very
prominent –
jutting out.
Advanced
muscle wastage
from thigh.
Knee prominent.
2
moderately
thin
Muscle and fat
present.
Discernible
indentation
from shoulder
to neck
Muscle palpable
on scapular >
scapular spine
just palpable
Ribs easily
palpated, last 3
may just visible
if coat thinning.
Hollowing of
abdomen after
final rib.
Peri-pubic bone
prominent but
with fleshy
covering.
Adequate thigh
musculature.
3
average
Neck well
covered,
contour
tapering from
shoulders
Difficult to
palpate scapular
spine.
Ribs covered
with tissue, final
3 easily palpated.
Minimal ‘step
down’ from ribs
to abdomen.
Peri-pubic bone
well covered
and obvious.
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4
good
Neck thick and
well muscled,
blends into
head and
shoulder
region
Forearms and
shoulders well
muscled.
Cranial ribs
challenging to
palpate. Caudal
ribs palpable
through thick
layer of tissue.
Barely
discernible step
down from ribs
to abdomen.
Peri-pubic bone
visible as two
peaks in the
pubic area
5
obese
As above.
Roll of flesh at
base of neck
sitting against
shoulder.
As above Difficult to
palpate all ribs.
Loose abdominal
tissue > gives
‘pan-cake’
appearance if laid
on back.
Roll of fat above
base of tail.
4.3 Distribution and habitat
Wild Tasmanian devils are found only on the island of Tasmania. Devils are adaptable
animals and can live from coastal habitats into sub-alpine and alpine environments.
Preferred habitat includes open woodland and dry sclerophyll forest (Holzapfel et al.,
2008).
4.4 Social structure
In the wild, the Tasmanian devil is normally solitary but not territorial. Each individual
occupies a home range of 8 – 20 km² that may overlap extensively with others (Strahan
1995). Wide arrays of vocalisations from snorts, barks and chuffs, to monotone growlings
that develop into blood-curdling screeches are common during these interactions, which
generally result in the establishment of a stable dominance and then a progressive decline
in the frequency of aggressive interactions due to the lower-ranking animal’s reluctance
to challenge the superior animal. Gaping and superficial biting around the face and nape,
also help to assert dominance and establish hierarchy. Communication by scent and smell
is also important (Strahan 1995) and both wild and captive devils are often seen dragging
their cloaca on the ground or using faeces as ‘noticeboards’ of information on individual
movements, diets and reproductive status (Strahan 1995).
4.5 Feeding behaviour
They are intra-specific kelepto-parasites (regularly steal from their own species) and will
often approach another devil within their overlapping home ranges to interact and
dismember carcasses. This interaction allows devils not only to eat small prey but
effectively dismember large mammalian prey. Group feeding frenzies are common with
the discovery of large carcasses. Tolerance of others during feeding time is customary,
although this gives rise to much squabbling, jaw champing, shouldering, chasing and
teeth displaying, also known as gaping. Physical contact is usually avoided, however
substantial bites may be sustained during these times and it is not uncommon for older
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animals to be quite scarred. There have been anecdotal reports of tolerance towards inter-
specific feeding habits, sharing carcasses with Dasyurus viverrinus and Dasyurus
maculatus. (pers. comm. A. Kelly 2013).
4.6 Reproduction
4.6.1 Females
The onset of oestrus in females is usually indicated by the development of a retained fluid
roll on the nape of the neck. Behaviours include increasing lethargy and disinterest in
food and a promotion of nesting behaviour. Avoidance behaviour, hiding or running
away from keepers and enclosure mates is also apparent.
4.6.2 Males
Males may have increased aggression at this time of year. Some increased activity levels
in both sexes has been noted (D.Schaap pers comm.) as the female approaches oestrous.
Presumably this would be as a result of wild behaviour i.e. females approaching oestrous
would spread scent over a broad area and males would respond.
4.6.3 Mating system
The mating system of Tasmanian Devils is complex. Devils are polyoestrus as well as
super foetal thus differing greatly from other marsupials. During peak oestrus a female
may mate with several males who may all father some of the offspring in a litter. It is the
female who solicits her mate and the success of copulation depends on the reproductive
experience of the male.
4.6.4 Age at first and last breeding
Tasmanian Devils do not usually breed till their second year; however successful
breeding of one year-old females has been recorded. Most females breed two out of three
years and up to 5 years of age.
The statistics show that if a female is not bred in the first 2 years (i.e. at 2 and 3 years of
age) then the success rate for her breeding in subsequent years is greatly reduced.
4.6.5 Timing of breeding
A female usually starts her oestrus cycle during the second to third week of February
(although this may vary from state to state) and the cycle is 21 days in duration. Mating
occurs 4 days either side of peak oestrus, which in the wild may result in a female mating
with up to four males. The males will guard the female for as long as he can within the 9
days she is in oestrus in order to increase the probability of their paternity of the
offspring. During this guarding stage the males may suffer injuries/wounds on their
rumps as the result of either warding off other males or barricading the female in the den.
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4.6.6 Gestation period
Gestation is approximately 21 days and is usually estimated in captivity from the middle
of the mating period. If necessary, a female may be pouch checked at 50 days after the
mid-point of the first oestrous (young would be one month old) to determine if she has
young. If she is positive, the female should be left as quietly as possible. If she is
negative, her second oestrus cycle will occur between 50 and 80 days from the mid-point
of her first oestrus and she can be mated again (the variation here is dependent on why
the pouch check was negative i.e. if she failed to conceive or conceived but then lost
young). If a female fails to conceive then she will go back into oestrus and will continue
to cycle until conception has occurred. Up to 3 oestrus’ may occur in one season although
the third oestrus will occur between 50 - 80days after the beginning of the second oestrus.
4.6.7 Litter size
The birthing usually last several hours and is easily identified by a series of behaviours
culminating in the balling of the body whilst still standing Tripod position, and visual
contractions of the abdomen. On average, 18 foetuses are produced but 30 and even 50
have been observed. In her first year of breeding usually only two young develop in the
pouch while three to four develop in subsequent years. There are only 4 nipples in the
pouch which limits the total number of young that can be raised. Young develop in the
pouch for approximately 16 weeks and then develop alongside their mother for a further
20 weeks. Siblings stay together until around 45 weeks.
4.6.8 Age at Weaning Weaning (or separation) can take place anywhere between 150 – 280 days (or commonly
around 40 weeks), usually around November or December. Monitoring the young while they are housed with their mother is recommended. The
newly weaned offspring will need to be weighed regularly to ensure they are maintaining
and/or increasing in weight. Adequate food of varying types as close to a natural diet as
possible will need to be provided to each individual. Weighing the food before and after
feeding is beneficial, to determine consumption rate. The development of dominance
relationships in young individuals generally parallels corresponding changes in adults. A
litter of young devils will establish a rank order of dominance within three weeks of full
weaning. With this in mind, food should be widely distributed throughout the enclosure
to ensure lower-ranking animals can feed with minimum disturbance.
4.6.9 Age of separation The female is removed from her litter when she has ceased lactating, at around 10
months. Handling of the mother is required to observe the pouch becoming less flaccid
and observation of the teats shrinking. An offspring may have to be returned to her
several times during this stage until confirmation has been gained that lactation has
ceased.
4.7 Threats in the wild
The wild population of Tasmanian devils is currently threatened by Devil Facial Tumour
Disease (DFTD), which is understood to be contributing to large declines in adult devil
numbers in areas of high density.
