20 No. 0 - IAEA

T E C H N I C A L REPORTS SERIES No. 200

Manpower Development for Nuclear Power

A Guidebook

I X XI J I N T E R N A T I O N A L A T O M I C ENERGY AGENCY, V I E N N A , 1 9 8 0

MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT FOR NUCLEAR POWER

A Guidebook

The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency:

AFGHANISTAN ALBANIA ALGERIA ARGENTINA AUSTRALIA AUSTRIA BANGLADESH BELGIUM BOLIVIA BRAZIL BULGARIA BURMA BYELORUSSIAN SOVIET

SOCIALIST REPUBLIC CANADA CHILE COLOMBIA COSTA RICA CUBA CYPRUS CZECHOSLOVAKIA DEMOCRATIC KAMPUCHEA DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE'S

REPUBLIC OF KOREA DENMARK DOMINICAN REPUBLIC ECUADOR EGYPT EL SALVADOR ETHIOPIA FINLAND FRANCE GABON GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC GERMANY, FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GHANA GREECE GUATEMALA HAITI

HOLY SEE HUNGARY ICELAND INDIA INDONESIA IRAN IRAQ IRELAND ISRAEL ITALY IVORY COAST JAMAICA JAPAN JORDAN KENYA KOREA, REPUBLIC OF KUWAIT LEBANON LIBERIA LIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYA LIECHTENSTEIN LUXEMBOURG MADAGASCAR MALAYSIA MALI MAURITIUS MEXICO MONACO MONGOLIA MOROCCO NETHERLANDS NEW ZEALAND NICARAGUA NIGER NIGERIA NORWAY PAKISTAN PANAMA PARAGUAY PERU

PHILIPPINES POLAND PORTUGAL QATAR ROMANIA SAUDI ARABIA SENEGAL SIERRA LEONE SINGAPORE SOUTH AFRICA SPAIN SRI LANKA SUDAN SWEDEN SWITZERLAND SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC THAILAND TUNISIA TURKEY UGANDA UKRAINIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST

REPUBLIC UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST

REPUBLICS UNITED ARAB EMIRATES UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT

BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND

UNITED REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON

UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA URUGUAY VENEZUELA VIET NAM YUGOSLAVIA ZAIRE ZAMBIA

The Agency's Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute of the IAEA held at United Nations Headquarters, New York; it entered into force on 29 July 1957, The Headquarters of the Agency are situated in Vienna, Its principal objective is "to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world".

(C) IAEA, 1980

Permission to reproduce or translate the information contained in this publication may be obtained by writing to the International Atomic Energy Agency, Wagramerstrasse 5, P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria.

Printed by the IAEA in Austria September 1980

TECHNICAL REPORTS SERIES No.200

MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT FOR NUCLEAR POWER

A Guidebook

I N T E R N A T I O N A L A T O M I C E N E R G Y A G E N C Y

V I E N N A , 1 9 8 0

M A N P O W E R D E V E L O P M E N T F O R N U C L E A R P O W E R : A G U I D E B O O K

I A E A , V I E N N A , 1 9 8 0

S T I / D O C / 1 0 / 2 0 0

I S B N 9 2 - 0 - 1 5 5 0 8 0 - 4

FOREWORD

Q u a l i f i e d m a n p o w e r i s e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e s a f e t y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y o f n u c l e a r

p o w e r . A n y c o u n t r y e m b a r k i n g o n a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e h a s t h e p r i m a r y

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p l a n n i n g a n d i m p l e m e n t i n g i t s m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t

p r o g r a m m e , w h i c h m u s t b e g i n a t t h e e a r l i e s t s t a g e s o f a n u c l e a r p o w e r

p r o g r a m m e b e c a u s e o f t h e l o n g l e a d - t i m e s i n v o l v e d i n d e v e l o p i n g h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d

m a n p o w e r .

G o v e r n m e n t a l s u p p o r t i s r e q u i r e d f o r c o n s i s t e n t , l o n g - r a n g e p o l i c i e s o n

n u c l e a r p o w e r a n d m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d d e c i s i o n s o n t h e i r p l a n n i n g a n d

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n m u s t b e t a k e n a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t a l l e v e l . N a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n

i n a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a n a t i o n a l e f f o r t . F u r t h e r ,

w h a t e v e r t h e c o n t r a c t i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s , t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n a c t i v i t i e s , c o n s i d e r e d

t o b e e s s e n t i a l , f o r w h i c h f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y h a s t o b e b o r n e b y n a t i o n a l o r g a -

n i z a t i o n s a n d w h i c h h a v e t o b e p e r f o r m e d p r i m a r i l y b y q u a l i f i e d l o c a l m a n p o w e r .

T h e r e f o r e , b e f o r e u n d e r t a k i n g a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e , a c o u n t r y m u s t b e

p r e p a r e d a n d a b l e t o d e v e l o p i t s m a n p o w e r , e d u c a t i o n / t r a i n i n g a n d i n d u s t r i a l

i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s i n o r d e r t o a t t a i n t h e c a p a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m t h e s e e s s e n t i a l

a c t i v i t i e s .

T h i s G u i d e b o o k t h u s p r o v i d e s p o l i c y - m a k e r s a n d m a n a g e r s o f n u c l e a r

p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n a n d g u i d a n c e o n t h e r o l e , r e q u i r e m e n t s ,

p l a n n i n g a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s . I t p r e s e n t s

a n d d i s c u s s e s t h e m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f a

n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e , t h e t e c h n i c a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f t h i s m a n p o w e r a n d

t h e m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d q u a l i f i -

c a t i o n s . T h e G u i d e b o o k a l s o d i s c u s s e s t h e p u r p o s e a n d c o n d i t i o n s o f n a t i o n a l

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A t o m i c E n e r g y A g e n c y w a s f o r t u n a t e t o r e c e i v e t h e

g e n e r o u s s u p p o r t o f s e v e r a l M e m b e r S t a t e s i n p r o v i d i n g e x p e r t s f o r p r o d u c i n g

t h e G u i d e b o o k . F o r t h e i r v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s , a p p r e c i a t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d t o

t h e m a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r t o t h e M e m b e r s o f t h e A d v i s o r y G r o u p w h i c h p r o v i d e d

r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , i n f o r m a t i o n a n d c o m m e n t s t o t h e A g e n c y o n t h e p u r p o s e ,

c o n t e n t a n d f o r m o f t h e b o o k .

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 1. MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS 9

1 . 1 . N u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e o v e r v i e w 1 1

1 . 1 . 1 . I n t r o d u c t i o n 1 1

1 . 1 . 2 . A c t i v i t i e s i n a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t 1 2

1 . 1 . 3 . S u p p o r t i n g a c t i v i t i e s i n a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e 1 6

1 . 1 . 4 . S c h e d u l e f o r a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t 1 7

1 . 1 . 5 . P a r t n e r s i n a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e 1 9

1 . 1 . 6 . I n f l u e n c e o f c o n t r a c t t y p e s o n m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s 2 7

1 . 1 . 7 . O v e r a l l m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r n u c l e a r p o w e r

p r o j e c t s a n d p r o g r a m m e s 3 2

1 . 2 . P r e - p r o j e c t a c t i v i t i e s 3 6

1 . 2 . 1 . N u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e p l a n n i n g 3 6

1 . 2 . 2 . P o w e r s y s t e m p l a n n i n g 3 6

1 . 2 . 3 . F e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s 3 8

1 . 2 . 4 . S i t e e v a l u a t i o n 3 9

1 . 2 . 5 . M a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p r e - p r o j e c t a c t i v i t i e s 4 1

1 . 3 . P r o j e c t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n 4 2

1 . 3 . 1 . P r o j e c t m a n a g e m e n t 4 2

1 . 3 . 1 . 1 . U t i l i t y p r o j e c t m a n a g e m e n t 4 2

1 . 3 . 1 . 2 . M a i n c o n t r a c t o r p r o j e c t m a n a g e m e n t 4 6

1 . 3 . 2 . P r o j e c t e n g i n e e r i n g 5 0

1 . 3 . 2 . 1 . S c o p e o f e n g i n e e r i n g 5 0

1 . 3 . 2 . 2 . O r g a n i z a t i o n a n d m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s

f o r p r o j e c t e n g i n e e r i n g 5 0

1 . 3 . 2 . 3 . P h a s e s o f p r o j e c t e n g i n e e r i n g 5 6

1 . 3 . 2 . 4 . U t i l i t y ' s r o l e i n p r o j e c t e n g i n e e r i n g 6 0

1 . 3 . 3 . P r o c u r e m e n t o f e q u i p m e n t a n d m a t e r i a l s 6 1

1 . 3 . 4 . Q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l 6 3

1 . 3 . 4 . 1 . Q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e a n d q u a l i t y

c o n t r o l p r o g r a m m e 6 3

1 . 3 . 4 . 2 . M a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d t e c h n i c a l

q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r Q A / Q C 6 4

1 . 3 . 5 . P l a n t s a f e t y 6 5

1 . 3 . 5 . 1 . S a f e t y p h i l o s o p h y a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n

o f s a f e t y o b j e c t i v e s 6 5

1 . 3 . 5 . 2 . S a f e t y a n a l y s i s r e p o r t i n g a n d l i c e n s i n g

a p p l i c a t i o n 6 7

1 . 3 . 5 . 3 . A b n o r m a l o c c u r r e n c e s — r e p o r t i n g

a n d c o r r e c t i o n o f c a u s e s 7 0

1 . 3 . 5 . 4 . P l a n n i n g f o r a n d h a n d l i n g o f e m e r g e n c i e s 7 1

1 . 3 . 6 . S a f e g u a r d s a n d p h y s i c a l p r o t e c t i o n 7 2

1 . 3 . 7 . P u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n a n d p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s 7 3

1 . 3 . 8 . M a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p r o j e c t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n 7 4

1 . 4 . M a n u f a c t u r i n g o f e q u i p m e n t a n d c o m p o n e n t s 7 6

1 . 5 . P l a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n 8 0

1 . 5 . 1 . S i t e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d m a n a g e m e n t 8 0

1 . 5 . 2 . S i t e p r e p a r a t i o n a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e 8 3

1 . 5 . 3 . E r e c t i o n o f p l a n t b u i l d i n g s a n d s t r u c t u r e s 8 4

1 . 5 . 4 . P l a n t e q u i p m e n t , c o m p o n e n t s a n d s y s t e m s i n s t a l l a t i o n 8 5

1 . 5 . 5 . M a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p l a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n 8 7

1 . 6 . P l a n t c o m m i s s i o n i n g 8 8

1 . 6 . 1 . P l a n t s y s t e m s a n d c o m p o n e n t s t e s t i n g 8 8

1 . 6 . 2 . F u e l l o a d i n g a n d c r i t i c a l i t y t e s t s 8 9

1 . 6 . 3 . P l a n t a c c e p t a n c e t e s t s 9 2

1 . 6 . 4 . M a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r c o m m i s s i o n i n g 9 3

1 . 7 . P l a n t o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e 9 4

1 . 7 . 1 . P l a n t o p e r a t i o n 9 4

1 . 7 . 2 . P l a n t m a i n t e n a n c e 9 5

1 . 7 . 3 . P l a n t s a f e t y a n d r a d i o l o g i c a l p r o t e c t i o n 9 9

1 . 7 . 4 . Q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e f o r o p e r a t i o n s 1 0 0

1 . 7 . 5 . T r a i n i n g a c t i v i t y 1 0 1

1 . 7 . 6 . M a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r o p e r a t i o n

a n d m a i n t e n a n c e 1 0 1

1 . 8 . N u c l e a r f u e l c y c l e a c t i v i t i e s 1 0 3

1 . 8 . 1 . N a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e f u e l c y c l e 1 0 3

1 . 8 . 2 . F r o n t - e n d a c t i v i t i e s 1 0 4

1 . 8 . 2 . 1 . F u e l p r o c u r e m e n t 1 0 4

1 . 8 . 2 . 2 . U r a n i u m e x p l o r a t i o n , m i n i n g a n d m i l l i n g 1 0 5

1 . 8 . 2 . 3 . C o n v e r s i o n 1 0 8

1 . 8 . 2 . 4 . E n r i c h m e n t 1 0 8

1 . 8 . 2 . 5 . F u e l f a b r i c a t i o n 1 0 8

1 . 8 . 3 . F u e l m a n a g e m e n t a t t h e p o w e r p l a n t 1 0 9

1 . 8 . 4 . B a c k - e n d a c t i v i t i e s 1 1 0

1 . 8 . 4 . 1 . P l a n n i n g a n d p r o c u r e m e n t 1 1 0

1 . 8 . 4 . 2 . S p e n t f u e l t r a n s p o r t a n d s t o r a g e I l l

1 . 8 . 4 . 3 . S p e n t f u e l r e p r o c e s s i n g 1 1 2

1 . 8 . 4 . 4 . W a s t e m a n a g e m e n t 1 1 3

1 . 8 . 5 . M a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e n u c l e a r f u e l c y c l e 1 1 4

1 . 9 . N u c l e a r l i c e n s i n g a n d r e g u l a t i o n 1 1 8

1 . 9 . 1 . T h e r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t y 1 1 8

1 . 9 . 1 . 1 . R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d f u n c t i o n s o f

u n i t s i n t h e r e g u l a t o r y b o d y 1 1 8

1 . 9 . 1 . 2 . O r g a n i z a t i o n a n d s t a f f i n g 1 2 1

1 . 9 . 1 . 3 . C o n d u c t o f a c t i v i t i e s 1 2 2

1 . 9 . 2 . C o d e s a n d s t a n d a r d s 1 2 3

1 . 9 . 3 . L i c e n s i n g a n d s a f e t y a s s e s s m e n t 1 2 4

1 . 9 . 4 . I n s p e c t i o n a n d e n f o r c e m e n t 1 2 5

1 . 9 . 5 . E m e r g e n c y p l a n n i n g 1 2 6

1 . 9 . 6 . M a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e r e g u l a t o r y b o d y 1 2 6

1 . 1 0 . R e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n n u c l e a r p o w e r 1 2 8

1 . 1 1 . M a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g 1 3 0 *

1 . 1 2 . M a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d t e c h n i c a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s — T a b l e s 1 3 1

1 . 1 3 . M a n p o w e r l o a d i n g c u r v e s f o r n u c l e a r p o w e r a c t i v i t i e s 1 8 5

C H A P T E R 2 . N A T I O N A L P A R T I C I P A T I O N A N D

M A N P O W E R D E V E L O P M E N T 1 9 5

2 . 1 . P l a n n i n g a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n 1 9 7

2 . 1 . 1 . P u r p o s e a n d s c o p e o f n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n 1 9 7

2 . 1 . 2 . B e n e f i t s , c o n s t r a i n t s a n d l i m i t a t i o n s 1 9 8

2 . 1 . 3 . P o l i c i e s a n d s t r a t e g i e s 2 0 0

2 . 1 . 4 . P r o c e d u r e s a n d m e t h o d s o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n 2 0 1

2 . 2 . N a t i o n a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s 2 0 5

2 . 2 . 1 . G o v e r n m e n t a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e 2 0 5

2 . 2 . 2 . I n d u s t r i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e 2 0 6

2 . 2 . 3 . S c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y i n f r a s t r u c t u r e 2 0 7

2 . 2 . 4 . M a n p o w e r a n d e d u c a t i o n / t r a i n i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s 2 0 9

2 . 3 . N a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a r e a s 2 1 0

2 . 3 . 1 . N u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e a c t i v i t i e s 2 1 0

2 . 3 . 2 . E s s e n t i a l a c t i v i t i e s f o r n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n 2 1 0

2 . 3 . 3 . M a t e r i a l s , e q u i p m e n t a n d c o m p o n e n t s 2 1 4

2 . 4 . E x p e r i e n c e i n n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t 2 1 8

2 . 4 . 1 . N a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s 2 1 8

2 . 4 . 2 . S u m m a r y r e m a r k s 2 1 9

Appendix to Chapter 2: Experience of various Member States in national participation and manpower development 237

A p p e n d i x A - 1 . B r a z i l 2 3 9

A p p e n d i x A - 2 . F r a n c e 2 5 5

A p p e n d i x A - 3 . I n d i a 2 7 4

A p p e n d i x A - 4 . R e p u b l i c o f K o r e a 2 8 6

A p p e n d i x A - 5 . P h i l i p p i n e s 2 9 9

A p p e n d i x A - 6 . S p a i n 3 0 9 .

A p p e n d i x A - 7 . U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a 3 2 1

CHAPTER 3. MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT FOR A NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME 345

3 . 1 . G e n e r a l a s p e c t s o f a m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e f o r

n u c l e a r p o w e r 3 4 7

3 . 1 . 1 . P r o g r a m m e g o a l s 3 4 7

3 . 1 . 2 . C a t e g o r i e s o f m a n p o w e r — D e f i n i t i o n s 3 4 9

3 . 1 . 3 . P r o c e d u r e s a n d m e t h o d s 3 5 1

3 . 2 . M a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e p l a n n i n g 3 5 4

3 . 2 . 1 . D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s '. 3 5 5

3 . 2 . 1 . 1 . P r o f e s s i o n a l m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s 3 5 6

3 . 2 . 1 . 2 . T e c h n i c i a n m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s 3 5 8

3 . 2 . 1 . 3 . C r a f t s m e n m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s 3 5 9

3 . 2 . 2 . N a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d

p o t e n t i a l 3 6 0

3 . 2 . 2 . 1 . P o t e n t i a l o f n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g

i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s 3 6 0

3 . 2 . 2 . 2 . P r o f e s s i o n a l - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g 3 6 0

3 . 2 . 2 . 3 . T e c h n i c a l - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g 3 6 2

3 . 2 . 2 . 4 . C r a f t s m e n - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g 3 6 4

3 . 2 . 2 . 5 . O n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g 3 6 5

3 . 2 . 2 . 6 . R e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s 3 6 7

3 . 2 . 3 . A s s e s s m e n t o f n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s 3 6 8

3 . 2 . 3 . 1 . M a n p o w e r r e s o u r c e s 3 6 8

3 . 2 . 3 . 2 . E d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g r e s o u r c e s 3 6 9

3 . 2 . 4 . A s s e s s m e n t o f f o r e i g n t r a i n i n g 3 7 2

3 . 2 . 4 . 1 . F o r e i g n t r a i n i n g s o u r c e s 3 7 2

3 . 2 . 4 . 2 . P r o c e d u r e s a n d c o n d i t i o n s f o r o b t a i n i n g a n d

i m p l e m e n t i n g f o r e i g n t r a i n i n g 3 7 6

3 . 2 . 5 . S c h e d u l i n g o f t h e m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e 3 8 0

3 . 2 . 6 . D e f i n i n g o f t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s 3 8 3

3 . 3 . M a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n 3 8 4

3 . 3 . 1 . T r a i n i n g o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s 3 8 4

3 . 3 . 1 . 1 . N u c l e a r e d u c a t i o n a t u n i v e r s i t i e s 3 8 9

3 . 3 . 1 . 2 . M a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r i n g p r a c t i c e 3 9 3

3 . 3 . 1 . 3 . S p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g 3 9 7

3 . 3 . 2 . T r a i n i n g o f t e c h n i c i a n s a n d c r a f t s m e n 4 0 6

3 . 3 . 3 . N u c l e a r t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s 4 0 9

3 . 4 . M a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t f o r t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f a n u c l e a r p o w e r

p r o g r a m m e 4 2 6

3 . 4 . 1 . I n t r o d u c t i o n 4 2 6

3 . 4 . 2 . P r e - p r o j e c t a c t i v i t i e s 4 2 6

3 . 4 . 3 . P r o j e c t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n 4 3 0

3 . 4 . 3 . 1 . P r o j e c t m a n a g e m e n t , e n g i n e e r i n g a n d p r o c u r e m e n t . . 4 3 0

3 . 4 . 3 . 2 . Q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l 4 3 2

3 . 4 . 3 . 3 . P l a n t s a f e t y , s a f e g u a r d s a n d p h y s i c a l p r o t e c t i o n 4 3 4

3 . 4 . 4 . M a n u f a c t u r i n g o f e q u i p m e n t a n d c o m p o n e n t s 4 3 5

3 . 4 . 5 . P l a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n 4 3 6

3 . 4 . 6 . P l a n t c o m m i s s i o n i n g 4 4 3

3 . 4 . 7 . P l a n t o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e 4 4 4

3 . 4 . 7 . 1 . M a n a g e m e n t a n d s u p e r v i s o r y p e r s o n n e l 4 4 5

3 . 4 . 7 . 2 . P l a n t o p e r a t i o n p e r s o n n e l 4 4 7

3 . 4 . 7 . 3 . T r a i n i n g o n a s i m u l a t o r 4 4 9

3 . 4 . 7 . 4 . M a i n t e n a n c e a n d o t h e r p l a n t p e r s o n n e l 4 5 1

3 . 4 . 8 . F u e l c y c l e 4 5 2

3 . 4 . 9 . N u c l e a r l i c e n s i n g a n d r e g u l a t i o n 4 5 3

3 . 4 . 1 0 . M a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e 4 5 4

3 . 5 . P e r s o n n e l m a n a g e m e n t 4 5 7

3 . 5 . 1 . O r g a n i z a t i o n g o a l s a n d t a s k s 4 5 7

3 . 5 . 1 . 1 . P e r s o n n e l p o l i c i e s 4 5 7

3 . 5 . 1 . 2 . P e r s o n n e l s e r v i c e s 4 5 8

3 . 5 . 1 . 3 . P e r s o n n e l p l a n n i n g 4 5 9

3 . 5 . 2 . R e c r u i t m e n t a n d s e l e c t i o n 4 5 9

3 . 5 . 2 . 1 . R e c r u i t m e n t p l a n n i n g 4 5 9

3 . 5 . 2 . 2 . P o s t d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d p r o f i l e s 4 6 0

3 . 5 . 2 . 3 . A d v e r t i s e m e n t o f v a c a n c i e s 4 6 0

3 . 5 . 2 . 4 . G e n e r a l a s p e c t s o f s e l e c t i o n 4 6 1

3 . 5 . 2 . 5 . M e t h o d s o f s e l e c t i o n 4 6 2

3 . 5 . 3 . C o m p e n s a t i o n 4 6 4

3 . 5 . 3 . 1 . S a l a r y s y s t e m 4 6 4

3 . 5 . 3 . 2 . P o s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d s a l a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n 4 6 5

3 . 5 . 3 . 3 . S o c i a l s e c u r i t y s y s t e m 4 6 7

3 . 5 . 3 . 4 . A w a r d s a n d i n c e n t i v e s 4 6 7

3 . 5 . 4 . C a r e e r d e v e l o p m e n t 4 6 8

3 . 5 . 4 . 1 . P e r f o r m a n c e a p p r a i s a l 4 6 9

3 . 5 . 4 . 2 . P r o m o t i o n s 4 6 9

3 . 5 . 4 . 3 . T r a i n i n g 4 6 9

3 . 5 . 4 . 4 . P r o f e s s i o n a l a d v a n c e m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s 4 7 0

3 . 5 . 5 . E m p l o y e r - e m p l o y e e r e l a t i o n s h i p s 4 7 1

3 . 5 . 6 . S p e c i f i c p e r s o n n e l p r o b l e m s 4 7 1

3 . 5 . 6 . 1 . W o r k a t t i t u d e 4 7 1

3 . 5 . 6 . 2 . F l u c t u a t i o n 4 7 2

3 . 5 . 6 . 3 . M i g r a t i o n .' 4 7 2

R E F E R E N C E S A N D B I B L I O G R A P H Y 4 7 5

L i s t o f P a r t i c i p a n t s 4 8 7

S u b j e c t I n d e x 4 9 1

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE AND SCOPE O F THE GUIDEBOOK

The availability of a sufficient number of qualified manpower at the t ime when they are needed is one of the essential requirements fo r the success of any nuclear power programme in the reliable product ion of electrical energy and the development of nat ional infrastructures .

Specialized knowledge and excellence in human performance is required in all phases of a nuclear power programme. Without qualified manpower no nuclear power p lant can be planned, built or opera ted properly, and there can be no assurance of the safety and reliability of nuclear power .

Having recognized the esséntial role of manpower development for nuclear power, the IAEA has prepared the present Guidebook within the f ramework of peaceful uses of nuclear energy in general and also of the Agency's technical assistance objectives. The purpose of this Guidebook is to provide in format ion and guidance to policy-makers and managers of nuclear power programmes on the role of qualified manpower , on determining their manpower requirements and on planning and implementing their manpower development programmes.

The Guidebook contains informat ion , advice and recommendat ions appli-cable to any country , whether developed or developing, bu t it is in tended to be especially relevant for developing countries, where an insufficient n u m b e r of qualified manpower may const i tu te one of the principal constraints t o tech-nological development in general and to nuclear power development in particular.

OUTLINE OF THE GUIDEBOOK

The Guidebook is s t ructured in to three chapters:

Chapter 1 : Manpower Requi rements

Chapter 2: National Part icipation and Manpower Development

Chapter 3: Manpower Development for a Nuclear Power Programme

A combined List of References and Bibliography is provided at the end of the Guidebook.

The first fundamenta l step for planning and implementing a manpower development p rogramme is the determinat ion of manpower requirements, which is t reated in considerable depth and detail in Chapter 1. In format ion is presented on the activities and tasks to be pe r fo rmed , how many persons are required, when they are needed and what their qualif ications should be.

4 INTRODUCTION

Overall manpower requirements are created by the sum of all tasks and activities to be carried ou t at each stage of a nuclear power project and programme. Consequent ly , Chapter 1 identifies first the tasks and activities and then the corresponding manpower requirements. This is done for the:

— Pre-project activities — Project implementa t ion — Manufacturing of equipment and componen t s — Plant const ruct ion — Plant commissioning — Plant operat ion and maintenance — Nuclear fuel cycle activities — Nuclear licensing and regulation

The regulatory and licensing activities which are required th roughout the whole programme, and o ther support ing activities are t reated at the end of the chapter .

Quant i f icat ion of manpower requirements alone is insufficient. A considerable e f f o r t has therefore been made t o define the qualifications of the required man-power . The description and discussion of the tasks to be per formed cons t i tu te a valuable guide to the determinat ion of necessary qualifications.

The informat ion is necessarily presented in a general manner and n o t oriented to any count ry in particular, but as far as possible it has been based on the actual experience of individual countr ies or specific projects. It is unders tood tha t such experience, presented through examples, may n o t be directly applicable t o a given count ry or si tuation, but should provide a more useful basis fo r consider-at ions than an abstract theoretical discussion.

National par t ic ipat ion and its ef fect on manpower requi rements and development are the subject of Chapter 2, since the manpower development requirements of a count ry depend fundamenta l ly on its national part ic ipat ion in the nuclear power programme, in addit ion to the scope of the p rogramme itself. This chapter deals with the impor tan t responsibilities and activities which a count ry must or might under t ake in its national part icipation programme.

The purpose, scope, benef i ts and l imitat ions of national par t ic ipat ion as well as the policies, strategies, procedures and me thods of implementa t ion are discussed. The principal aspects of national infras t ructure requirements (govern-mental , industrial, science and technology, manpower and educat ion/ t raining) which effectively def ine the national part ic ipat ion possibilities in a nuclear power programme are analysed. Emphasis is p u t on the identif icat ion and qualification of the essential activities fo r which full responsibility has t o be borne by national organizations and which should be primarily executed by national manpower .

The experience of some Member States in national part icipat ion and the associated manpower development aspects are presented. While recognizing tha t

INTRODUCTION 5

there is no typical count ry or course of development, those aspects are summarized-which represent similar or c o m m o n elements, pa t terns of development and modes of implementa t ion of the nuclear power programmes in these countries. These examples are in tended to provide an insight in to the present si tuation of national part ic ipat ion and manpower development in nuclear power programmes.

Educat ion and training require capital investment, t ime and e f fo r t ; it must be planned long in advance to be effective. I t is therefore essential for a country considering a nuclear power programme to establish and implement a corresponding manpower development programme.

Manpower development is the subject of Chapter 3. In addi t ion to the determinat ion of the technical manpower requirements on all levels (analysed in Chapter 1 ), the main elements of the planning of a national manpower develop-ment programme are the assessment of the national education and training requirements and potential , the assessment of the national resources and foreign training, t he scheduling of t he programme, and the definit ion of implementa t ion procedures.

Effect ive implementa t ion of manpower development is discussed in Chapter 3 bo th in general, considering the d i f ferent levels of manpower (professionals, technicians and craftsmen), and in particular fo r each principal activity of the nuclear power programme, as defined in Chapter 1.

Finally, personnel management is discussed in Chapter 3. Ef fo r t s expended on the establishment of nat ional training infrastructures and on manpower development would be ineffective wi thout adequate measures which ensure re tent ion of the trained personnel as well as good and efficient working condit ions.

SPECIAL F E A T U R E S O F NUCLEAR POWER AFFECTING MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS

In establishing a nuclear power programme, all the issues concerning man-power requirements and development must be considered, since nuclear technology has many special features which are no t encountered in other areas of industrial development , and which pose special requirements on organizational structures and on manpower .

Most of these special features are related to or are a consequence of nuclear safety requirements . It mus t be recognized that man is the most impor tan t link , in the safety chain; f r o m the design through the manufac ture , installation, inspection and testing to the operat ion and maintenance of safety equipment , componen t s and systems. Skilled and prof ic ient manpower plays an essential role in preventing nuclear accidents, and in handling them correctly if they do occur. Skill and proficiency can only be achieved through appropriate educat ion, training and experience.