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DFTD was first observed in the State’s northeast in 1996. It is a contagious cancer that is
believed to be spread between individuals through biting. The foreign cells of the tumour
aren’t rejected by the individual’s immune system because of a lack of genetic diversity
among Tasmanian devils. As at February 2010, the Tasmanian devil population has
decreased by approximately 80%.
Other threats to Tasmanian devils include deforestation; roadkill toll (particularly devils
being attracted to other roadkill as food items on roads, then endangering the devils
themselves by exploiting a natural attraction to carrion); other disease; and
hunting/persecution by farmers.
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5 CAPTIVE HUSBANDRY
5.1 Housing/Environment Guidelines
The enclosure design should encourage natural behaviours but at the same time limit
animal escape and public interference. Every effort should be made to minimise keeper
interaction with the animals and enclosures designed to avoid keepers unnecessarily
entering the enclosure.
General guidelines and recommendations:
• Enclosures can be open, semi-open or fully enclosed
• If the enclosure is open then it requires a minimum fence height of 1.2 m,
constructed from non-climbable materials
• Misters or sprinklers may also be provided in hotter climates. (Watch for
increased humidity and moistened substrate however, as the humid environment
created when sprinklers are used to provide relief from hot conditions by
evaporative cooling may benefit mosquitoes more than it does Tasmanian devils.
Also wet conditions in the substrate and on the skin can soften the skin and
contribute to poor wound healing and fungal skin infections and humid conditions
promote optimum growth for fungi
• Enclosures need to be well drained
• Several high points must be provided within the enclosure using either earth
mounds or climbing structures to offer devils a high aspect within the enclosure
• Natural substrates and vegetation should be provided, such as browse, grass
tussocks, shrubs and logs at various heights to allow natural behaviours such as
climbing
• Enclosure design must prevent direct contact with visitors
• The enclosure floor must be escape-proof but also designed to allow natural
digging and burrowing behaviours
• Nest boxes should be provided with sliding doors to facilitate containment and
isolation of animals as required. The ability to use burrows/log heaps for dens are
preferable
• Any keeper access gates should be air-locked (double door entry) and inward-
opening to minimize escapes
• Footings down to 500mm or internal skirt (500mm long) secured to the ground
and covered with appropriate substrate.
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5.1.1 Size
In Australia, each State/Territory Regulatory Authority has specific minimum size
requirements for holding Tasmanian devils, Australian institutions are required to contact
their Regulatory Authority prior to commencement of building new devil facilities to
obtain these size requirements.
The housing matrix below has been provided as a guideline for institutions that are new
to the program, or institutions proposing to build new facilities. The housing matrix has
been developed to assist with understanding different devil housing scenarios. It is
recognised that different institutions will have various roles within the program. Note that
as a rule, overseas partners should aim to comply with the housing matrix over.
Minimum Guideline 2 - Enclosures
• Facility design must allow separation of all individuals for periods of time.
• If the enclsoure is open then it requires a minimum fence height of 1.2 m,
constructed from non-climbable materials
• Enclsoure design must satisfactorily prevent direct contact with visitors.
• The enclosure floor and any gaps i.e. doors or joins must be escape-proof but
also designed to allow natural digging and burrowing behaviours. Refer to
Guidelines above for examples of how to achieve this.
• A choice of dens that provide shelter from the elements and extremes of
temperature (e.g. Hollow logs, dens or artificial nest boxes) must be provided
within each enclosure.
• All enclsoures must have double door entry or a second perimeter fence to
minimize escapes.
• The enclosure must be positioned to allow access to natural light and
photoperiod, with access to an outdoor enclsoure for a majority of the year.
• Facilities must provide shade and water ponds to allow swimming/bathing
and cooling opportunities.
• Facilities that experience consistent high temperatures and humidity (e.g. in
northern Queensland) must provide climate controlled conditions for all or a
significant part of the enclosure.
• Hard surfaces such as concrete must be less than 10% of enclosure floor
space.
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Role Type of Holding
Number
of
animals
(typical)
Off
Exhibit
(short
term)
(m2)
Off
Exhibit
(Long
Term)
(m2)
On Exhibit
(incl. night
access)
(m2)
Factor of
increase per
additional
animal
Small scale
holding
(Mainly
Advocacy)
Same Age / Same Sex 2 100 100 100 20% up to 8
Same Age / Different
Sex 2 100 100 100 20% up to 8
Solitary 1 50 100 100 N/A
Larger scale
holding
(breeding
and
senescents)
Mixed Age / Same Sex 4 200 200 200 20% up to 8
Mixed age / Different
Sex 4 200 200 200 20% up to 8
Cohorts (up to 12mths) 6 100 120 200 20% up to 12
Breeding Female 1 x 50* 100*
* up to weaning
Note: enclosure sizes may be achieved by having multiple enclosures next to each other
with two access points between each enclosure; or by having a multi-levelled enclosure.
5.1.2 Materials for housing and enclosure location
The enclosure must be positioned to allow access to natural light and photoperiod.
5.1.3 Security
The enclosure design must prevent direct contact with visitors, and prevent the devil from
escaping.
5.1.4 Shelter
Hollow logs, dens or artificial nest boxes must be made available within each enclosure
since they provide shelter, warmth and security for the animals and can also be used to
assist in animal restraint. Enclosures should be designed with mounds for natural burrows
and/or log piles to allow for den building.
Recommendations:
• Suggested size requirement for the nest box are120cm L x 90cm W x 70cm H
• Ideally nest boxes should have a hinged roof and also be lockable so that the
animal can be contained if necessary to allow enclosure cleaning and maintenance
• The use of a slide to shut the entrance is recommended and the box should be
constructed of sturdy timber
• A choice of den boxes should be provided within each enclosure
• Fresh straw, grass, bracken and fern or similar vegetation should be used as
bedding material and should be replaced weekly
• Nest boxes can be made from a variety of materials but in warmer climates the
use of besser brick, concrete and cold room panelling can be very useful in
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ensuring den boxes stay cool. Air-conditioning may also be used in den boxes
also.
5.1.5 Water
Shade and water ponds must be provided to allow swimming/bathing and cooling
opportunities.
Ponds should have drains installed to allow complete replacement of water, while pumps
or taps to fill the pond should ideally be located outside the enclosure to avoid keepers
unnecessarily entering the enclosure.
5.1.6 Furnishings and vegetation
Use natural substrates e.g. soil, grass, sand, leaf litter and bark to cover unnatural surfaces
such as concrete. Use a dense layer of natural substrates, to prevent sore feet and
regularly replace substrates to prevent water logging and contamination with urinary
waste.
Devils like to hide in old stumps and logs, in burrows, nooks and caves, and amongst
dense scrub so some of these must be available at all times. Ensure enclosure furnishings
are a suitable distance (1-1.5m) from the containment fence to prevent escape.
Recommendations:
• Use tree-guards where necessary (e.g. mature trees near the boundary fence) to
prevent escape and to protect the plants
• Due to the agility of younger devils, plant selection will be crucial as
misadventure such as hangings may occur in forks/branches in some shrubs
• Provide natural logs, rocks and burrows to encourage natural behaviours of
animals e.g. climbing, foraging, digging
• Avoid the use of speared or seeded grasses as these could become imbedded in
the devils skin
• Enclosure furniture should be replaced periodically
• Furnishings must be provided that supply all devils housed within the enclosure
the opportunity to view the area from various levels
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5.1.7 Humidity/temperature/thermoregulation
Excessive exposure to sunlight has resulted in sunburn, heat stress, premature loss of
vision and solar dermatitis, resulting in hair loss on the lower backs of devils (Kelly,
1993). Each individual within captivity requires at least one den. In the wild devils use
hollow logs, fallen tree root systems, wombat burrows, rock piles, very dense
undergrowth and tunnel systems dug by the devil as dens. In captivity a variety of
manmade dens imitating these natural structures is recommended. Tasmania has a cool,
temperate climate with temperatures that average 12oC in winter and 21
oC in summer.
It should be noted that the coldest place where devils are found in Tasmania (Lake Ada)
does not stay below zero for days on end. Artificial heating will be required in cold
climates such as Europe, central USA, and northern Japan.
Recommendations:
• Must provide enough shade to protect enclosures from the extreme heat in
summer (especially for warmer climates).
• Provide a pond for swimming and/or use a sprinkler system / misters to prevent
overheating of devils. Fans or air conditioning may be used where needed.
• Artificial heating is not necessary as devils are suited to cold weather.
5.2 Health Care Standards
5.2.1 Environmental hygiene and cleaning
Recommendations:
• Clean enclosures daily and remove any uneaten food and faecal matter to avoid an
unhealthy accumulation that will attract vermin and disease
• Regularly change enclosure substrate and furniture
• Completely clean enclosures before new animals are introduced into facilities
which have previously housed another animal
Minimum Guideline 3 - Furnishings and vegetation.
• Look out or high aspect points which allow the devil to view outside the
confines of the enclosure must be provided
• Enclosures must be suitably complex utilising natural logs, rocks and
burrows and strata
• Natural substrates and vegetation representative of Tasmania must be
provided in order to maximise the education advocacy component of any
enclosure. Preferred furnishings large grass tussocks that they can den in e.g.
lamandra. Note they love fresh seaweed and san patches for anal dragging.
• Enclosure furnishings including trees must be 1.5m from the containment
fence or guarded to prevent escape
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• Seek veterinary approval and check chemical registration and label requirements
before using insecticides and animal poisons in and around enclosures
• Offer fresh drinking water daily and regularly clean water troughs and bowls
• Completely empty and clean ponds on a regular basis and provide an additional small bowl of water placed elsewhere in the enclosure
5.2.2 Known health problems
This section provides a brief overview of relevant health information for captive
Tasmanian devils. More detailed information can be found in “Medicine of Australian
Mammals” (2008) and other scientific publications (see reference list at the end of this
section).
In order to prevent any or all of the listed conditions below, it is essential that the keeper:
• carries out routine daily checks of the animals and report any abnormalities
• routine weighing (i.e. monthly )
• is thorough in the day-to-day cleaning and maintenance of the enclosure, den
boxes and bedding
• ensures that high quality foods are being stored and fed appropriately
• yearly detailed physical examinations are performed and animals are “wormed”
regularly or as needed
Skin disease, wounds and dental trauma
A range of skin diseases can occur in Tasmanian devils. Signs of skin disease include hair
loss, pruritis (itchiness), skin thickening, excessive scale (dandruff), ulceration, crusting,
redness, papules (small lumps), pustules and nodules. A thinning of the coat over the
rump and tail base is frequently noted in mature animals and is thought to be normal.
Normal Tasmanian devils will often develop a temporary ‘blushing’ of the skin in
response to excitement (e.g. physical restraint) imparting a deep redness to the ears and
feet. Normal female devils develop similar changes in the skin around the pouch during
oestrus. Skin disease in devils may occur as a result of ectoparasites (especially fleas,
mosquitoes and mites), trauma (especially bite wounds), bacterial infection and cancer.
Minimum Guideline 4 - Husbandry Routines and Cleaning.
• Enclosures must be cleaned daily to ensure that they are free of build up of
uneaten food and faecal matter. Every effort must be made to avoid
habituation and interactions with keepers.
• Fresh drinking water must be available at all times and receptacles cleaned on
a regular basis
• Chemical registration and label requirements (MSDS) must be checked
before using insecticides and animal poisons in and around enclosures
• Holder must be able to demonstrate variability in husbandry routine to
support behavioural enrichment and overall welfare
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Mycobacterial infections of the skin have been reported in Tasmanian devils. Injuries to
the skin and deeper soft tissues are often inflicted by conspecifics during breeding and
other social encounters and usually heal remarkably well, often with little to no
intervention. Dental trauma is also common in Tasmanian devils.
Tumours
Older Tasmanian devils are renowned for their susceptibility to spontaneous cancers
which most commonly affect the skin, the mammary glands or the lymphoid system.
Devil facial tumour disease (DFTD) is a transmissible cancer that is thought to spread
between animals when cancer cells are implanted into fight wounds inflicted by an
affected devil. DFTD results in large soft tissue lumps that initially affect the mouth, head
and neck. The incubation period is estimated to be up to 10 months, and once present,
lesions typically grow rapidly, ulcerate and spread within the body to other organ
systems. Tumour cells can be killed by cleaning of equipment with F10 disinfectant and
desiccation. DFTD is always fatal.
Internal parasites
Although Tasmanian devils are host to a range of roundworms and tapeworms, disease
due to internal parasites is rare. Adult worms are usually found in the gastrointestinal
tract. Many of these parasites have larval stages which occur in other body tissues e.g. in
skeletal muscle. Clinically healthy wild Tasmanian devils frequently have low internal
parasite burdens. Adult tapeworms (in Tasmania most commonly Anoplotaenia dasyuri)
or segments may be seen in scats. The round worm Baylisascaris tasmanienis is another
common gastrointestinal parasite. Treatment for internal parasites may be recommended
by the consulting veterinarian (e.g. if parasites are present in high numbers or are
associated with clinical signs). See also Faecal monitoring and internal parasite treatment.
Other conditions
Salmonella spp. bacteria are commonly identified in faeces from clinically normal
Tasmanian devils and pose a potential health risk to humans.
Bacterial pneumonia is common in Tasmanian devils. Clinical signs can be non-specific
and include loss of appetite, weight loss and laboured breathing. Affected animals may
die suddenly without showing previous signs of illness.
Degenerative conditions affecting the brain and spinal cord occur commonly in older
Tasmanian devils and typically cause progressive incoordination and weakness. Similar
clinical signs are seen with intervertebral disc disease which is also common in older
devils. There is some evidence that older Tasmanian devils are prone to heart disease
leading to heart failure. Affected animals may show a range of signs including weight
loss, lethargy and collapse. Aged Tasmanian devils appear to be predisposed to
developing cardiac (heart) disease. See appendices for age-related guidelines.
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Although disease has not been reported in Tasmanian devils, other dasyurids are
considered to be susceptible to infection with the protozoa Toxoplasma gondii.
Toxoplasmosis infection is acquired via exposure to oocysts in cat faeces. Clinical signs
of toxoplasmosis in marsupials include blindness and other neurological signs, lethargy,
loss of appetite and sudden death.
Tasmanian devils are susceptible to developing stereotypical pacing in captivity which is
thought to be predisposed by inadequate opportunity to express natural behaviours.
Obesity is common in captive animals (see Preventative medicine procedures).
5.2.3 Veterinary procedures and treatments
Physical restraint
Physical restraint of captive Tasmanian devils may be stressful and should only be used
for minor procedures and to induce anaesthesia. Manually restrained devils may struggle,
vocalise and attempt to bite, limiting the ability to conduct a detailed examination.