6 INTRODUCTION

In nuclear power there can be no compromise on safety; high safety and quali ty s tandards must be established and strictly maintained. To achieve this, special regulatory and licensing activities have t o be per formed, the aim of which is to reduce the risk involved in nuclear power t o an acceptable minimum. In any country the overall and ul t imate responsibility for the implementa t ion of safety measures is a nat ional responsibility; it is therefore necessary to create a regulatory author i ty with a suitable legal f ramework , organizational s t ructure and staff . It is emphasized tha t the competence and quali ty of the regulatory staff is decisive for the success of nuclear regulation and licensing, as well as for the entire nuclear power programme itself. To achieve the high quality s tandards required, quali ty assurance and quality control systems have to be established and imple-men ted by specially trained personnel.

Public a t t i tudes towards nuclear power are a decisive factor fo r the implemen-tat ion of a nuclear power programme. The complexi ty of nuclear technology and its potent ia l risks are strong incentives for nuclear opposi t ion, which has affected the nuclear power programme of many industrialized countries and has also appeared in several developing countries, sometimes even before any nuclear development has taken place. Reaching the public with factual in format ion on the nuclear issue seems to of fe r the best approach, especially th rough the educa-tional programmes and the mass informat ion media. This is a long-term approach, where first of all the teachers and the persons directly involved in the public in format ion media have to be well informed. Large-scale public in format ion campaigns involve a large workload and will require competen t manpower with specialized knowledge and ability.

In practically every phase and activity of a nuclear power programme advanced technology is involved and requires qualified manpower capable of understanding, adopt ing and adapting or developing, and finally applying it. In a count ry wi thout a nuclear industry , technology is usually acquired f r o m a more advanced country able and willing to t ransfer it. But for technology t ransfer to be successful, the recipient count ry must be capable of absorbing the technology; the key to this is the availability of qualified manpower .

The nuclear fuel cycle consti tutes one of t he most distinguishing special fea tures of nuclear power. Nuclear power plants and nuclear fuel mus t be con-sidered together . An assured fuel supply is essential fo r the operat ion of the plant, and spent fuel must be adequately disposed of. The fuel cycle includes a series of ' f ron t -end ' and 'back-end' activities, of which some are essential fo r nat ional par t ic ipat ion, requiring specially trained nat ional manpower fo r their performance. Radioactive waste disposal is an activity resulting f rom the use of nuclear fuel, and this again requires special techniques as well as people capable of their application.

Nuclear power requires relatively large capital investments, long lead times and a solid support ing infrastructure. Consequently, there is a need for careful planning and for long-term commitments on a nat ional level, involving the govern-ment , the utilities, nat ional industry and scientific, technological, educat ional and

INTRODUCTION 7

training inst i tut ions. Owing to the large overall e f fo r t involved in a count ry ' s nuclear power programme, policy changes, interrupt ions, delays or mistakes have propor t ionate ly large effects on the programme and may even af fec t the coun t ry ' s overall economic and industrial development . The role of manpower in planning, directing, co-ordinating and effectively implementing the national e f fo r t fo r the nuclear power programme cannot be overemphasized.

In ternat ional concerns and the requirements for internat ional arrangements regarding nuclear power const i tu te another special feature. No nuclear power plant or nuclear fuel can be impor ted or exported wi thout the involvement of the respective governments and wi thout intergovernmental agreements. In the past, the internat ional concern mainly centred on the areas of non-proliferat ion and safeguards. Lately, additional concerns in the areas of physical protect ion, nuclear safety and environmental protect ion and the assurance of supply have also been raised. All of these internat ional aspects call f o r the timely development of manpower , qualified in the relevant technical, commercial and legal specialized disciplines.

Finally, nuclear power has the special fea ture of involving an extremely wide range of technical disciplines and skills in practically all conventional areas as well as in specialized nuclear fields. In addit ion, previous professional experience is usually required to qualify people for mos t managerial and technical tasks and func t ions involving major responsibilities. This places a considerable demand on the national manpower resources and on the national manpower development infras t ructure . In fact , a nuclear power programme could hardly exist as t h e lone case of advanced technology in a count ry with inadequate infrastructures.

In general it should be recognized tha t the special features of nuclear power have an impor tan t overall e f fec t on manpower requirements and development . To provide the highly qualified and experienced people at the proper t ime, the essential condit ions t o be met are:

— An early and full awareness of the need for manpower

— The careful and detailed planning of a manpower development programme

— The effective implementa t ion of this programme

— The application of an appropria te manpower policy

It is h o p e d that the present Guidebook will prove useful fo r all those con-cerned with Manpower Development for Nuclear Power.

Chapter 1

MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS

Chapter 1

MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS

1.1. NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME OVERVIEW

1.1.1. In t roduct ion

A nuclear power programme consists fundamenta l ly of a series of nuclear power projects which are planned and implemented one af te r the other . Each nuclear power project , be it the first one or a subsequent unit within a count ry ' s nuclear programme, requires a series of activities t o be per formed by qualified staff according to a certain schedule for which there are no firm rules applicable to every count ry , organization or s i tuat ion. There are, however, func t ions which have to be per formed in any nuclear power project and which require highly trained manpower . There are also organizational fo rms and guidelines which indicate ways to implement and comple te a nuclear project under t h e best possible condit ions.

The execut ion of a nuclear power project is a major enterprise which spans a period of 12 to 15 years, f r o m early planning to the start of commercial operat ion. For the first nuclear project , the planning and development of qualified staff fo r t he nat ional organizations and uti l i ty may require a lead t ime of up to 20 years before the first nuclear power product ion .

F o r the purpose of establishing manpower requirements , the activities can be grouped in to two majo r categories, namely:

Project-oriented activities, comprising

— Project Planning (pre-project activities) (Sect ion 1.2) — Project Implementa t ion (Section 1.3) — Manufacturing of Equ ipment and Componen t s (Section 1.4) — Plant Construct ion (Section 1.5) — Plant Commissioning (Section 1.6) — Plant Operat ion and Maintenance (Section 1.7)

Programme-oriented supporting activities, comprising

— Nuclear Power Programme Planning (Section 1.2) — Nuclear Fue l Cycle Activities (Section 1.8) — Nuclear Licensing and Regulation (Section 1.9) — Research and Development in Nuclear Power (Section 1.10) — Educat ion and Training (Section 1.11)

12 SECTION 1.1

The project-oriented activities relate t o t h e project schedule and generally have starts, peaks and levelling-off of manpower requirements for each particular project . However, with several projects going on at different stages — as is usually the case in a nuclear power programme - they are in fact continuing activities, where some of t he manpower is passed on f r o m one project t o the next . The programme-oriented activities are of a continuing na ture with only gradual changes in requirements .

The organizational structures, manpower requirements and manpower loading schedules necessary for the implementat ion of the activities fo r nuclear power projects and programmes will be discussed in detail in the subsequent sections of this chapter . The activities are interrelated. Thus, while t he organiza-t ional s t ructures may change according to need, it is impor tan t that cont inui ty of the basic policies be maintained. Ef fo r t s must therefore be exerted t o have personnel involved in early project activities cont inue their part icipat ion in sub-sequent phases.

1.1.2. Activities in a nuclear power project

Pre-project activities

F o r a first nuclear power project , the pre-project phase starts when a count ry begins serious considerat ion of nuclear power as a possible source of energy and ends when the decision to embark on this first nuclear power project is made. The principal activities during this phase include:

(a) Resolut ion of long-term energy supply, economic, policy and political considerations; a planning e f for t to de te rmine a nuclear power programme, including the size and schedule of its projects; develop-men t of the legal f ramework and regulatory infrastructure.

(b) A project-oriented evaluation, including feasibility and siting studies.

F o r subsequent projects, the pre-project activities include those ment ioned above under (b). Activities under (a) are on-going programme-oriented support ing activities and consist mainly of periodic reviews and updating.

During the pre-project phase it is advisable t o appoint , in addit ion to the staff engaged in the pre-project activities (25 to 35 professionals), some experienced professional and management personnel t o f o r m the fu tu re project teams.

Project implementation

Once the decision to proceed with the nuclear power project has been made, projec t implementa t ion will start. Bid specifications will have to be prepared,

NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME OVERVIEW 13

providing the technical informat ion describing the projected plant . These specifi-cations also contain economic, legal and contractual requirements of the util i ty and government authori t ies concerned, as well as the definit ions of scope and limits of supply and responsibilities. Specifications fo rm the basis fo r the suppliers to prepare their bids and for the buyer to evaluate the bids. They are also the basis fo r the contract documents to be developed. The preferred condi t ions for contrac t signing are t o have well def ined: the project concept , site conditions, scope, terms and condi t ions of supply, schedule and manpower training provisions.

I t is generally advisable to use an intensified e f fo r t t o work o u t fu r the r details of the project before contract signing. Besides specifications, this might involve a preliminary licence application with the regulatory author i ty , a number of project engineering activities and even the procurement of some heavy com-ponen t s and fuel . This procurement , as well as an early f ixat ion of essential contract terms, may require a letter of intent covering also the suppliers ' initial expenses.

The project management and project engineering organizations will initially comprise some 20 to 30 professional engineers, bu t will eventually require 400 to 600 professionals, technicians and craf tsmen.

Project management is the activity which involves: direction, co-ordination, scheduling and performance-or iented control of the project . It requires highly qualified and experienced staff, because its role is decisive for the project ' s success. The principal e f fo r t is usually with the main cont rac tor or architect-engineer, bu t with independent overview by the ut i l i ty 's project management team.

The starting point for the conceptual design is the plant capacity and the physical features of the selected plant site. It is generally the owners ' responsi-bility t o per form, perhaps with the assistance of consultants, all t he necessary field investigations needed to obtain the site parameters which can have an inf luence on plant design. Thus, complete in format ion on the hydrology, meteorology, topography, demography, geology, seismology, etc. of the plant site have to be obta ined; this in format ion will also influence the preparat ion of the preliminary safety analysis repor t .

Project engineering work requires some three million man-hours of e f for t over a period of about eight years. This can either be done by the uti l i ty itself or by its architect-engineer or main contrac tor . But even if t h e more usual (architect-engineer or main cont rac tor ) approach is adopted , the min imum involvement of the uti l i ty (review and approval) will amount t o about 5 0 0 0 0 engineering man-hours.

Project engineering involves the following main tasks:

— Basic design criteria def ini t ion, including the definit ion of applicable s tandards and regulations

— General plant layout

14 SECTION 1.1

— Project scheduling

— Design of plant systems, including seismic and stress analysis of plant components

— Transient calculations and accident analysis

— Piping and ins t rumenta t ion design and drawings

— Civil works and electrical designs and drawings

— Equipment specifications

— Preliminary and final safety analysis repor t preparat ions

— Quality assurance programme and procedures development

— Startup, commissioning tests and operat ions manuals

Successively and according to the project schedule, building drawings and equipment specifications are produced through the detailed engineering ef for t . These will be used as procurement documents and will be a basis fo r quali ty assurance. Ultimately they will be used by constructors and by equipment manu-facturers. The equipment and component procurement activity is o f t e n a centralized service requiring a staff of 30 to 4 0 professionals and technicians.

Another o u t p u t of t he project engineering e f fo r t is the report ing of plant design and per formance in licensing documents . The exact fo rmat and volume will vary f rom count ry t o count ry ; however, in general, the nature and depth of the required safety in format ion is similar. Generally, also, a preliminary safety analysis report (PSAR) is required in support of the application for a construct ion permit , and a final safety analysis report (FSAR) must be submit ted in order to obtain an operating licence. Some countries also require an environmental report (ER) wherein the potent ia l impact on the environment of the nuclear power plant construct ion and opera t ion is assessed.

Project implementa t ion includes quality cont ro l and quali ty assurance. Typically, t he staff required for quality control will be about 10% of those engaged in product ion and, in turn , the staff for quality assurance will be about 10% of those in quality control . Other activities such as safeguards, physical protec t ion , public informat ion and public relations are also usually included in project implementat ion.

Manufacturing of equipment and components

Based on the specifications produced by project engineering, equ ipment will be manufac tu red and delivered to the site as finished and approved produc t s ready for installation. This activity requires the largest number of man-hours (about

20 million), most ly technicians and craf t smen of many dif ferent skills and qualifi-cation levels. It also requires adequate industrial inf ras t ructure and technology.

Plant construction

The erection of plant buildings will require one or more qualified civil engineering and const ruct ion firms. The work will require at least 2000 skilled and experienced workers on the site at the peak of the construct ion period. It will require a strong and experienced site manager and an effective site organization, which is essential fo r t he success of construct ion work . Substantial preparat ions for the site work and infras t ructure on the site are required even before the first s t ructural concrete (usually defined as the base-mat of the reactor building) is cast. The component and equipment installation should be pe r fo rmed by well-trained technicians and craf tsmen, under the supervision of experienced professionals.

Plant commissioning

A f t e r the componen t s and equipment are installed in the plant , a pre-operat ional and s tar tup testing programme is implemented by an experienced team usually supplied by the equipment vendors, architect-engineer or main contrac tor , bu t with strong part icipat ion of the util i ty. During this plant commis-sioning stage it is necessary to have trained staff (150 to 250) at the site as well as t o have the active part ic ipat ion of t he operat ion and maintenance team t o ensure familiarization with the plant and to effect a smooth transi t ion of responsibility.

Plant operation and maintenance

Afte r successful complet ion of commissioning the utility acquires full responsibility fo r plant operat ion and maintenance. This task requires extensive training, involving classroom, on-the-job, as well as simulator training for t he major i ty of the opera t ions staff bo th at the professional and at the technician levels. Substantial experience in such training programmes is available. The n u m b e r of operat ion and maintenance personnel involved per plant ranges f r o m 170 t o about 270, b u t could be even higher. In addit ion, there is technical support f r o m the headquar ters personnel of t h e util i ty. The site organization of the operat ions and maintenance team usually includes specific groups for operat ion, technical suppor t , maintenance, qual i ty assurance, safety, training and administrat ion.

16 SECTION 1.1

1.1.3. Supporting activities in a nuclear power programme

In suppor t and as a control of any nuclear project the nuclear regulatory and licensing activities are the most impor tan t continuing involvement of t he govern-ment . They must be preceded by legislative f r amework and proper author izat ion of the regulatory body by the government . Regulatory codes, standards, guides and criteria of the NSSS supplier country may be adop ted by a developing country and modif ied, where necessary, t o suit local condit ions. The IAEA has also developed some standards and guides which could be adopted .

In the initial bui ldup phase a min imum of 15 to 20 professionals wi th nuclear educat ion and experience have the responsibility for the review and assessment of the licence application. Subsequently the regulatory staff is augmented by specialists, consul tants in some areas and additional s taff , and may build up to a to ta l e f for t (mostly professional) of as much as 10 to 20% of the overall engineering e f for t .