Capture and physical restraint of devils should only be performed by an experienced
handler due to the risk of injury. Devils can be captured by the base of the tail and lifted
into the air. Thereafter the devil can be lowered into a sack or transport box or, if short
term restraint is desired (e.g. for a brief clinical exam or for mask induction of
anaesthesia), the ‘tail and chest method’ can be used. For this the handler retains a grip
around the base of the tail and uses the second hand to lift the animal to the horizontal
position via support under the chest. Devils should not be suspended by the tail for long
periods. PVC pipe traps may be used to capture and then transport devils over short
distances.
Hessian (burlap) sacks are inadequate for prolonged confinement of Tasmanian devils as
there is a risk that they may be able to chew their way out. Hessian may also cause mild
skin irritations to the animal. An alternative recommendation is to use a canvas bag with
a strong rope or tie to secure the opening, however the close weave of canvas may mean
that air circulation is restricted.
Minimum Guideline 5 – Known health problems
• Signs of ill health in devils must be investigated, and if appropriate, treated
by a suitably qualified and experienced veterinarian.
• Any significant disease (e.g. a new occurrence of disease or change in
presentation or incidence of a known disease) in captive devils must be
reported to the Tasmanian devil Species Coordinator, via the Zoo and
Aquarium Association office.
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Chemical restraint
Although devils are not prone to regurgitation under general anaesthesia, a pre-
anaesthetic fasting period of 6-8 hours is recommended (Holz 2008).
Inhalation anaesthesia (e.g. isoflurane delivered in oxygen) is the method of choice for
devils. Gaseous induction of anaesthesia can be achieved by using an induction chamber
or by use of an anaesthetic mask. Mask induction can be achieved with the animal
restrained by the ‘tail and chest’ method or by locating the muzzle of an animal confined
within a sack and delivering the anaesthetic gas through the material of the bag; if
masking through a bag, ensure the material allows sufficient air movement, and that the
nose is not occluded by the bag material in the mask. The use of an induction chamber
reduces the risk of injury to the handler, as devils may attempt to pull back from a mask
that is placed over their face and potentially bite the person restraining them. However,
induction chambers significantly increase induction times. Once the devil is anaesthetised
it can be removed from the induction box or bag and maintained using isoflurane and
oxygen via face mask or endotracheal tube.
For prolonged anaesthetic procedures, it is recommended to place an endotracheal tube
into the airway for safety as the long soft palate of devils may interfere with breathing
during general anaesthesia. Intubation can be difficult and a laryngoscope with a long
blade may assist. Devils have a relatively small larynx and trachea compared to their
body size.
Injectable agents can be used if gaseous anaesthesia is not available. These are generally
less predictable in devils and can result in inadequate sedation or prolonged recovery.
Drugs that have been used by intramuscular injection include diazepam,
tiletamine/zolazepam, alfaxalone, and xylazine /ketamine. Details on dose rates and
effect can be found in Holz 2008.
Clinical techniques
Physical examination
In most devils a thorough clinical examination will require general anaesthesia. A
standard physical exam is sufficient to assess the health of devils. Pertinent physiological
data to be aware of:
Body temperature: 35 – 36°C
Heart rate: 100 beats/min
Respiratory rate: 20 breaths/min
Any significant disease (e.g. a new occurrence of disease or change in presentation or
incidence of a known disease) in captive devils should be reported to the Tasmanian devil
Species Coordinator, via the Zoo and Aquarium Association office.
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Blood collection
Blood samples are useful for the laboratory investigation of health and disease. Serum
can be separated from blood and stored frozen at -20 or – 800 C. Serum archived in this
way is then available for the retrospective investigation of disease in the future. In captive
devils blood collection usually requires general anaesthesia. The most reliable sites for
blood collection are the ventral coccygeal (underside of tail) and jugular veins. Smaller
blood vessels located at various sites on the fore and hind limbs (femoral, medial
metatarsal, lateral saphenous and cephalic veins) can be used for collecting smaller
volumes of blood and for placement of intravenous catheters for delivery of fluid therapy.
Conscious devils may chew out catheters and drip lines or become entangled in them. For
details of accessing blood vessels and haematological and biochemical reference ranges
see Holz (2008).
A volume of blood no greater than 1% of body weight should be collected at one time.
Other sample collection
Other biological samples such as urine and faeces are often useful for health
investigations. Fresh faeces can be collected by keepers from devil facilities and placed in
a snap lock bag or laboratory specimen jar. Urine can be collected from a clean dry solid
floor via a syringe and transferred into a specimen jar. Specimen containers should be
labelled with the animal identification, the date and the collection method, and stored in
the refrigerator pending delivery to the veterinarian.
Therapeutics
Studies on drug activity in devils are very limited and thus domestic dog and cat
treatments and drug dosages are often used. There are no reports of adverse drug
reactions in devils but general principles of medicine should be followed when
dispensing any medication. If any new clinical signs develop following the
commencement of a treatment, the attending veterinarian should be notified. See also
Preventative Medicine Procedures below.
5.2.4 Preventative medicine procedures
Daily Observations
The amount of food offered and food remnants removed daily should be recorded for
each animal and/ or enclosure. This may provide information on changes in health or
reproductive status.
Devils should be sighted daily and details of any wounds or abnormalities recorded.
Faecal output should be monitored on a daily basis. Changes to faecal consistency,
volumes and appearance as well as presence of parasites visible in scats should be
reported.
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Regular weighing and measurements
Tasmanian devils in captivity are prone to weight gain. In temperate climates this may be
more evident in spring and summer. Ideally all devils should be weighed monthly as well
as whenever they are handled. Weights should be recorded in the animal’s individual
record.
A Tasmanian devil can be conveniently weighed while suspended in a sack. A body
condition score should be recorded each time devils are weighed (see Section 4.2). Head
widths and tail widths can be measured when devils are examined under anaesthesia.
Faecal monitoring and internal parasite treatment
Routine faecal microscopy of captive Tasmanian devil scats can be undertaken to identify
common gastrointestinal parasite eggs. This can be undertaken as part of an annual health
assessment, or more frequently if problems are suspected. Disease due to internal
parasites is rare, however treatment for endoparasites may be prescribed at the discretion
of the veterinarian.
Commonly used treatments for internal parasites include:
• Injectable praziquantel(available in Australia through compounding pharmacies)
• Oral praziquantel
• Injectable ivermectin (not effective against tapeworm)
Further information including dose rates can be found in Holz 2008.
5.2.5 Quarantine procedures
A period of quarantine is recommended when captive Tasmanian devils are moved from
one captive facility to another. Pre- or post-transfer quarantine is undertaken to minimise
Minimum Guideline 6 – Preventative medicine procedures
• Captive facilities housing Tasmanian devils must engage the services of a
suitably qualified and experienced veterinarian, and utilise their expertise for
both preventative medicine and investigation of ill health. There must also be
arrangements for emergency veterinary care of devils.
• All captive Tasmanian devils must be individually identified (e.g. microchip)
• Detailed health records must be maintained for each Tasmanian devil in
captivity
• Tasmanian devils must be weighed and assessed for body condition score at
least every six months, with details recorded
• Tasmanian devils must be monitored on a daily basis
• Tasmanian devils in captivity must have an annual health assessment
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the risk of transferring diseases between facilities and to allow animals to adapt to
changed environmental conditions.
Any Tasmanian devil moving from one facility to another presents a potential disease
risk to collection animals at the arrival institution, regardless of DFTD risk. In addition,
DFTD is of considerable concern to captive devil populations. The risk posed by DFTD
may vary from extremely high (movement of recently caught wild animals) to very low
(captive bred animals, two or more generations from the wild, captive facility outside
Tasmania).
Due to the risks associated with DFTD, rigorous quarantine protocols are mandatory for
devils arriving from the wild into captivity. These circumstances apply primarily to
captive institutions within Tasmania and include a categorisation of the DFTD risk in
each case. Details of these protocols may be found in Appendix 1 (Quarantine procedures
for Tasmanian devils in captivity in Tasmania) and in Appendix 2 (Risk Categorisation
Guidelines for relocation of captive Tasmanian devils).
Quarantine protocols for devils moving from one captive facility to another may be
applied to best manage the relative disease risks (including DFTD risk) of the particular
circumstances. In all cases, the general principles of quarantine management should be
applied. These include:
• Written protocols for operating procedures during quarantine period
• Acquisition and review of full health and husbandry records from previous
captive facility
• Physical separation of the newly arrived animal(s) from all resident animals
• A period of isolation appropriate to the individual disease risks
• An ‘all in – all out’ policy (e.g. all animals enter quarantine together, or restart
period of isolation when new animals added; all isolated animals finish quarantine
together or delay departure from quarantine until every animal meets
requirements)
• Separation of work processes and equipment that ensure effective “barrier
keeping” and “barrier nursing” of animals in quarantine (e.g. dedicated cleaning
equipment, foot wear, coveralls if required) or disinfection of such items (e.g.
disinfectant foot baths)
• Restricted access of staff (only those essential for care of animals) to quarantine
facility
• Thorough cleaning and disinfection of facility and equipment at the end of each
quarantine period
• A full health exam of each animal, under general anaesthesia by a suitably
experienced veterinarian during the quarantine period.
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A standard quarantine period, often applied as the default for transfer of captive zoo
animals from one facility to another is 30 days.
5.2.6 Post-Mortem examination
It is recommended that a veterinarian or veterinary pathologist performs a post-mortem
examination on all Tasmanian devils that die or are euthanased. This is to:
determine the cause(s) of death or illness
document pathological, physiological and biological findings (not necessarily related to
the cause of death or illness) that may have implications for the management of the
captive population at large
confirm ongoing population freedom from diseases of significance, most notably devil
facial tumour disease.
Significant post-mortem findings (e.g. a new occurrence of disease or change in
presentation or incidence of a known disease) in captive devils should be reported to the
Tasmanian devil Species Coordinator, via the Zoo and Aquarium Association office.
General recommendations for the post-mortem examination of Tasmanian devils:
• Bodies should be refrigerated as soon as possible after death and post-mortem
examination conducted as soon as practical (ideally within 24 hours). Bodies
should only be frozen if there will be a delay of more than 72 hours prior to post-
mortem examination; freezing damages tissues and can make post-mortem
examination more difficult, though valuable information can still be obtained.
Minimum Guideline 7 – Transfer and Quarantine procedures
• Captive Tasmanian devils moving from one facility to another must undergo
a quarantine period immediately upon arrival. The period of quarantine and
stringency of quarantine measures should reflect the disease risk (including
DFTD risk) posed by the arriving animals. The most stringent quarantine
measures should be applied where there is the possibility of previous
exposure to DFTD.
• Animals in quarantine must be isolated from resident devils and receive a full
health check performed by a suitably experienced veterinarian during the
quarantine period.
• All of the individual devil’s records must be provided to the receiving
institution
• Animal must be checked (using the microchip/transponder) to ensure that the
correct animal is sent
• All transfers must be in line with recommendations provided by the species
coordinator
Note: please refer to IATA standards for devils.
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• Detailed information on the circumstances surrounding the illness/death of the
animal should be documented to assist interpretation of post-mortem findings. For
example:
o the time and date of death, as accurately as possible
o body weight
o where was the animal found dead?
o was the animal observed to be unwell prior to death? If so, what was the
duration of illness?
o anything unusual (climatic events, food supply issues, aggressive
interactions, recent illness/death in other animals etc) that may have
contributed to the animal’s illness/death
o the proximity of the animal to other devils or other species, and the
current health status of those animals.
• All body systems should be examined during post-mortem examination, with
attention given to the possible presence of common and significant diseases (see
“Known Health Problems”). Ideally, a complete set of tissues should be collected
into 10% buffered formalin for histopathological examination. Consideration
should be given to archiving tissues for possible future testing or research
investigation.
Individual institutions are encouraged to develop protocols for enabling prompt post-
mortem examination of deceased devils.
Minimum Guideline 8 – Post-mortem examination
• Species coordinator and studbook keeper must be notified of the death
immediately
• Detailed records must be maintained of the circumstances surrounding death
of all captive Tasmanian devils
• Any Tasmanian devil dying for unexplained reasons in captivity must have a
full post mortem examination performed by a suitably qualified and
experienced veterinarian
• Significant post mortem findings (e.g. a new occurrence of disease or a
change in presentation or incidence of a known disease) in captive
Tasmanian devils must be reported to the Tasmanian devil Species
Coordinator, via the Zoo and Aquarium Association office.
• At a minimum 10ml whole blood (frozen) and both ears (frozen) must be
obtained before the body is disposed of. Contact the species coordinator for
disposition of the samples once collected.
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5.3 Behavioural Notes
5.3.1 Common captive behavioural needs
Captive bred animals display well compared to their captive wild counterparts who are
very elusive and timid. Positive reinforcement reduces timidity and elusive behaviour
towards keepers as well as allowing natural behaviour to develop on display. Institutions
must be aware that all animals in the insurance population have the potential to be
returned to the wild. If animals are selected for release, please refer to the pre-release
guidelines.
Allowing captive devils to participate in their entire range of natural behaviours should
limit the potential of ill health or distress.
5.3.2 Behavioural enrichment activities
Housing devils together provides important behavioural enrichment. Devils that are
housed together and allowed to socialise during feeding are much less likely to
demonstrate stereotypical behaviour. The individuals housed together will cloacal drag to
mark food and water sources as well as establishing a latrine area in the enclosure, all
allowing for more natural behaviours of the animals as well as a good display. Animals
that are housed alone are less active and more inclined to behave 'neurotically'.
Random feeding times can diminish pacing which is exacerbated when devils learn to
anticipate their next meal. Devils that are kept on the light side of peak weight seem to be
much more inclined to demonstrate stereotypical behaviour as they anticipate feeding
times or frantically look for food.
Various forms of enrichment can be used to complement the scheduled weekly feeding
regime. These may be:
• regular replacing or changing of enclosure furniture
• hiding small pieces of food around the enclosure
• feeding whole carcasses rather than daily portions
• attaching meat to ‘bungee’ cords hanging from varying heights, providing
resistance or tug-of-war style feeding (Schaap, 2002)
• spraying or wiping different scents around the enclosure such as blood, herbs and
spices, etc.
• placing old koala browse in the enclosure
• giving the impression that they are not alone, by swapping faeces with other
devils, or other species such as wombats and macropods. Please take care to
assess health of other animals before using this technique
• placing hollow logs between each side of the enclosure to climb through, giving
the illusion of entering a ‘new’ environment
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• adding small hollow logs with caps on the ends with holes drilled into and small
dog biscuits inserted requiring increased length of time of food extraction (Schaap
2002)
• providing live insects and even fish where possible
• freezing day old chicks in water, or freezing blood into spheres for hot summer
treats
• planting various species of plants and tussock grasses and replacing these
regularly
5.3.3 Sharing of enclosures
Devils exhibit aggression by various vocalisations (e.g. snorts, coughs, wails and yowling
screams; refer http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/BHAN-5358KH to hear
an example of devil vocalisation) when sorting dominance at food times and during the
breeding season, particularly between males. On occasions, when vocalisations fail,
fighting may occur but this is rarely harmful. Therefore the time of year and individual
temperament should be taken into account when grouping animals. To prevent fighting,
males should be separated from each other between Feb – May to reduce aggression and
prevent fighting associated with the mating season.