Nuclear fue l cycle activities may start wi th the explorat ion for uranium resources and the eventual p roduc t ion of uranium for expor t purposes, wi thout any nat ional nuclear power programme at all. But , if t h e count ry has a nuclear power programme, fuel cycle activities become part of it. If available and economi-cally exploitable, u ran ium product ion to supply the internal demand is generally advisable. In the absence of indigenous uranium, its p rocurement in the inter-nat ional market has to be under taken by the util i ty. Procurement of enr ichment services ( for enriched uranium reactors) is also a support ing activity of t he uti l i ty, bu t here, in particular, governmental involvement is manda to ry . Since fue l will be a l ifet ime requirement of the power plant, a country and its utility are well advised to ascertain even before embarking on a nuclear power programme that long-term fuel supply commitments , or assurance tha t fuel will be available f r o m nat ional sources are obta ined.

The fabr icat ion of the initial fuel load for the plant and the first subsequent reloads are usually contrac ted fo r in a specific fuel contrac t which conforms with plant requirements . Six to eight fue l management professionals in the uti l i ty headquar ters assisted by the operat ions team should be capable of providing the necessary technical guidance and strategies for bo th procurement and possible bui ldup of nat ional p roduc t ion capability. Recent developments in the nuclear fuel cycle have po in ted to an increasing need for early development of local professionals in this field.

In the back-end of the fue l cycle, spent fue l and waste management are activities for which the count ry must bear the responsibility. Thus, addit ional technical and planning manpower for these tasks have to be provided. Eventual reprocessing, recovery of uranium f r o m spent fuel , and recycling of p lu ton ium are sensitive areas heavily affected by proliferat ion concerns.

Research and development activities in nuclear power must be aimed at providing support t o the nuclear programme th roughout its changing requirements .

These may involve providing advice t o decision makers at various stages of the programme, development of technology adapted to the local condi t ions for nat ional part icipation, implementa t ion of technology transfer agreements, etc.

Educat ion and training const i tu te supporting activities, the aim of which is t o supply qualified manpower to the nuclear power programme at all levels. Personnel directly responsible fo r performing tasks in the nuclear power programme will also be involved in manpower development , especially in 'on-the-job' training, al though they cannot be expected to be full-t ime trainers or educators . Manpower develop-ment planning and implementa t ion need competent staff dedicated solely to this purpose.

Independent of those activities described above, relevant government agencies should maintain a highly qualified staff of at least 5 t o 10 professionals t o direct and supervise planning, programme implementa t ion and regulatory activities. They should also be the link to the legislative body and possibly to the publ ic on mat te rs of the nuclear power programme.

1.1.4. Schedule fo r a nuclear power projec t

A typical schedule for a nuclear power project is shown in Fig. 1.1 — 1.* It spans a period of 13 years, encompassing the ma jo r project-related activities. The period of 13 years is assumed to be applicable t o bo th developed and developing countries; some projects have been completed in a shorter t ime, while others t o o k longer.

The periods shown for the dif ferent activities as well as the starting points are approximate and should be considered as indications. This project schedule has been adopted in general for the purposes of this Guidebook and in particular for t h e manpower loading curves presented in Section 1.13. Suppor t ing activities of the nuclear power programme are n o t included in this schedule; they begin even before the pre-project activities of t he first nuclear power projec t are started and then cont inue th roughout the programme.

The major fac tors affect ing the projec t schedule are:

— The t ime needed for taking decisions — Licensing requirements and procedures — Internat ional inst i tut ional and financing arrangements — Siting studies and problems — Timely complet ion of engineering — Project management eff iciency — Unforeseen manufac tur ing or construct ion problems — Late alterations of design (back-fit t ing)

* Figures and tables are numbered according to the section in which they are first ment ioned . The first two numbers refer to t he section, the third is the sequence number of the figure or table within the section.

C 8 -5 .2 -g > - ¿ 2 5 F Ê 'i= r ® c > - E I • J S r t l ) - - UQ) ü 0) C C i_ eu ^ C g, c/5 a o S o S - i . E o o S u - ° u o

i ! y y y t t Years - 1 4 - 1 3 - 1 2 - 1 1 - 1 0 - 9 - 8 - 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1

I I ! 1 I I I I I 1 I I I I 0 1 2 1 1

A PRE-PROJECT ACTIVITIES

1 Power system planning 2 Feasibility study 3 Site survey

8 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

1 Site selection and qualification 2 Preparation of specifications 3 Bid preparation 4 Bid evaluation 5 Contract negotiation 6 Project engineering 7 Licence application activities 8 Procurement of equipment and materials

C MANUFACTURING

0 PLANT CONSTRUCTION

1 Site preparation and excavation, base-mat pouring

2 Construction reactor building and containment

3 Installation primary systems 4 Construction auxiliary buildings 5 Installation auxiliary systems 6 Construction turbine/generator building 7 TG installation

E COMMISSIONING

F OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE —

FIG. 1.1-1. Schedule for a nuclear power project.

The schedule is t he major control- tool of project management and is essential for the overall co-ordination of the par tners involved. Two or three levels of increasing schedule detail are generally used; e.g. there would be a detailed ' task-network ' fo r the manufactur ing of a plant componen t or equipment , which would be tied to the master schedule by certain milestones. Milestones are major events in project development and connecting points of activities in the schedule. They make progress visible t o management , provide control over t he degree of comple t ion and are o f t en used as initiating events fo r progress payments . Some of the typical milestones are outl ined below:

— Feasibility s tudy completed — Site selected — Bids requested — Bids received — Main contract(s) signed — Heavy componen t s ordered — Construct ion permit granted — Site preparat ion started — First s tructural concrete cast (base-mat) — Conta inment erect ion completed — Installation of components started — Reactor heavy componen t s installed — Turbine and generator installed — Cold funct iona l testing started — Fuel loaded — First criticality of reactor reached — Hot funct ional testing started — Operating licence granted — Commercial operat ion started

Depending on reactor type, design and manufac turer , there will be some variations in sequencing milestones and manpower distribution.

The impor tance of avoiding delays is emphasized because of t he large impact on the overall plant cost (interests during construct ion, escalation, increase in construct ion costs etc.).

1.1.5. Partners in a nuclear power programme

The nuclear power programme activities are normally per formed by several d i f ferent private and /o r public (government-control led) organizations, each being responsible fo r a l imited group of activities with a common goal, i.e. the achieve-ment of the nuclear power programme objectives. In this Guidebook the partners will generally be referred to as 'organizations' , giving to the word a broad meaning,

20 SECTION 1.1

TABLE 1 . 1 - 1 . P A R T N E R S IN A NUCLEAR POWER PLANT PROJECT; FUNCTIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Partner/Principal func t ion Responsibilities a

Utility/

Pre-project activities Plant acquisi t ion Plant opera t ion and main tenance

— Overall responsibil i ty fo r the pro jec t

— Part icipate in the planning and implementa t ion of the coun t ry ' s energy supply

— Define and implement electric p o w e r generat ion programmes

— Design procedure and/or build power plants, transmission lines and distr ibution systems

— Apply for plant licensing

— Procure fue l and manage supply cont rac ts

— Opera te and mainta in its power plants in a safe and eff ic ient manne r

U — Assume liabilities and publ ic responsibilities

associated with p lant ownership

Main contractor!

Supply comple te plant ( t u rnkey) - Provide comple te project management for pro jec t implementa t ion

- Design, specify, p rocure p lant c o m p o n e n t s and systems

- Install and commission c o m p o n e n t s and system

- Describe systems and pe r fo rmance in safety analysis reports , procedures , manuals

- Per form QA and QC

MC — Fulfi l war ran ty condi t ions o n the p lant

System supplier/

Supply comple te systems, such as the NSSS, nuclear or convent ional island

- Main cont rac tor ' s responsibilities fo r the system supplied

— Provide inpu t s for interfaces be tween the system and the rest of the plant

TABLE 1.1-1 (cont.)

Partner /Pr incipal func t ion Responsibili t ies a

Architect- engineer/

Engineering - Prepare detail design Project management

- Prepare cons t ruc t ion specificat ions

- Help owner to negot ia te con t rac t s

- Prepare cons t ruc t ion manuals

- Prepare purchasing documen t s

- Manage p rocurement , including inspect ion, expedit ing, t ranspor t

- Prepare safe ty repor t s

- Prepare QA procedures

- Provide pro jec t and cons t ruc t ion management

- Provide documen ta t i on cont ro l

- Develop training programmes

- Prepare s tar tup p rocedures

AE Provide opera t ional manuals

Equipment manufacturer/

Fabr ica t ion of specific - Fabricate according to specifications, equ ipmen t and c o m p o n e n t s s tandards and schedules

- Implement QA and QC measures

- Provide inputs f o r erect ion, commissioning and EM maintenance

Constructor/

Cons t ruc t ion or erect ion of - Prepare detailed plans of the civil work buildings, s t ructures or facilities

- Perform stress calculation, dynamic calculations

- Per form cons t ruc t ion , erection or installat ion activities according to specifications, s tandards and schedule

CO - Per form QA and QC activities

Regulatory authority/

Independen t regulation and - Provide regulatory s tandards and guides con t ro l of all nuclear _ Review system and c o m p o n e n t design facilities

Review system and c o m p o n e n t design

- Issue, amend or revoke licences

- Enforce licences directly o r with the help of RA inspect ion agencies, if any

22 SECTION 1.1

TABLE 1.1-1 (cont.)

Partner/Principal func t ion Responsibi l i t ies2

Inspection agency/

( Independen t inspector) Conduc t inspection, testing, QA and QC activities

- Perform inspect ions and issue cert if ications, conduc t tests, audits and exper iments according to specifications, s tandards and regulations

Fuel supplier(s)/

Supply fue l and /o r fue l — Supply uran ium concent ra te cycle services - Supply conversion and /o r enr ichment

— Manufac ture fuel elements

FS - Provide services for back-end of the fuel cycle

Consultant (s)/

Technical and economic consul tant services

- Provide a wide range of speciality services in fields of activity related to nuclear power plant implementa t ion , such as: geology, seismology, hydrology, meteorology, safety, stress analysis, etc.

3 Responsibili t ies will vary according t o type of cont rac t ; see Table 1.1-2.

unless they are defined by their specific names. In some cases large organizations may have a wide range of activities covering tasks of more than one t y p e of specific organization. In such large organizations particular branches or divisions per form each activity or g roup of activities tha t otherwise would be the task of a single organization. For example, a utility could perform the tasks of architect-engineering or be delegated some responsibilities usually taken on by the government .

In general, fo r nuclear power the distr ibution of tasks associated wi th the per formance of sof tware (planning, engineering, etc.) and the manufac tu re of hardware fol lows tradit ional pat terns of o ther industries, in part icular that of the fossil power plant industry . However, there are some specific nuclear activities, and nuclear specialization is necessary in certain areas. Some components are manufac tured by organizations whose business is mainly nuclear wi th perhaps some minor product ion fo r chemical and fossil industries. On the o the r hand, there are organizations which are mostly involved in non-nuclear projects, such as dams, bridges etc. Nuclear power project engineering, project management and

TABLE 1 . 1 - 2 . USUAL LEAD RESPONSIBILITIES F O R D I F F E R E N T CONTRACT TYPES

Activity

Lead responsibil i ty

Activity T u r n k e y

Split package

Multiple package

Pre-project activities U U U

Project management MC AE o r U U + A E

Project engineering MC AE + SS U or AE

Qual i ty assurance/Quali ty con t ro l MC + U AE + SS + U U + A E

Procuremen t MC AE + SS U or AE

Appl ica t ion fo r licence U U U

Licensing R A R A RA

Safeguards, physical p ro tec t ion U U U

Manufac tur ing MC SS + EM EM

Site p repara t ion U or MC U or AE U or AE

Erec t ion MC AE + SS U or AE

E q u i p m e n t instal lat ion MC AE + SS U o r AE

Commissioning MC AE + U U or AE

Plant opera t ion and main tenance U U U

Fue l p rocuremen t U U U

Fuel fabr ica t ion FS FS FS

Waste management U U u

Symbols : AE: Archi tect-engineer RA: Regula tory au thor i ty EM: Equ ipmen t manufac tu re r SS: System supplier FS: Fue l supplier U: Uti l i ty MC: Main con t rac to r

purchasing activities are usually handled by specialized organizations or particular depar tments of a larger organization. These depar tments deal wi th o ther depart-ments of the same large organization very much as with sub-contractors.

The major par tners involved in nuclear power projects are listed in Table 1.1—1 together with their usual f u n c t i o n s and main responsibilities. But it should be no ted that there might be o ther addit ional par tners for a specific case, or some of the par tners listed might n o t be involved at all. Regarding the func t ions and responsibilities, these will vary according to the contractual approach (see Section 1.1.6 and Table 1.1 - 2 ) .

PLANT- o|<

TURNKEY CONTRACTOR - DESIGN &

ENGINEER-ING

NSSS & BOP

INDUSTRY < -

UTIL ITY

FUEL-CYCLE

FRONT-END

COMPONENT MANUFACTURERS

L _ CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES

URANIUM

CONVERSION

ENRICHMENT

L. FABRICATION

- > GOVERNMENT

FUEL-CYCLE

BACK-END APPLI-CATION

GENERAL PUBLIC ( INTERVENOR)

PARTICIPATING

AUTHORITIES

LICENSING AUTHORITY (SUPREME STATE AUTHORITY)

TREATMENT

F INAL STORAGE

DECISION

? — Z

SAFETY ASSESSOR (TÜV, GRS)

r-t> ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON

REACTOR SAFETY

LICENCE OR

REJECTION

DIRECTIVE

Vl W O H O Z

Contract lines Reporting lines

FEDERAL MINISTER OF THE INTERIOR

PARTICIPATING FEDERAL AUTHORITIES

ADDIT IONAL RECOMMENDATIONS

NOTE: Predominant contract approach: turnkey.

FIG.1.1-2. National organization for nuclear power. (Example: Federal Republic of Germany.)

GOVERNMENT

REGULATORY BODY

MINISTRY OF INDUSTRY AND ENERGY

UT IL ITY

,< — S u p e r v i s o r y lines • Reporting-communication lines • — P r o j e c t implementation; Project plant

LEGAL AND FINANCE

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION I

PROJECT MANAGER

PLANNING

ENGINEERING SUPERVISION

• K - - P L A N T OPERATION

Ti Q/A AND Q/C

CONSTRUCTION & ERECTION SUPERVISION

PROJECT ENGINEERING (ARCHITECT-ENGINEER)

PURCHASING

" i —

CONSTRUCTION ERECTION

I I J L

STARTUP

SUPPLIERS AND MANUFACTURERS t/j a. <n a. <¿ D

Q/A AND Q/C

3. PLANT MANAGER

FUEL PROCURE-MENT AND MANAGEMENT

111 ace LU 111

U1 l - U l Ï S

UJ — < tu

OÍS5 x > o (J cc m UJ LU < l - w - l

¡ r <

FUEL SERVICES

N — ^ NOTE: Predominant contract approach: non-turnkey.