Recommendations for introducing specimens:
• Introductions should be done in the presence of the keeper
• Animals should be allowed to become familiar with each other prior to the actual
introduction by holding the specimens in adjoining areas separated by a partition.
• Using a social /gorge feed when introducing animals will assist in observing
dominance behaviour/aggression and acceptance of animals.
Recommendations for introducing male and female specimens for breeding:
• Introductions are best attempted in a holding area intended for breeding.
• Introductions are done using a slide system so the keeper presence is limited. This
means that both male and female devils can have access to both enclosures and
each other, and can also be sectioned off from each other if necessary (Schaap
2002.).
• If this is not an option, males should be introduced to the female's enclosure so
that she remains 'comfortable' in her own environment or chosen den site. In some
rare cases, the female may be introduced to the male in his enclosure if she is
displaying a high level of dominance over some males. The female should then be
returned to her own enclosure after mating.
• Introductions should be done around the breeding season of February to May and
when the female is coming into oestrous.
• Removal may need to be done if the female is showing no signs of submission, or
the male is causing a health hazard to the female by being too aggressive.
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• Once copulation has ceased the male and female should be separated. The
pregnant female should not be returned to a social group.
5.3.4 Handling/physical restraint
A preferred method of handling captive devils is to trap them using a pipe trap, if
feasible, as it avoids negative keeper interaction. An alternative method of handling is to
grasp them by the base of the tail, support them ventrally, and gently lift or walk them
into a large bag being held open by a second person. They should not be carried by the
tail. Adult male devils in good condition are thick bodied and therefore unable to turn and
bite, but females and younger animals are more agile and need to be handled quickly and
with more care.
While restricting the head movement use pressure only equal to that the animal is
exerting on you. Conditioning the animal to be caught in the nest box (by offering food in
the nest box) is recommended to make capture/restraint easier.
Animals may also be captured using sacks or a net. Fishing nets with small hole size
work well and ensure that animal does not get legs tangled in net.
Station-Training devils to a wooden board beneath which scales can be placed, to
enhance ease of monthly weighing while preserving a non-invasive and non-stressful
experience for the devil, and eliminates possibility of physical damage in tailing and
restraint, especially for older specimens.
5.3.5 Trapping.
The recommended method of trapping in group enclosures is using PVC pipe traps as
specified by the DPIPWE. These are better for the welfare of the devil than the traditional
steel traps as they limit exposure and prevent injury. It should be noted that DPIPWE
supports the use of PVC pipe traps for journeys of short duration, particularly for moving
animals between free-range enclosures and DPIPWE facilities in Tasmania.
5.4 Feeding Standards
5.4.1 Diets and supplements
Devils in captivity should be fed a diet that attempts to mimic their natural diet. The diet
should be well balanced, include all necessary vitamins and nutrients, be approved by a
veterinarian, be varied (where possible) and certainly enriching. Too soft a diet will not
provide enough dental exercise for the animal which is necessary to ensure proper tooth
development and to prevent tartar build-up and subsequent periodontal disease. This is
particularly important for carnivores like the Tasmanian Devil who, as mentioned earlier,
consume not only the flesh and skin coverings from their prey but the bones as well.
Fresh drinking water should be available ad lib. A copy of the DPIPWE (based on
Pemberton et al. 2008) can be found in Appendix 3.
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Sub-adult devils, or those up to 2 years-old, require approximately 300g of food per day.
Adults, or those over 2 years, require around 500g per day (based on a veterinary
approved diet and one used by devil breeders in Tasmania (pers. comm. Androo Kelly
2001). This is decreased for devils housed in warmer climates where, depending on the
individual, daily amounts for adults will be around 300g. For older and less active devils,
the diet may have to be reduced to avoid obesity, a condition to which devils are prone.
A “fast day” once a week is recommended, which may consist of pigs ears, bones or a
piece of fruit such as a whole apple or carrot, but no meat. This is to mimic wild
behaviours since most wild carnivores would not usually eat every day but would
opportunistically consume enough food to last them 2 or 3 days.
The following have been fed to captive animals: rabbit, emu, beef, wallaby/kangaroo,
venison, rats, mice, day old chicks/adult chicks, duck and fish.
NB: Chickens less than 10 days-old and newly born rodents do not qualify as “whole”
animals because their small size does not provide sufficient roughage to promote dental
health (Burridge and McKay 2005).
Diets can be changed to allow for variation in seasonal requirements, to encourage
successful breeding and to decrease obesity. A suggested feeding regime which includes
fast and gorge feeds is preferred. See Appendix 3 for examples of zoo diet.
If captive devils are able to consume entire animal carcasses, then there should be no
need for additional supplements. However if whole carcasses are not consistently
available then diets can be supplemented by eggs for protein and raw bones. Eggs need to
be sparingly incorporated into the diet and should be fed no more than once per week as
they have the potential to cause alopecia (A. Kelly, pers. comm.).
Supplements are used by Trowunna Wildlife Park for lactating females or convalescing
individuals. Mothers with young are fed a weekly bowl consisting of grated apple, carrot,
dried kelp extract, “body balance®” (natural vitamin and mineral supplement), an egg,
and milk. This is to promote health of the skin and fur and maintain condition whilst
gravid and weaning young (A. Kelly, pers. comm.).
5.4.2 Presentation of food
It is monotonous for devils to be fed the same food in the same place within the enclosure
every day. Therefore every effort should be made to vary the types of food items being
offered, time of day feeding occurs (so that feeding time does not become overly-
anticipated), and placement of food items.
Minimum Guideline 9 - Feeding
• Tasmanian Devils must be provided with a variety of foodstuffs. This must
include a whole prey item at least weekly.
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Recommendations:
• Scatter and hide food items throughout the enclosure to encourage exploratory
and scenting behaviours.
• Once per week offer one very large ration, sufficient to last two days, to mimic
natural gorging behaviour. This should be followed by “fast” day where no
additional food is offered.
• Monitor food intake daily by weighing dietary items to limit weight gain or
dietary imbalances.
• Alternate feeding times to reduce devils learning to anticipate their next meal.
It is beneficial for keepers to NOT feed devils directly at the door/gate of their enclosure
so that keepers can easily enter an enclosure and avoid an aggressive / hungry devil at the
door making access difficult.
Two major considerations for food offered to Tasmanian Devils in captivity are (1)
provide a variety (2) provide entire carcasses where possible, to promote dental health.
5.4.3 Seasonal/breeding changes in feeding requirements
During the two month lead up to the reproductive cycle the female will tend to put on
visceral fat in the tail. As females enter oestrus a gorge feed, or full carcass feed, will
often promote the onset of peak oestrus.
5.5 Breeding Requirements
5.5.1 General behavioural notes; forming new pairs
Introductions must be done in the presence of the keeper and are best attempted in a
holding area intended for breeding. Introductions are done using a slide system so the
keeper presence is limited. This means that both male and female devils can have access
to both enclosures and each other, and can also be sectioned off from each other if
necessary. Introductions should be done around the breeding season of February to May
and when the female is coming into oestrous.