FIG. 1.1—3. National organization for nuclear power. (Example: Spain.)

Z d o r tri > 7¡ "B O

m fe •v se o o »

> S S M

t n PB <

Note: Predominant contract approach: non-turnkey — multiple package.

FIG.1.1-4. National organization for nuclear power. (Example: India.)

There is no universally applicable optimal distr ibution of func t ions and responsibilities among the partners involved, nor any organizational f ramework which is equally applicable t o every count ry and situation. But it should be recognized that for each count ry and nuclear power programme, an efficient organizational s t ructure must be adopted and all principal func t ions and responsi-bilities as well as lines of author i ty and communica t ion must be clearly defined. As the nuclear programme develops, changes and ad jus tments are usually required, and these can be gradually in t roduced according to the needs and possibilities.

Examples of national organizational structures are presented in Figs 1.1—2 (Federal Republic of Germany) , 1.1—3 (Spain), 1.1—4 (India) and 1.1—5 (Republ ic of Korea).

The te rm 'par tners ' in a nuclear power programme has been used here t o emphasize the need for co-operation.

1.1.6. Inf luence of contrac t types on manpower requirements

The contractual approach adopted by a certain country or uti l i ty has very little e f fec t on the overall manpower requirements of a nuclear power programme or project , bu t it does have a substantial influence on the distr ibution of these requirements among the par tners involved, according to their particular func t ions and responsibilities.

Depending on the ut i l i ty 's experience and capability and on the technological and managerial resources available in the count ry , the organization and sharing of responsibilities may correspond to several types. In all types the owner/ut i l i ty holds t h e u l t imate responsibility fo r the choice of t he plant and for its safe and eff icient operat ion, subject only to the influence, policy and supervision of its government . The responsibility for the correctness and quality of t he design, manufactur ing, erect ion and co-ordination may be partially taken over by the contractor(s) through the respective supply contracts.

The selection of t he type of contrac t is one of the key decisions to be taken by the owner/ut i l i ty in the realization of a nuclear power project . It should therefore receive great a t ten t ion and be based on a careful analysis of all aspects, especially with regard to the availability of experienced manpower , existing and/or t o be developed as commensura te wi th the schedule. The main considerat ions are:

— The national nuclear power programme

— National part ic ipat ion policy and plans for development of local engineering and industrial capabilities

- Availability of qualified projec t management , co-ordinating and engineering manpower , particularly in the field of power plants

- Existing engineering and industrial infrast ructures

28 SECTION 1.1

LEGEND: DIRECT CONTROL

— — — — CONTRACTUAL RELATIONSHIP

FIG.1.1-5. National organization for nuclear power. (Example: Republic of Korea.)

N U C L E A R POWER P R O G R A M M E O V E R V I E W

COMMENT AR Y TO FIG.1.1-5

Organization Function

Economic Planning Board (EPB)

Ministry of Energy and Resources (MOER)

Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST)

Ministry of Commerce and Industry (MCI)

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)

Korea Electric Company (KECO)

Nuclear Regulatory Bureau (NRB)

Bureau of Atomic Energy (BAE)

Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI)

Korea Nuclear Fuel Development Institute (KNFDI)

Korea Nuclear Engineering Services (KNE)

Industries

National economic planning and development policy Co-ordinate and make final decision on the major economic matters in the government National budget Foreign capital and technology inducement

Responsible for energy and resources development Nuclear power programme within scope of economic plans and policies set forth by EPB Administrative control on all the activities of KECO

Planning and development of science and technology Technical manpower development Atomic energy development Nuclear regulatory function including nuclear licensing, safety and safeguards

Industrial development Export and import policies Policy decision on national participation in the nuclear industries

Advising Minister of MOST on atomic energy policy and planning matters, but no administrative functions (Eleven commissioners with two standing commissioners) Responsible for nuclear power plant construction and operation (government owned utility)

Responsible for all the governmental nuclear regulatory activities such as licensing, safety and safeguards

Planning of atomic energy development Nuclear technology development Nuclear manpower development

Atomic energy research and development Nuclear power technology development and technology transfer Nuclear manpower training

Nuclear fuel fabrication

Nuclear fuel cycle technology research and development

Nuclear power plant design and engineering Exclusive right on nuclear power plant architect-engineering (AE) in the country and Korean counterpart for the foreign AE working on nuclear power projects (KECO holds major shares of the KNE but KAERI is responsible for the management of the company)

Materials and components manufacturing for the nuclear power plants

30 SECTION 1.1

— Experience in similar projects

— Potential suppliers; their particular management and engineering experience and design features

— Standardizat ion and provenness of the proposed reactor type

— Quality of collaboration with nuclear consulting engineers and/or architect-engineer

— Government and industrial relationships with supplier's country

— Economic considerations

— Financing prospects

— Warranty and liability considerations

The dif ferent contract types can be grouped in to three basic categories:

— Turnkey contract, where a single main cont rac tor or a consort ium takes the overall responsibility for design, const ruct ion and s tar tup of t he whole project , possibly including at least the first fuel core.

— Non-turnkey split package contract, where the overall responsibility for design and construct ion is divided among a relatively small number of contractors , who manage, engineer, construct and /or manufac tu re a large por t ion of the works, e.g. entire systems, buildings, etc. One of these contrac tors usually has the responsibility fo r overall system integration and funct iona l design as well as project co-ordination and interfacing. Typical packages are:

• Nuclear steam supply system (NSSS) or nuclear island • Turbo-generator (TG) or conventional island • Balance of plant (BOP) • Architect-engineering ' Civil works • Fuel

— Multiple package contract, where the utility either within its own organization or through its architect-engineer assumes direct responsibility for the design and construct ion management of the project with a large n u m b e r of contracts (of the order of a hundred) .

The usual lead responsibilities for these basic contrac t types are presented in Table 1 . 1 - 2 .

Turnkey contract usually implies tha t the whole project is under the responsi-bility of a main con t rac tor who is also in charge of projec t management and overall design of t h e plant . This approach is particularly suitable for utilities with

stringent l imitations in project management and engineering resources in the nuclear field. The division of work between the supplying main contrac tor and the operat ing uti l i ty is basically no t much dif ferent f r o m that in o ther high-technology, high-safety requirement products , such as aircraft . An experienced, relatively small util i ty group is needed, starting in the pre-project activities, t o obtain good contract defini t ion and product specification, to supervise contrac t execut ion and sometimes also t o handle directly smaller sub-contracts fo r site infras t ructure and o ther owner 's supply items. The degree of utility involvement is negotiated beforehand and should be clearly defined in the contract . Experience in developed countries shows tha t the degree of utility involvement increases rapidly as the utility engineering and operat ions expertise and project management capabilities increase. Under such circumstances a cont inued use of this contract type is apparent ly more associated with liability and warranty considerations than with available util i ty manpower .

For the main contractor , usually a company with overall systems design experience such as an NSSS supplier, the organization and manpower requirements for a tu rnkey contrac t is one of t he greatest challenges in the industry. Experienced project managers f r o m other tu rnkey projects, e.g. refineries, fossil power plants etc., experienced nuclear systems engineers, and repeated experience with this type of contract are proven requirements for sat isfactory performance.

The tu rnkey contract can o f fe r certain advantages such as benefi t f r o m standard-ized designs and proven reference plants f rom the same main contractor . On the o ther hand, t he uti l i ty 's influence on design and construct ion of the project is very limited. Transfer of technology would also be limited, unless specifically provided for in the overall supply arrangements.

In the non-turnkey split package contract, f r o m two to several package contracts are defined and a minor i ty por t ion , i.e. 10 to 20% is directly handled be tween the util i ty and local sub-contractors. The uti l i ty 's scope of supply can vary sub-stantially, depending on its engineering capability and experience. The uti l i ty makes all key decisions with regard to overall aspects of the project and the management of its implemenat ion. The util i ty places a limited number of package contracts fo r t he supply of the NSSS, turbine, balance of plant, construct ion, fuel and all t he services that it is no t able or willing to per form.

In this case the util i ty must have some engineering capability, since it has t o pe r fo rm a certain number of activities in the overall management of the project . Normally its engineering capacity is no t sufficient for accomplishing all the project tasks, and it contracts the services of an architect-engineer. The architect-engineer pe r fo rms all the necessary plant design activities, most of the tasks required for licensing and acts as a part of the uti l i ty 's staff in the overall manage-ment , equipment procurement , const ruct ion management , plant s tar tup, etc. The share of all these engineering activities between the utility and the architect-engineer varies f r o m case t o case, as it depends on the ut i l i ty 's experience and

32 SECTION 1.1

capabilities. In this way the uti l i ty can shape the design of the plant to its liking, and make max imum use of competi t ive bidding and sometimes also of separate financing, fo r the d i f ferent supply packages. However, qualifications and quant i ty of manpower in the management and engineering categories for the util i ty and its architect-engineer are no t much different f rom those for the main contrac tor in the tu rnkey case. F o r most developing countries having stringent l imitations on manpower resources for project management and engineering and insufficient industrial and educat ional infrastructures, this means the purchase of a large por t ion of these services abroad in the initial phase.

Particular a t t en t ion must be paid t o assignment of interfacing and co-ordination responsibilities among the contractors and the per formance of overall system design and integration by t h e most experienced contrac tor (sometimes an experienced util i ty assumes this func t ion and responsibility). Warranties are usually contracted with the respective suppliers for each separate package of goods and services.

In the multiple package contract t h e uti l i ty is directly in charge of all phases of the project . Al though the NSSS may still be sub-contracted as a warranted complete system, responsibility and liability for overall engineering and project management are now clearly with the uti l i ty. The qualif ications and numbers of professionals required are comparable t o those of a main contrac tor in the turnkey case. An architect-engineer may provide an experienced and readily available staff which acts on the orders of the util i ty. The uti l i ty or its architect-engineer will p roduce most of t he specifications and drawings, prepare the safety reports , and will directly supervise construct ion, sometimes erecting the plant itself.

This op t ion gives the uti l i ty the maximum oppor tun i ty to select the plant which suits it best and to influence the design. It also may provide the best chance of having a min imum cost plant and of realizing max imum early national part icipat ion in selected por t ions of the plant. Large and sometimes goverment-owned utilities have been quite successful with this approach in developed and developing countries. On the o ther hand, this contract puts the burden of man-power supply on t h e util i ty and its architect-engineer. It leaves the util i ty with min imum protec t ion if construct ion is delayed or design and per formance are inadequate .

1.1.7. Overall manpower requirements for nuclear power projects and programmes

Nuclear power activities require a large number of people of d i f ferent levels of qualif ication in d i f ferent organizations. The requirements will be described in more detail fo r each activity of a nuclear power project and nuclear power programme in the fol lowing sections of this chapter . T h e to ta l manpower resources required differ widely among different countries, as they depend principally on the respective nuclear power programmes, on the degree of nat ional part icipation and on local-conditions.

6000 - -

5000 -

3000 -

2000 -

Z c o r w • ¡ a

o í w 7) >0 7) O O 70 > S s M

o < w PS < W 3

FIG. 1.1-6. Overall manpower requirements of a nuclear power project.

U ) u>

34 SECTION 1.1

Manpower requ i remen ts

20 0 0 0

5 0 0 0

Legend: — • — P r o j e c t engineering (including tech nica I-support services) and construction and erection management by Utility (Sériônnel

^ Operation (including fuel procurement) by ut i l i ty personnel Total construction and erection craftsmen on sites

0 . 8 9 0 1 . 8 1 5 _ [ _ 3 . 6 3 0

1 9 7 0 1971 1972 1973

10 .065 1 5 . 6 1 5 . 7 1 . 5 4 0 2 5 . 6 1 5 2 9 . 6 9 0

Cumu la t i ve nuclear

capac i ty c o m m i t t e d (GW(e) )

3 5 . 4 4 0 j 4 2 . 4 9 0 |

1 9 7 4 1 9 7 5 1 9 7 6 1977 1 9 7 8 1979 1 9 8 0 (Year )

FIG.1.1-7. Manpower requirements in a large nuclear programme. (Example: France.) March 1979 estimate.

The power rating of the plant has practically no effect on the manpower requirements of support ing activities and most project-related activities such as pre-project activities, project management and engineering, qual i ty assurance and control , commissioning, operat ion and maintenance. It has only a relatively small effect on the requirements for manufactur ing and construct ion. Thus the overall ranges given in this Guidebook can be considered as applicable to any size of nuclear power plant between 600 and 1300 MW(e).

The overall manpower requirements of a nuclear power project are illustrated in Fig. 1.1 —6. During the pre-project and early implementa t ion phases, relatively few (50 to 100) but highly qualified professionals are needed. The requirements start to increase strongly when the commitments are made (letter of in tent , contract) t o install the plant . Manufactur ing and construct ion are the activities which have by far the largest manpower requirements, of the order of 5000 people. Most of these (about 85%) will be technicians and craf tsmen. In nuclear power, the requirements for unskilled labour are very low (of the order of 10%), al though in some countr ies their p ropor t ion might be considerably higher, mainly owing to local labour practices and occupat ional policies. Professionals during the design and const ruct ion phase are needed primarily fo r project management and engineering (250 to 350). Finally, fo r operat ion and maintenance, a staff of

about 170 to 270 highly trained people are required. In general, it can be esti-mated that the manpower requirements of a nuclear power project are on the order of 6000 professionals, technicians and craf tsmen during its peak period, and are relatively small but no t less impor tant during the initial phases and during commercial opera t ion of the plant .

The overall manpower requirements of a nuclear power programme are composed of those resulting f r o m the successive projects being under taken and the support ing activities which are carried out . Nuclear power programmes vary widely among the different countries, so there is no way to generalize. Total manpower requirements can vary between a few thousand people for a count ry with a very modest nuclear power programme without m u c h national part icipat ion, up to 100000 to 2 0 0 0 0 0 people for a country with a strong nuclear commi tmen t and self-supporting capability. Figure 1.1—7 shows an example of the evolution of the manpower requirements for some nuclear power activities in a count ry (France) with a large nuclear power programme (more details on this example and on others are given in Chapter 2 and its Appendix) .

1.2. PRE-PROJECT ACTIVITIES

1.2.1. Nuclear power programme planning

The question of h o w to start considering nuclear power plants for electricity generat ion must be answered individually for ,each country . The organization and management of energy planning in general and electricity product ion in particular are also the responsibilities of each country .

In the past , government organizations such as a tomic energy commissions have been generally given the responsibility fo r establishment of nuclear power programmes and policies, as well as t he development of the first nuclear power stations. But with progress in the nuclear power programmes, there is a marked tendency to give electrical utilities (private or governmental) the responsibility of executing the nuclear power plant projects. Technical expertise in government organizations, however, is still needed to provide background fo r policy decisions on cont inuat ion and expansion of the programme, the fuel cycle t o be adopted, bilaterial and multilateral agreements, regulatory requirements, and support ing research and development .

The format ion of a central group is recommended with the task of defining the nuclear power programme in policy, scope, size, schedule, budget and man-power requirements. The organization should be such that , as the programme is implemented , the s t ructure can be modif ied and adjusted according t o need. The central group, however, should remain ful ly s taffed, and continually review and upda te the programme as it is implemented. This group should repor t directly t o a government ministry o r organization, or be part of it and be adequately co-ordinated and related t o o ther organizations in the country , such as utilities, industrial firms, research and development insti tutes in energy and a tomic energy, and educational insti tutions. It should be s taffed with at least 5 to 10 profes-sionals initially.

The tasks t o be per formed are complex and cover a wide range of subjects of which specific nuclear knowledge is only one. The staff should have ample professional experience in planning. They should be preferably generalists with some nuclear background or training. One or two of them should have a solid background in nuclear engineering and nuclear power . It is difficult to f ind professionals who satisfy completely the technical qualifications especially in a count ry which is starting t o plan a nuclear power programme, so this central g roup should be complemented by advisors or consultants as needed. The staff may also be involved in non-nuclear power planning matters.

1.2.2. Power system planning

Power system planning is a componen t of a more general area, namely energy planning and economic development planning. It covers the determinat ion of the

PRE-PROJECT ACTIVITIES 37

fu tu re electricity demand and its supply, taking into account the political, econo-mic, technical and environmental fac tors and influences.

Tradit ionally, power system planning has been mainly related to power generation expansion planning, owing to the fact that investment in the electricity distr ibution system, notwithstanding its relatively high value, has t o be done in any case and is somewhat independent of the generat ion system. Transmission is heavily af fec ted by the location of generating units. Strengthened transmission systems through interconnect ions with neighbouring countr ies as well as jo in t border projects may also be considered.

The main factors in power system planning are:

— Study of the electric load forecast for a period of 10 to 30 years, based on reliable informat ion and on expected national development .

— Evaluation of the energy resources available in the fu tu re for electricity generat ion and the foreseeable t rends in the technical and economic characteristics of these energy sources including reliability and assurance of supply.

— Evaluation of economic and technical characteristics of the existing system of generating uni ts (in opera t ion, under construct ion or decided) and of the potent ia l units being considered for system expansion. These characteristics include capital investment , fuel costs, operat ion and maintenance costs, efficiencies, ef fects on system stability and reliability, etc.

— Assessment of requirements for and impact on labour market and industrial infrastructures.

— Assessment of impact of initial financing, domest ic and foreign currency requirements , as well as of long-term effects on the trade balance.

— Evaluation of feasibility, costs, financing and schedule of associated transmission system.

— Economic opt imizat ion of the system expansion.

Power system planning is a cont inuous activity in any util i ty whether nuclear power is considered or not . It requires a relatively small bu t experienced staff of about 3 to 5 professionals (possibly more for very large systems and utilities). Consultants may be employed in an advisory status. The activity is of a systems analysis character and is quite complex.

Should nuclear power be considered a viable op t ion , expert knowledge about nuclear power becomes necessary. An expert opinion may provide initial guidance for the size and timing of a first nuclear project . If requested by a Member State, the IAEA would send a preliminary advisory mission t o the country to analyse the

38 SECTION 1.1

situation and recommend whether a nuclear power planning s tudy (NPPS) is warranted. The carrying out of an NPPS has the advantage that the count ry acquires the capability and means (i.e. the WASP Compute r Programme) for carrying o u t subsequent economic opt imizat ion studies on its own.

The e f fo r t tha t such an NPPS might require depends strongly on the extent of availability of data needed for the study. Once these data have been collected, the required e f fo r t is of the order of 2 t o 4 people working for 2 t o 4 m o n t h s on each specific study. The o u t p u t of this pre-project activity is a report on the count ry ' s power demand and the role and condit ions for nuclear power t o part icipate in the supply.

The professionals for the s tudy should preferably come f r o m the uti l i ty, t he eventual owner of the plant . Involvement and assistance should also be sought f r o m the nat ional organization for nuclear power programme planning (see Section 1.2.1). The lead professional should have power system planning experience as well as specialized knowledge of nuclear power. He may become involved in the nuclear power feasibility studies as well as in project implementat ion. The establishment of cont inui ty should in general be p romoted .

1.2.3. Feasibility studies

If the power system planning indicates tha t the operat ion of a nuclear power plant within the next 12 to 15 years is a desirable or at least viable op t ion , then the next stage involves planning for this project . The term 'feasibility s tudy ' usually implies consideration and determinat ion of:

— The capacity of the nuclear plant with respect t o grid characteristics — The date for commercial opera t ion — The site fo r the power plant (Section 1.2.4) — The economic condit ions and financial requirements — The fuel p rocurement possibilities — The policy and strategy regarding national part icipation — The contractual possibilities fo r implementat ion of the project — The schedule for implementat ion of the project — The organization for the project — The availability and development of the necessary infras t ructures — The manpower requirements and development for the project

The feasibility s tudy is primarily intended to provide the authori t ies with all necessary in format ion needed t o decide on the implementat ion of the project . To p e r f o r m such an interdisciplinary study, 10 to 15 professionals will be required, assisted by part- t ime experts (advisors, consultants) in specific subjects. The durat ion of a feasibility s tudy is usually 12 to 18 mon ths and a total e f for t of about 300 man-months is required, no t including site evaluation, which might be treated as a separate study (see Section 1.2.4).

Some personnel f r o m the nat ional organization (Section 1.2.1) and the power system planning e f for t (Section 1.2.2) would logically expand their work into this activity and would fo rm the feasibility team with o ther professionals, who could have gained their experience in non-nuclear projects ( thermal plants, refineries, airports, etc.) .

Feasibility studies are definitely project-oriented but , within a nuclear power programme which includes successive projects, t he activity acquires a continuing character. Thus, the task force or group should be maintained as an organic unit with the purpose of performing similar studies and acting as an advisory body to the decision-makers in mat ters tha t require detailed in-depth analysis. The basic qualif ications of the staff of this pe rmanent feasibility s tudy unit are professional experience and capability for the co-ordination and per formance of inter-disciplinary complex studies. The complement of specialized knowledge in nuclear power or o ther specific subjects can be supplied through ad-hoc experts added t o the group, or through consultants.

1.2.4. Site evaluation

The selection of a satisfactory site fo r a nuclear power plant demands that a large n u m b e r of fac tors be examined. Adequate sites for conventional power plants will no t necessarily qualify for nuclear power plants. The main consider-ations fo r nuclear siting are:

— Integration in to the electric system — Geology and tec tonic — Seismology — Engineering seismology — Heat removal (including dispersion in water and ext reme phenomenon) — Hydrology — Demography — Meteorology (including dispersion in air and ext reme phenomenon) — Nuclear safety and radiation pro tec t ion aspects — Environmental effects — Risks f r o m man-made events — Local inf ras t ruc ture — Access — Legal aspects — Public acceptance

A preliminary site survey has t o be per formed fo r the whole region by a knowledgeable domest ic team with the assistance of experts . This will allow the selection of a small number of candidate sites f r o m which one or t w o preferred sites, t o be evaluated in detail, will be chosen and factored in to bids specifications

40 SECTION 1.1

and plant preliminary design. A preliminary evaluation of the site-related design inputs (design bases) and of their possible variations has t o be per fo rmed .

Manpower can be shared between site evaluation and o ther pre-project tasks, in particular with the group performing the feasibility study. However, in the site selection e f for t , experts f rom many disciplines must be represented, not necessarily full-time. The areas of speciality are outl ined by the above siting considerations. Experienced consultants f rom within or outside the country can be hired for most of the e f fo r t ; such consultants must have had special experience in nuclear safety-related areas such as seismology, hydrology and meteorology; they should also have expertise in the safety and radiat ion protec t ion aspects of nuclear power plants.

The lead in this task should be in the hands of at least two professionals f r o m the uti l i ty with nuclear background and several years of experience. The emphasis of their work would be in the areas of overall co-ordination, demography, radiology, external dangers and transmission. The team may require an additional 3 to 5 members which can be drawn f r o m other areas of the ut i l i ty , the national organization and /or consultants. The intensity of this work depends primarily on site difficult ies and schedule requirements. A to ta l e f for t of at least 50 man-months (professional) should be expected for this preliminary assessment.

If no adequate prior data are available for the region, the e f fo r t may increase to more than a hundred man-months with the corresponding impact on staff and /or schedule.

When the site has been selected, it has to be qualified and the site related inputs for the preferred site have to be definitively evaluated. Conf i rmat ion is needed tha t exclusion factors for t he site do no t exist. This involves a substantial amount of field survey of the site vicinity, sophisticated drilling equipment and measuring instruments. Above all, a permit fo r early site access will be needed for the activities in geology, hydrology and meteorology.

The to ta l manpower e f for t required for site qualification is of the order of 15 to 20 professional man-years, of which 6 t o 8 man-years correspond t o various specialized experts. If a very particular problem such as a capable faul t occurs on the site, these values may be multiplied by a factor of two or three.

Site qualif icat ion with a typical durat ion of about 18 m o n t h s has been included in the overall schedule for a nuclear power project (Fig. 1.1 - 1 ) as part of the projec t implementa t ion phase. It is, however, a direct cont inuat ion of the site survey and an integral par t of t he site evaluation activity. I t could be (and somet imes it is) per formed before the decision t o embark on the nuclear power project is adopted , and thus it has been discussed in the 'pre-project activities' section.

Site evaluation is a project-oriented activity and involves many specific fields of knowledge and expertise. For a relatively large util i ty with several successive projects, siting could be considered as a continuing activity under the responsi-

bility and co-ordination of a permanent unit. It does not, however, seem expedient to have as permanent staff all the experts needed, except those in critical disciplines for the region (for example: seismology).

1.2.5. Manpower requirements for pre-project activities

In summary, pre-project activities require relatively few but highly qualified professionals. Table 1.12—1 in Section 1.12 lists the manpower requirements and technical qualifications, while Fig. 1.13—1 gives the loading curve for these activities. It should be noted that all pre-project activities are considered essential for national participation (see Section 2.3.2). Since these activities overlap quite a bit, there is a need for particularly close co-operation and transfer of data and findings. Experienced staff should be used quite flexibly in this early phase, more in a task force style than in a rigorous organizational structure. Many times such staff could be employed on either side of the line dividing adjacent tasks and activities.

The numbers quoted in the text as well as in Table 1.12—1 should be interpreted with great caution. They always refer to qualified people. Quantity is not and cannot be made a substitute for knowledge and experience. For all these activities, quality is essential.

1.3. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

This is definitely a project-oriented activity, however, with several projects in different stages of development, the overall manpower requirements tend to remain at a certain constant level depending on the number of s imultaneous projects.

1.3.1. Project management

The projec t management activity starts with the definit ion of the project as a un ique system to be produced with certain inputs, constraints and goals, ending with the turnover of the complete funct ioning system to another organizational ent i ty , which will be in charge of operat ion and maintenance of the completed project . Al though conceptually applicable t o any well-defined system or sub-system, the manpower requirements described below are for one of the most challenging examples, the project management of the complete nuclear power plant .

1.3.1.1. Utility project management

For the purpose of this description of project management , it is assumed that the responsibility for design and construct ion is delegated t o a main con-tractor , who therefore requires a large project managment and project engineering ef for t (see Section 1.3.1.2). Should the utility choose not t o delegate all or part of these responsibilities it will have to carry out these tasks and increase its staff accordingly. The util i ty project group will represent the interests of the utility in t h e pre-contract , contract ing and post-contract phases of project imple-menta t ion . The breakdown into these phases of what is in fact a cont inuous activity highlights the particular importance of the contract fo r this key group. Before the start of project implementat ion activities one or two professionals with project management experience must be assigned to the nuclear power project within the util i ty or the appropriate national organization in charge. These professionals should preferably have a nuclear engineering background and/or obtain the necessary addit ional training. A project manager should be chosen and authorized t o control all project mat ters and build up a multidisciplinary group of engineers t o supervise the specification, design, manufac ture , construct ion and commissioning of the plant.

During the pre-contract phase the project management team could work as a task force and serve as the project representat ion for the util i ty wi th at least one responsible and experienced professional fo r each of the following areas: systems analysis, radiat ion protect ion, reactor systems, auxiliary systems and secondary cycle, electrical systems, civil and structural, nuclear fuel ; licensing, commercial and legal aspects.

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION 43

During contract negotiat ion the project group should grow t o about 30 experienced people consisting of a core of the project manager assisted by a staff of 5 t o 10 professionals and the beginning of an engineering depar tment (see also Section 1.3.2). This team has to handle all technical and commercial discussions which lead to the awarding of the contract(s) and then moni to r its p roper execut ion f rom the s tandpoint of the utility. The support ing engineering activity of t he util i ty is seen as an integral part of util i ty project management in terms of t he dis t r ibut ion of responsibilities assumed here.

During the post-contract phase, the uti l i ty project management group will increase t o 50 to 60 professionals including engineering, bu t excluding QA/QC implementa t ion . This group will be involved in construct ion and erection unti l the operat ions and maintenance group takes over the completed plant . The core of this project management group will have t o contain about 15 t o 20 highly qualified and experienced professionals.

Table 1.12—2(a) contains a summary of the manpower requirements and technical qualif ications of the ut i l i ty 's project management activity and in Fig. 1.13—2 a loading curve is presented.

Regarding organizational structures, d i f ferent types can be adopted depending mainly on the uti l i ty 's prevailing practice. An example is presented in Fig. 1 . 3 - 1 . In general, a matr ix- type organization for project management seems to be advisable because of t he great complexi ty of a nuclear power project , where bo th specialized funct ional skills and overall co-ordination have to be combined to achieve the aim of gett ing the project done on schedule, within the budget and with the required quali ty. The project manager in a matr ix- type organization has the au thor i ty to tell all the members of the project team what to do and when, bu t no t h o w to do it.