Removal may need to be done if the female is showing no signs of submission, or the
male is causing a health hazard to the female by being too aggressive. Once copulation
has ceased, the male and female should be separated. The pregnant female should not be
returned to a social group.
5.5.2 Nesting/breeding requirements
It is recommended that females are isolated from other devils once mated. Prior
preparations should be made by offering nesting material such as straw, hay, bark and
mulch which are scattered throughout the enclosure. The female devil usually makes her
own nesting area within a den of her choosing.
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5.5.3 Requirements of young
Once a female has offspring of approximately 90 days of age, the fat content of the
female’s diet should be increased, examples with mince or egg. By the time the joeys are
150 days old they are eating solids, in addition to the female’s milk, and so there should
be an increase in diet for the female and joeys. By 200 days of age (assuming an average
of 2.5 joeys), feed for female and joeys should be increased so that you are feeding 1.5
adult devils. By 250 days of age, feed for female and joeys should be increased so that
you are feeding 2.5 adult devils. Keep in mind the joeys are still receiving milk from the
female.
5.5.4 Methods of controlling breeding
Throughout January males are cycled through social groupings in order to establish social
bonds with prospective females. Breeding is controlled by removing all males from social
groupings prior to the onset of submissive behaviour of the female in early March.
5.6 Incubation/rearing young
Tasmanian Devil orphan joeys from 10-12 weeks of age have been successfully hand-
raised.
5.6.1 Housing Minimising stress is a major consideration for all native animals taken into care. Suitable
housing should be made available, including
• No access by children or other animals (Jackson 2003).
• Hygienic conditions (Jackson 2003).
• Escape-proofing (Jackson 2003).
• Shelter from wind and noise (Jackson 2003).
• Availability of an artificial pouch made out of non-synthetic fibre.
• Temperature control.
Temperature requirements • Furless joeys – 34 – 36 °C (Jackson 2003)
• Furred joeys – 30 °C (Bellamy 1992)
Minimum Guideline 10 - Breeding
• Only those devils which receive a breeding recommendation from the species
coordinator shall breed
• For those devils housed in large enclosures, only those devils which are suitable to
be paired (as per the breeding recommendations) shall be housed together
• Notification of successful breeding must be provided to the studbook keeper and
the species coordinator within 30 days of the first pouch check
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A minimum/maximum temperature gauge with a plastic coated probe should be included
to monitor temperature at all times.
5.6.2 Diet and feeding routine
Milk formula
There are a number of low-lactose milk formulas available for hand-raising marsupials,
for example:
Biolac.
Di-Vetalact.
Animals should be fed between 10 – 20% of their body weight each day (Jackson 2003).
High protein infant cereal can be added once the Joey is finely furred, and when teeth
appear they are also offered pet mince (caution should be taken when feeding human
grade mince as lean mince can lead to vitamin and mineral deficiencies), calcium powder
and small carnivore mix from the Wombaroo manufacturers.
5.6.3 Feeding apparatus
Infant devils can be bottle fed with plastic feeder bottles, 50 or 100 ml, with a special
‘Type C’ teat (Austin 1997). The teat will need to be punctured with a sterile, hot needle.
5.6.4 Feeding routine
The number of daily feeds will change as the Joey develops (Table 3).
Table 3. Feeding Regime of Tasmanian Devils
Age Times per day Comment
Very young, furless joeys 8-12 i.e. throughout 24 hr
When furred 5 Volume increase
Fully emerged from the ‘pouch’ 2-3 Volume increase
First Appearance of teeth Wean onto mince +Ca Powder
Fully developed teeth Entire small rodents and bones to chew
Milk should be fed at approximately 36 °C. It is important to monitor the rate at which
the milk is being swallowed. Too large a hole in the teat can result in the milk formula
entering the mouth more quickly than it can be swallowed by the Joey which can lead to
inhalation pneumonia. A good indication that the formula is being fed too quickly is if a
Joey sneezes and coughs formula out of the nostrils while the drinking.
5.6.5 Specific requirements Particular care of the thermoregulation needs of unfurred, marsupial joeys is important,
since they can become cold very quickly which can affect their feeding efficiency. If the
Joey is cold when it is first brought in for care, then it will need warming up before being
fed to avoid inhalation pneumonia. This can either be achieved by placing the bottle in a
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warm bath then drying well, or provided with warm fluids given subcutaneously and
bottle fed later.
The skin of unfurred and slightly furred joeys is prone to becoming dry and cracked. To
keep the skin moist and supple it is recommended that sorbelene cream be applied as
needed (George et al. 1995).
5.6.6 Data recording Most of following information should be recorded on an ongoing daily basis (Jackson
2003):
• Collection origin (if brought into a zoological institution for rehabilitation).
• Date and time.
• Body weight (to nearest gram where possible).
• General activity and demeanour.
• Characteristics and frequency of urination and defecation.
• Amount (gms and ml) and type of food offered.
• Amount (gms and ml) and type of food actually consumed.
• Veterinary examinations and results.
5.6.7 Hygiene Maintaining a high standard of hygiene is critical to the survival of the Joey (Jackson
2003). Carer’s hands must be washed before and after the handling of joeys and any
soiling in the pouch must be cleaned out immediately. Equipment must be washed in
warm, soapy water and sterililized in a suitable, antibacterial solution. The Joey should be
stimulated to toilet before and after feeding and any spilled milk should be immediately
cleaned off the Joey’s skin and bedding.
5.6.8 Behavioural considerations Tasmanian Devils can form a bond with their carers, so if they are to be released, contact
should be minimized between feeding times. They should, where possible, be raised in a
group so that they become familiar with other members of their species as socialising
with other devils is a very important behavioural aspect for a maturing devil.
5.6.9 Guidelines for Assisted Weaning
Assisted weaning should only be undertaken for significant health concerns or when an
animal is to be used in an ambassador role. Please contact the species coordinator for
permission to hand-rear an animal for ambassador roles. This information has been
provided by Androo Kelly pers comm.
Background
Female devils may rear up to four young in a season. Experience to date indicates that
females raising four offspring are unlikely to lose young, and are no more likely to lose
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them than females carrying smaller litters. However, females raising four young in one
season may struggle to regain condition in time for the following one.
Removing one or two (post) pouch young, (terminology as they would be actually
permanently out of the pouch at this stage!) towards the end of the weaning period can
help the female to regain condition and to breed successfully the following year.
This document does not deal with hand-rearing of devils from an early development
stage, only with assisted weaning as described here.
The current Husbandry Manual covers hand-rearing. The updated Husbandry Manual
will include the assisted weaning guidelines/protocol.
Which Females?
Not every female that has a litter of 4 will require assistance with weaning.
Once the program reaches capacity, unless animals are immediately required for
reintroduction, reproduction will need to be limited to a total of 2-3 offspring per female;
a second season will rarely be required. Further, four year old mothers can be left to wean
all of their offspring as they will not be expected to breed again.
Assisted weaning is required:
• During periods of the program when it is important to generate large numbers of
animals (e.g. while the population is growing, or to generate animals for
reintroduction);
• To maximize output from genetically valuable females.
The Species Coordinator will provide advice on which females should be considered for
assisted weaning.
When?
Offspring are suitable for assisted weaning when:
• They are approximately 6 months old
• They are already eating solid food (indicated by change in faecal colour from
yellow to black);
• They weigh around 500g.
Which offspring?