The main func t ions of the ut i l i ty project management th roughout project implementa t ion are as follows:

Pre-contract phase

During this phase the project team will primarily be dealing wi th the bidding process and working on the following activities (selecting consultants where needed):

- Cont inued site evaluation ( f rom pre-project activities) consisting mainly of site qualif ication

- Technical specification of the plant and bid invitation

- Analysis of the supply marke t

- Licence application for site, site-opening and /or plant concept

- Bid evaluation

FIG.1.3-1. Organizational structure of utility project management. (Example)

Contrac t ing phase

The contract ing activities really start during bid evaluation, with the detailed discussions and negotiat ions with the bidders. These activities consist of :

— Defini t ion of contrac t type

— Defini t ion of contrac t scope and interfaces

— Defini t ion of systems and supplies outs ide the vendor scope

— Arrangements regarding t ransfer of technology

— Negotiat ions of t h e price, payment condi t ions and warranties

— Commercial and financing arrangements with their legal considerations

— Procurement of lead materials, componen t s and services

— Procurement of fuel cycle materials and services; assurance of the supply of fuel and essential reactor materials and componen t s

— Preparat ion of site infras t ructure

— Selection and defini t ion of the codes and standards tha t will be adopted as contract base in plant design and construct ion

— Suppor t of regulatory/licensing and public in format ion activities

— Signing of contract(s)

Post-contract phase

The post-contract activities involve:

— Preparing, reviewing and adapting the necessary project planning and implementa t ion schedules

— Assuring t imely delivery of i tems in the uti l i ty 's scope of supply

— Carrying out expedit ing services

— Maintaining effective project cost control

— Certifying interim progress payment s

— Preparing and issuing progress repor ts

— Carrying out plant design reviews to ensure adherence t o contractual condi t ions and regulatory requirements

— Introducing and co-ordinating qual i ty assurance and control programmes

46 SECTION 1.1

— Reviewing quality assurance and quali ty control procedures of contract(s)

— Ensuring quality control and proper construct ion supervision at the plant site

— Supervising componen t manufactur ing

— Plant licensing: applications, revisions and negotiat ions

— Reviewing and approving plant safety and engineering procedures, as well as plant operat ion and maintenance manuals

— Supervising plant commissioning and reviewing test results

— Training of operat ions personnel

1.3.1.2. Main contractor project management

The overall co-ordination and control of all the di f ferent project implemen-ta t ion activities is the func t ion of project management . Similar to the condit ions adopted in discussing the ut i l i ty 's project management , it is assumed for the purpose of this description tha t the responsibility for design, engineering, con-struct ion and funct ioning of the nuclear power project is delegated to a main contractor . This would correspond to the case of a main contrac tor in a tu rnkey contrac t and also t o the case of a non-turnkey contract where the ut i l i ty delegates the above responsibilities t o an architect-engineer who takes on the role of a main contrac tor . In any o ther case, the utility (with or wi thout t he assistance of con-sultants or an architect-engineer) retains the full responsibility for overall project management with all its func t ions and manpower requirements as described below.

A fairly equal ranking, co-operative but business-like relationship between the util i ty and the main cont rac tor is highly desirable. The contacts be tween these organizations are the respective project managers, each one directing the project activities within his own organization.

The first project representative in the vendor 's staff (it might be the project manager) should be appointed to the marketing team during the bidding and bid-evaluation phase, in order t o bring the necessary knowledge of the contract in to the fu tu re project group. No later than at the closing of the supply contract , the lead role of market ing should end and a project manager must be p u t in charge. The projec t manager should be a professional with at least five years of prior nuclear power experience and demonstrated project management ability in another project team, not necessarily for a nuclear power plant.

The project manager will normally start wi th a relatively small staff of 2 to 3 engineers t o assist h im (at least one with several years of experience in nuclear power projects) , and should gradually build up his uni t t o ful l size by the t ime plant const ruct ion is initiated (see Fig. 1 . 1 3 - 2 ) . Table 1.12—2(b) contains

the manpower requirements and technical qualif ications for the projec t manage-ment of a main contractor , which corresponds approximately to the organizational s t ructure example as shown in Fig. 1.3—2.

Project management is normally executed funct ional ly (sometimes with the help of escalation-paths t o upper management ) within the f r amework of a matr ix organization, of which a typical example is presented in Fig. 1.3—3.

The main func t ions of project management (main contractor) are outl ined as follows:

Pre-contract phase

— Support of market ing

— Preparatory activities for the contract and post-contract phases

Contract ing phase

— Agreement on interfaces and scope of supply of main cont rac tor

— Defini t ion of technical aspects of the contract

— Contract price and payment terms

— Contract def ini t ion and closing

Post-contract phase

— Establishing a project b reakdown fo r hardware and sof tware and allocating project budget via individual project task orders

— Preparing the project schedule and controlling deviations

— Ensuring projec t defini t ion in the fo rm of project requirements and specifications and by controlling changes

— Setting up purchasing procedures and controls

— Expedit ing engineering and sub-contractor deliveries

— Controlling project interfaces inside and outside the company (in con-sort ium and sub-contractor relationships)

— Ensuring t imely and proper preparat ion of licensing documenta t ion and applications as well as adherence to compliance procedures

— Providing problem-solving leadership and assistance where needed, and establishing a project risk analysis and risk reduct ion programme

LEGEND: Reporting lines Communication lines

FIG. 1.3-2. Organizational structure of main contractor project management. (Example)

FIG. 1.3-3. A typical matrix organization for project management.

50 SECTION 1.3

— Monitoring and controlling costs

— Ensuring progress payments and preparing claims for just if ied price changes

— Ensuring quali ty control and quality assurance

— Providing assistance, proper interfacing and t ransfer of in format ion to the site management and the ut i l i ty /owner

— Report ing progress at short intervals (e.g. mon th ly )

1.3.2. Project engineering

1.3.2.1. Scope of engineering

Engineering of a nuclear power plant starts with the controlled ordering or author izat ion ( through project management , within budgetary and schedule constraints) of a design or analysis activity and ends with the issuance of drawings, specifications and analysis reports , which allow the p roduc t ion and installation of hardware and ul t imately plant operat ion. Equipment engineering of sub-contractors is t reated in Section 1.4. Regardless of the type of organization which may exist in a given count ry for nuclear power project implementa t ion, project engineering const i tu tes the greatest challenge in manpower development, requiring as it does large numbers of highly qualified personnel. It is a key activity in project implementa t ion, which interrelates with all o ther project activities.

Engineering of a nuclear power plant of a proven concept (i.e. no t first of a kind) involves up t o three million man-hours accounting for about 10% of total plant costs. Incorrect , insufficient or unt imely engineering means schedule delays and cost-overruns and can affect plant safety reliability and availability. In Table 1.3—1 a typical distr ibution of the engineering e f for t in the reactor and auxiliary systems is presented.

Most developing countr ies have no t been able to play a major role in this activity in the early stages of their nuclear power programme; a stepwise buildup of national part icipat ion is, however, possible. Transfer of manpower and capa-bilities f r o m o ther national industries is easiest fo r t he lowest degree of specializa-t ion (see also Chapter 2, Sections 2.3 and 2.4).

1.3.2.2. Organization and manpower requirements for project engineering

The engineering e f fo r t of nuclear power projects is in general per formed by a separate depar tmen t or organizational unit , because of the specialization and unique requi rements of such projects. An engineering depar tment is usually self-sufficient and may per form, in addit ion to the actual 'project engineering' work,

TABLE 1 . 3 - 1 . DISTRIBUTION O F ENGINEERING E F F O R T IN THE REACTOR AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

Task % of e f f o r t

Building s t ructura l and archi tectural design 10

Building hardware , liners, cranes, vent i la t ion 5

Layout , ar rangements 9

Pr imary system design 15

Core design and shielding 7

Core c o m p o n e n t mechanical design 3

Safety and sys tems analysis 18

Safety and auxil iary systems design 19

Electrical equ ipmen t design, in s t rumenta t ion and cont ro l 12

Plant integrated design 2

Tota l 100

central services such as scheduling, procurement , personnel management and administrat ion. An example of a main contractor organization is shown in Fig. 1.3—4. Examples of engineering depar tment organizations are presented in Figs 1.3—5(a), (b) and (c). Owing to similar p roduc t sub-divisions, the hardware and sof tware specializations lead t o a similar structuring of engineering disciplines in companies around the world. Minor variations primarily exist because of di f ferent philosophies in combining or dividing work on specializations such as core design and fuel engineering, safety analysis and licensing, componen t design and related analysis, etc.

Experience has shown tha t t he interrelationship of di f ferent engineering disciplines and of engineering wi th project management has worked ou t best with a matr ix- type organization. Since no one can maintain proficiency in all disciplines simultaneously, an authori tat ive chain-of-command approach is ineffective and dangerous in this activity. An environment has to be created where lead engineers can speak up t o represent their disciplines. This inevitably leads to a certain a m o u n t of management by commit tees and sometimes to confusion. Proven ingredients fo r successful engineering management are:

- Knowledgeable and co-operative persons in key posit ions

— Concurrence of project management and project engineering in ma jo r decisions

FIG. 1.3-4. Main-contractor organization. (Example)

FIG.1.3-5(a). Organization of an engineering department. (Example 1)

* Civil, mechanical and electrical engineers. * * Plant layout, thermodynamics, stress analysis, water treatment, geology, hydraulics, nuclear analysis.

7) O «- t ta o H

S •fl r m S w Z H > H O Z

56 SECTION 1.1

- Early documenta t ion and wri t ten approval of decisions in the fo rm of engineering documents and specifications and f i rm control over any changes or deviations f rom them.

The engineering organization provides only services, in the f o r m of pre-liminary and conceptual designs, licensing documenta t ion , basic and detailed design, equipment specifications, manufac tur ing surveillance, modif icat ions, erect ion and commissioning suppor t and as-built documenta t ion .

A uti l i ty may choose (if it has adequate capabil i ty) t o pe r fo rm project engineering within its own organization, with o r wi thout the assistance of an architect-engineering f i rm or consultants. It may also choose to delegate this responsibility to a main cont rac tor with adequate experience and capabili ty, while maintaining a supervisory func t ion carried ou t by the uti l i ty 's project management team (see Section 1.3.2.4). There is also the possibility of retaining some project engineering func t ions and delegating others. F o r the purpose of this description the delegation of the projec t engineering activity t o a main cont rac tor is assumed.

But, whatever approach is adopted, the overall project engineering e f for t and the corresponding manpower requirements are similar. Table 1.12—3 contains a summary of the manpower requirements and technical qualif ications for the project engineering activity. At the peak period for the engineering of a single uni t plant abou t 300 to 4 0 0 professionals and technicians are required according to the table , bu t this number might be substantially larger (even double) or somewhat smaller, depending on the scope of the engineering ef for t , prior experience of the organization and standardizat ion of designs. A typical loading curve is presented in Fig. 1.13—3 which shows tha t about 5% of the peak staff is required during the early stages of the project implementa t ion (bidding phase). Af t e r a le t ter of in ten t is issued, the staff would be gradually built up by the first year of construc-t ion to full size, where it would remain for one to two years and then gradually decrease.

Project engineering is a project-oriented activity; however, building u p and staff ing a nuclear power project engineering organization would hardly be justi-fiable or even feasible for a single project . Assuming a sequence of nuclear power projects , project engineering would become a continuing activity and the overall manpower requirements would depend on the number of projects t o be engineered simultaneously.

1.3.2.3. Phases of project engineering

At the outset of projec t activities, the uti l i ty project group has the lead role in defining, possibly with the help of consul tants , the nuclear power project in terms of plant size, site condi t ions and bid specifications. If the project engineering is t o be delegated, the major por t ion of the engineering e f for t is gradually taken over and per formed by t h e main contractor(s) , who will create their own project group.

(a) Plant concep tua l design

The conceptual design phase involves the following main activities:

— Defining the site condi t ions for consideration in plant design. Establish-men t of required plant elevation making provisions for pro tec t ion against f loods or tidal waves, if necessary. Making general arrangements of plant layout and fo r intake and discharge channels fo r cooling requirements . Defining design condi t ions with respect to safety standards and seismic analysis etc. (see Section 1.2.4). Determining the approxi-ma te size of the main and auxiliary buildings and the preliminary layout with due consideration t o space requirements fo r componen t delivery, erection and maintenance.

— Preliminary design of site access during const ruct ion and subsequent opera t ion of the plant . Preliminary design of ha rbour and docking facilities or defini t ion of uti l ization schemes of existing ones (if relevant).

— Ident if icat ion of h o t areas, clean areas and o the r critical areas. Preliminary design of access and working areas, with due consideration for worker safety and radiological pro tec t ion . Determinat ion of preliminary layout of indoor high-level radiat ion equipment so tha t maintenance work can be done with min imum radiation exposure of workers.

— Preliminary design of pro tec t ion devices and escape routes (shielding structures, parti t ions, isolation devices for radiat ion accidents, fire o r o ther abnormal condit ions).

— Determinat ion of water and power requirements during construct ion, commissioning and operat ion.

For the first nuclear power plant in a country , or a first unit at an unusual site, the conceptual design tasks can involve between 20 to 30 experienced engineers and technicians fo r a period of two and a half years ( for subsequent units or uncompl ica ted sites, one to one and a half years should be adequate) . It is a task tha t should normally be comple ted about seven years before commercial opera t ion of the plant .

At t he end of the conceptual design phase all ma jo r characteristics of t he plant should be defined and all quest ions with regard t o the feasibility and requi rements (safety authori t ies and ut i l i ty) of the plant and the site should have been answered. The results take the fo rm of systems descriptions, conceptual drawings, data compilat ion and preliminary licensing informat ion . These results should be subjected to an independent review by experienced engineers w h o are senior professionals no t previously involved in the conceptual design development . Consultants who have previous experience on o ther similar projects may also be

58 SECTION 1.1

utilized. For the required review, a total e f for t of at least 2000 man-hours would normally be required.

(b) Basic and detailed design engineering

The next phase of design engineering can be divided into two stages according t o the degree of sophistication of the task, namely basic and detailed design.

Basic design engineering can involve 3 0 0 0 0 0 to 5 0 0 0 0 0 man-hours for a period of 6 t o 12 months and a staff of around 200 to 300 people. A high level of engineering practice is required for this part of the design. It involves the following main tasks:

— Basic design criteria definit ion

— Preliminary engineering programme development

— Definit ion of applicable codes, standards and regulations (local and foreign)

— Definit ion of applicable engineering procedures

— Preliminary safety analysis report preparat ion

— General plant layout preparat ion

— Preliminary piping and ins t rumentat ion diagrams development

— Quality assurance programme preparation

— Listing of safety-related i tems

In this phase the safety criteria needed to meet the licensing requirements set by the national regulatory authori ty are defined. Also the reference plant fo r the project , if any, has to be defined.

The tasks of detailed design engineering involve about 2 5 0 0 0 0 0 man-hours of e f for t during a period of some five years. Involvement of practically the entire engineering organization is generally needed for the activities beyond the concep-tual design phase.

In particular, with respect to the three main parts of the plant - nuclear steam supply system (NSSS), turbo-generator (TG) and balance of plant (BOP) -design engineering takes into account the following aspects:

— NSSS and TG. These parts of the plant are generally of manufac ture r ' s standard design. There may be a need for some modif icat ions resulting f rom the site condit ions tha t will affect condenser size and tube material, turbine design, etc. as well as f rom the owner ' s requirements. If the local

industry is to supply some equipment for these parts of the plant , a greater amount of e f for t in the detailed design will be needed t o make this equ ipment compat ible with the manufac turer ' s s tandard design.

— BOP. This part of the project will involve special detailed design e f for t because of the large influence of site condit ions and relatively m o r e national part ic ipat ion to be expected.