Where there is choice:
• Larger offspring rather than smaller (i.e. closer to natural weaning);
• Leave an equal sex-ratio (1:1) with mother.
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Assisted weaning does not appear to compromise the future breeding success of either
sex.
How?
This will be determined by each institution’s circumstances with respect to enclosure
design, housing and denning of young and the labour available for the task.
In most cases capture of the mother will be necessary and pulling the den apart may be
the quickest and only real option for accessing all young at once.
The young should be captured by hand and placed in a bag. This provides an opportunity
for a health check and at this point a decision can be made about which individuals to
retain for assisted weaning. Stroking the devils while they are in the bag will calm them.
Weigh them.
At this stage of development the young are not venturing far from the den site if at all, so
they will feel most secure in a fairly small, environmentally stimulating space. Note that
security is an issue; if a rat could escape from the area provided then so could a young
devil! The young animals should remain in this space, the area which should be
increased gradually over time to match the increasing confidence and exploratory range
of the young devils.
There is no need for the young to be moved about or carried on person as described in
hand-rearing protocols.
Diet
It is important to maintain natural routines for the young as far as possible. At this stage
of development the mother would be out and about during the night, leaving the young in
the den to play, dig, nest build, excavate , chew and start adventuring around the den site.
The mother would return in the morning to provide food and drink.
Animals may be fed a diet consisting of:
• 1 solid (preferably morning) feed per day of mice, chicken or kangaroo, (native
animals should be given wherever possible) offered in milk.
• Quantities should range from relatively little to gorge feeding.
• Up to 3 milk feeds per day (20-30mls per feed).
Young 6-7 month old devils will lap/slurp quite readily and can be offered slurry
milk/mince (pet grade not prime lean mince) to balance the more solid meat and
roughage of fur and bone. Initial bottle feeding will assist in bonding that will reduce the
timidity and make it easier to handle the young but it is not absolutely necessary.
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The milk supplement should continue until siblings left with mothers have weaned
naturally. The assisted weaning animals generally do not grow as big and fast as those
left with mother, but by 12-15 months of age both pairs are usually equal in weight and
size.
Milk preparation
0.7 Wombaroo (kangaroo milk replacer)
Add 1 pinch of insectivore mix.
See www.wombaroo.com.au
OR
Divetalact (R) Low Lactose Milk Replacer.
Biolac(R)
Note: Devils are messy feeders, so it is important to offer larger volumes than they are
expected to drink.
Problems
From 6 months of age to weaning around 10-12 months, devils can be ferocious little
animals and quick to nip or bite if mishandled- these behaviours can be observed in their
social play and behaviour toward their mothers and siblings. On the other hand they can
be at ease and in total comfort when being held after being handled just a few times.
Security is paramount. Devils at this age are very agile climbers and are able to climb, dig
and find any little nook or cranny to hide in and any tiny hole to escape through.
Socialisation
Socialising animals is important. Whenever possible, animals should be raised with a
littermate and reintroduced to other devils at the earliest opportunity.
It should be possible to introduce them to other members of that years young (cohorts) at
normal weaning time (Dec-Jan).
5.7 Transport Requirements
The requirement for import and export permits will be different for each state and parties
should refer to appropriate State Permitting Authorities for their regulations. Current
information on movement of devils should be sought from the CVO of each state
involved in transfer. It should be noted that DPIPWE supports the use of PVC pipe traps
for journeys of short duration, particularly for moving animals between free-range
enclosures and DPIPWE facilities in Tasmania.
5.7.1 Box design
Transport crates must conform to the Live Animal Regulation Container (International
Air Transport Association (IATA); Transport box number 72.
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Recommended crate dimensions:
• Devils < 1yr old: 400mm long x 300mm high x 650mm wide (or double-
compartment crate for 2 young specimens)
• Devils >1yr old: 690mm long x 520mm high x 395mm wide
Note: double boxes are acceptable for joeys (IATA 2002).
5.7.2 Crate furnishings
Shredded paper, oaten hay or other similar materials may be provided to absorb waste
(urine) during transit and can also provide insulation against heat and cold. Please note
that there have been some instances of long “grass” wrapping around the limbs of
animals; ensure that crate furnishings are of short length. When the specimen is being
transported interstate or overseas it is advisable to contact the state or country of the
recipient institution to obtain guidance on their quarantine regulations. For example,
Western Australia does not allow hay or straw to cross into their state, so shredded paper
is used (IATA 2002).
5.7.3 Water and food
If the journey is less than 24hrs, the animal does not need additional feeding or watering
(IATA 2002). If feeding is required, the animal must be provided with pieces of raw
meat, a little fish or dog food and milk or water (IATA 2002).If animals are being
transferred in warmer temperatures please ensure water is available.
5.7.4 Animals per box
One animal per box unless the box is a double and is built for joeys, refer 7.5.1 (IATA
2002).
5.7.5 Timing of transportation
Transport should occur either early in the morning or overnight to reduce devils
becoming overheated and to prevent capture myopathy. Transport should be started
straight after capture or after clearance has been given by the attending veterinarian. The
time an animal is captured and transported to its destination should be minimized.
5.7.6 Release from box
Recommendations:
• Release from the crate should be done as quickly as possible and preferably out of
the public eye.
• Release from the crate should be done in an open area of the enclosure, similar to
that when releasing an animal from a catching bag.
• It is advisable that some sort of mechanical protection, such as a broom, is placed
close by when devils are released to protect staff from any aggression displayed
by devils.
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• It is possible to allow the animal to remove itself from the crate when it feels
comfortable doing so. The crate should remain open within the enclosure to
provide added refuge for the released devil.
6 RECORD KEEPING
6.1 Individual records
Routine or daily data collection is recommended for all species held within an institution
although required information may vary between species. The data collected for devils
should include:
• Weight.
• Births and deaths of specimens.
• Dates (or sensible date estimates) of births and deaths.
• Identities of parents where a birth has occurred.
• Sex of any offspring.
• Amount food fed vs. amount eaten.
• Behavioural changes, including unusual behaviours.
• Significant interactions between individuals (where applicable).
• Medical observations.
• Reproductive status.
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6.1.1 End of breeding season reports
At the end of breeding season, the species coordinator shall contact each institution with
a breeding recommendation to ask for the breeding success spreadsheet to be completed.
This is in addition to the taxon reports provided to the studbook keeper.
Minimum Guideline 11 - Record Keeping.
• An individual record must be maintained for every Tasmanian devil ever
held at your institution. This record must include the following
information:
o Individual identifiers , transponder numbers)
o Sex (if known)
o Identity of Parents (if known)
o Origin (if wild caught; e.g. exact location)
o Birth date or estimated date
o Arrival date at your institution
o Departure date from your institution (if applicable).
o Death date and cause of death (if applicable)
o Weights
o Notes on when samples were taken and the results.
o Notes on health problems and treatments offered (if applicable).
o Important behavioural notes
• Any specific information required for the advancement of the program
must be supplied.
• Any changes must be reported to studbook keeper (within 30 days).
• For the efficiency of record keeping all transfers will be “ownership” but
animals will still be owned by state of Tasmania.
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7 References Austin. M.A. (1997). A Practical Guide to the Successful Handrearing of Tasmanian Marsupials. Regal
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8 Appendices
Appendix 1 - Quarantine procedures for Tasmanian devils in captivity in Tasmania
Appendix 2 - Risk Categorisation Guidelines for relocation of captive Tasmanian devils
Appendix 3 – Zoo diets