There can be substantial national part ic ipat ion in detailed engineering even for a first project f r o m engineering f irms with experience in large industrial projects (petrochemical industries, power plants, etc.) and, in particular, in areas of building and system design with a low degree of nuclear specialization (see Section 2.3). The main tasks involved relate to:

— Detailed project planning and programming — Calculation and design of plant systems — Seismic analysis — Stress analysis fo r plant componen t s — Piping design — Transient calculations and accident analysis — Plant specification — Specification of equ ipment and components — Detailed plant drawings — Commissioning tests manual preparat ion — Operat ion, maintenance and emergency manuals preparat ion — Final safety analysis report preparat ion

In the per formance of the above tasks, the engineering organization must ensure that the design conforms to codes, regulations and standards as specified. The detailed design should be cont inuously reviewed to verify tha t safety engineering criteria and o ther relevant technical requirements are satisfied. In particular, design guides fo r piping, valves, storage tanks, cables, control panels, limits of allowable vibrations, t empera ture rise in bearings of rotat ing machines, etc. have to be in compliance with established standards.

Detailed design must also consider plant equipment reliability and operability. Ease of access for maintenance and inspection of equipment should receive careful a t tent ion. Adequa te space and suff icient hoisting capacities have to be verified. Adequate provisions for spare parts of equipment essential to opera t ion must be assured.

The preparat ion and review of equipment and componen t specifications const i tu te an impor tan t par t of the detailed engineering phase. The result of the design work will ul t imately be passed on to sub-contractors in the form of equip-ment and plant specifications and drawings. The produc t ion of these documents is a ma jo r e f for t involving no t only the design engineers but also o ther technical

60 SECTION 1.1

personnel knowledgeable in the areas of manufactur ing , materials, engineering, licensing and quali ty assurance. For specifications work, in particular, there should be at least 10 to 12 engineers with prior (not all nuclear) specification writing experience to lead the task of specifications development , including such activities as:

— Product ion — Internal review — Editing — Approval by utility — Compliance with regulatory requirements — Dealing with sub-contractors — Manufacturing — Quality assurance and quali ty control requirements — Revisions and updates — Final filing and retrieval

The above level of e f fo r t assumes tha t max imum use is made of common and generic equipment specifications and tha t substantial por t ions of these specifica-t ions are produced by the sub-contractors who will manufac tu re the equipment .

1.3.2.4. Utility's role in project engineering

In general, t he primary objective of an electric util i ty is the supply of elec-tr ici ty t o the public. It might also pe r fo rm project engineering f o r its own power plants, bu t this would not be the usual case for nuclear power plants. F r o m the national part icipat ion point of view, in the absence of local nuclear power project engineering capability, as large an involvement of the uti l i ty as possible would be preferable, bu t a realistic assessment of t he ut i l i ty 's available qualified manpower and expert ise may dictate d i f ferent arrangements which limit its role. But what-ever t he contractual arrangements may be, the owner of the plant must bear the overall responsibili ty for the plant and, in particular, the responsibility for all actions which are relevant t o ensuring plant safety and security.

Adequa te s taff ing with qualified personnel is the first and most impor tan t task the u t i l i ty /owner has to face. The type of contract would define the engineering tasks and func t ions t o be pe r fo rmed by the ut i l i ty 's personnel. This would mainly af fec t the quant i ty of qualified personnel required b u t no t their qualifications, which must be at the same level of expertise as those of the main cont rac tor ' s engineering staff .

The ut i l i ty/owner must also enforce surveillance and control that t he project develops in close confo rmi ty with and strict adherence to the safety codes and s tandards established by the regulatory author i ty . The ut i l i ty /owner will have to demonst ra te t o the regulatory au thor i ty tha t the plant will meet all the licensing

requirements and that it is capable of operating the plant in a safe and reliable manner . During engineering review the ut i l i ty/owner will therefore verify not only that the supply is within the established scope but also in strict conformi ty to the design assumed as reference for licensing compliance.

Effective and efficient practices for quali ty assurance must be enforced and/or suppor ted by the ut i l i ty 's engineering group and carefully and consistently executed at every stage of development of the project . Quality control auditing techniques must be devised whenever necessary during manufactur ing of compo-nents. The ut i l i ty 's manpower requirements associated with this activity will of course depend on whether it wants to pe r fo rm some complete quality control func t ions itself or retain only min imum quali ty assurance func t ions wi th four t o five professionals, delegating implementa t ion to others.

The ut i l i ty/owner could take responsibility for the design of certain parts of t he plant which are of a conventional nature and for which previous experience exists in its (possibly fossil power plant) engineering groups. For instance, a great deal of work in the areas of building design and civil engineering, auxiliary systems and facility design and transmission system design could be per formed by the ut i l i ty/owner 's personnel.

As for specification review and approval, the util i ty should make available two to three engineers who should seek advice f r o m the rest of the ut i l i ty staff as needed. Regulatory e f for t s in licensing and compliance would also require the ut i l i ty/owner 's part icipat ion and involve about four t o six professionals. For the ut i l i ty/owner 's minimal part icipation in the tasks described in this section, the project engineering manpower e f for t will amoun t to about 50 000 man-hours during the basic and detailed engineering phases of the project , which means a staff of about 25 professionals. This is par t of what has been defined as the uti l i ty project management e f for t (Section 1.3.1.1).

1.3.3. Procurement of equipment and materials

With a tu rnkey arrangement the main cont rac tor has the responsibility for p rocurement of every i tem of equipment and of material's within his scope of . supply, which could be the entire project . With non- turnkey arrangements the responsibility for procurement is either with the uti l i ty/owner, or can be shared among the uti l i ty, architect-engineer and system suppliers or contractors , each within its specific scope of supply.

Procurement of equipment for a specific plant is project-oriented, in that it involves every i tem for the entire nuclear power plant. But, of course, with several projects going on, the procurement activity acquires a continuing character and hence requires a permanent organizational uni t wi th the corresponding staff .

Procurement starts with the establishment of the need for equipment orders as dictated by the project schedule and the existence of equipment designs and

62 SECTION 1.1

specifications. It ends with the verification of the fu l f i lment of the supply contracts , which can last through the commissioning phase of the plant. The activity itself then cont inues throughout the opera t ion of the plant ; during this phase it consists of procuring replacement parts, spares, consumables. Procure-ment of fue l and fue l cycle services is usually treated as a separate activity (Section 1.8), bu t it could be part of the tasks to be per formed by the procure-ment unit .

The p rocurement activity has two principal aspects. One of them consists of the specific technical aspects, which are due to the nature of the i tems to be supplied; the o ther consists of the commercial and legal aspects, which depend on the applicable practices, rules, regulations and laws. Procurement , besides having an impor tan t inf luence on the financial and economic aspects of a project , also affects the project schedule as well as the reliability, availability and even safety of the plant . A specialized procurement uni t consisting of bo th business and engineering talent is therefore usually entrusted with:

— Establishment of procurement criteria — Procurement planning — Supplier qualification and selection — Bidding and bid evaluation — Contract ing — Contract moni tor ing and enforecement — Expedit ing — Handling of warranty claims

Through its activities, the procurement uni t can become the pr ime tool for the p romot ion of nat ional part icipation and the controlled stepwise involvement of qualified local industries. It could, in some cases, act as an intermediary between industries a t the threshold of a manufactur ing capability and project management and projec t engineering which might be re luctant t o switch f r o m an experienced foreign manufac turer .

If p rocurement is per formed by a centralized independent unit , this would require working with and for project management and engineering within the f r amework of a mat r ix organization. Some organizations choose a reporting relationship t o project management either directly or by delegating purchasing experts to the projec t group. Procurement could also be handled directly by project management or by project engineering. The manpower requirements and qualifications as presented in Table 1.12—4 correspond to a centralized independent p rocurement uni t and to the p rocurement of practically all plant i tems by this uni t . A staff of about 25 to 40 professionals and technicians would be required. A manpower loading curve is presented in Fig. 1.13—4.

The organizational s t ructure as well as manpower requirements would have to be adjusted t o the scope of responsibilities and supply which procurement has t o handle.

1.3.4. Quality assurance and quality control

1.3.4.1. Quality assurance and quality control programme

The fol lowing defini t ions are used in the IAEA's NUSS (Nuclear Safety Standards) programme:

— Quality assurance (QA). Planned and systematic actions necessary t o provide adequate confidence that an i tem or facility will pe r fo rm satisfactorily in service.

— Quality control (QC). Quali ty assurance actions which provide a means to control and measure the characteristics of an i tem, process or facility in accordance with established requirements.

Quality assurance and quali ty control start with the establishment of quality requirements for any safety-related engineering, material selection or manufac-turing activity and end with the safe and redundant filing of a record tha t t h e produc t complies with the quali ty requirements. Quali ty assurance and quali ty control work must already be pe r fo rmed in the pre-contract phase as part of bid specification and also in the p rocurement of materials and equipment ; it ex tends well into the plant commissioning phase. Fur the rmore , there is a cont inuing QA ef for t th roughou t the entire operat ion phase (see Section 1.7). As a consequence of regulatory requirements , bu t also as a wise investment towards the operat ing reliability of a complex produc t , each organization participating in activities affect ing the quality of a nuclear power plant has the obligation to establish its own quality assurance system.

The plant owner is ul t imately responsible for the effectiveness of all QA programme activities; therefore he must per form overall QA programme manage-ment . Each organization participating in a nuclear power project is required to implement only those activities of the quality assurance programme that apply t o its scope of assigned work. The co-ordination of the quali ty assurance activities of all par t ic ipants is the responsibility of the owner .

The organizational s t ructure for a quality assurance programme and t h e funct ional assignments shall take in to account the fact that execut ion of a quali ty assurance programme requires b o t h performers and verifiers. The organizational s t ructure and the funct ional assignments shall be such tha t :

— At ta inment of quali ty objectives is accomplished by those who have been assigned responsibility for performing the work; this may include exami-nations, checks and inspections of the work by the individual per forming the work .

— When verification of conformance to established requirements is necessary, it is carried ou t by those who do not have direct responsibility for per-forming the work.

64 SECTION 1.1

In each participating organization one or more key posit ions shall be estab-lished for t he quality assurance func t ions t o ensure tha t an appropriate quality assurance programme is established and effectively implemented and to verify tha t activities have been correctly per formed. Depending on the s t ructure , those assigned to pe r fo rm QA func t ions may fo rm a single unit or several uni ts covering separate quality assurance funct ions. For simplicity, they are usually referred to as the quality assurance uni t or depar tment .

The QA depar tment has a posi t ion in an organization equivalent to and completely independent of other depar tments such as engineering, procurement , etc. However, in some organizational structures, typical quality control funct ions can be separated f r o m the quality assurance depar tment and placed in those depar tments which are performing activities such as construct ion, procurement , manufactur ing, operat ion, etc. In this case quality assurance engineering, quality assurance programme co-ordination and auditing are organizationally separated f rom typical quality control activities such as construction-site and shop inspec-t ions as well as product acceptance testing.

A complete system for assuring the quality of the end produc t consists of three components :

— A producing organization capable of achieving the required quali ty in basic activities such as design, contruct ion, manufactur ing or operat ion.

— Quality control staff who control and verify the conformance of the o u t p u t of the producing organization to the pre-established requirements.

— Quality assurance depar tment or uni t responsible for quali ty assurance engineering, monitor ing of quali ty control activities and auditing of the quality assurance programme.

The ut i l i ty/owner is responsible for implementing the overall quality assurance programme for the plant . It will discharge this responsibility either directly or through contractual arrangement with its contractor(s) by delegating to them the const i tuent activities of the programme. The contractor(s) in their turn may delegate some of the programme activities to their sub-contractors or suppliers.

1.3.4.2. Manpower requirements and technical qualifications for QA/QC

In some countries formal qualifications are established for QA/QC activities. This is particularly the case with qualifications for inpection and test personnel or for audit personnel. Qualifications for inpection, examinat ion and test per-sonnel are generic in na ture and applicable to all phases of a nuclear power project such as construct ion, manufactur ing, fabrication, pre-operational and star tup testing and operations. Specialization in mechanical, electronic, electrical or o ther skills may determine the scope of individual tasks but it does not affect the general qualifications.

Qualifications may be categorized in to three levels:

— First-level: the person should be capable of performing and document ing the inspection and tests in accordance with procedures, documents , acceptance standards and practices.

— Second-level: the person, in addit ion to first-level capability, should be able t o pe r fo rm inspection and test planning, supervision and evaluation of results.

— Third-level: t he person should have all the capabilities of the second-level and should also be capable of evaluating the adequacy of specific training and evaluation programmes for inspection and test personnel.

These levels of personnel categorization are in tended to denote the func t ions t o be per formed and not t o const i tu te a l imitation with regard to organizational position or professional status.

Personnel fo r non-destructive examinat ions may be certified fo r one or more non-destructive examinat ion (NDE) me thods in addit ion to the general qualifica-tions. Qualif ications fo r the NDE personnel in the nuclear industry are equivalent to those for o ther industries.

Table 1.12—5 contains a summary of t he manpower requirements and technical qualif ications for the QA/QC activities. These have been distr ibuted among the ut i l i ty/owner, the project engineering organization and the suppliers and contractors in general. According to the data contained in the table, the overall manpower requirements would be in the range of 30 to 50 professionals and 50 to 70 technicians. A loading curve is presented in Fig. 1.13—5, which shows that staffing should start during the early stages of project implementa t ion; it would reach a peak during the second year a f te r start of construct ion and this peak would then be maintained practically t o the end of the commissioning phase.

1.3.5. Plant safety

1.3.5.1. Safety philosophy and implementation of safety objectives

A utili ty is obviously concerned with the efficient and reliable opera t ion of its power plants, bu t it must also assign highest priori ty .to the safe opera t ion of these plants, fo r which it holds full responsibility. The importance of safety and the role of manpower in ensuring safety cannot be overemphasized. T h e con-sequences of a nuclear incident or accident could be severe and its e f fec ts would not be conf ined only t o the count ry where it occurred, bu t would have a world-wide impact . Thus, careful a t ten t ion must be given to all activities that can af fec t nuclear safety f r o m the design stage through the manufactur ing, cons t ruct ion and the operat ion stages.

66 SECTION 1.7

The principal safety objectives for nuclear power plants in any country are to ensure safe operat ion and safe shutdown, cool-down and conf inement of fission products at all t imes. These safety objectives are translated by the regulatory body (see Section 1.9) in to specific safety requirements which the util i ty mus t meet in order t o give reasonable assurance that public heal th and safety will not be endangered by the operat ion of the plant. The safety requirements which are generally embodied in criteria, regulations, codes and standards promulgate a defence-in-depth concept which requires tha t the reactor system tolerate a spec-t rum of operating transient and accident conditions, while maintaining barriers, such as the cladding, pressure vessel and conta inment , to the release of fission products . The uti l i ty should ensure provisions for the system to tolerate mal-func t ions th rough sound conservative design, construct ion, selection of materials, quali ty assurance and through a professional safety-consciousness in all operat ions activities.

Any nuclear accident af fec ts the whole nuclear power industry, particularly in the area of nuclear plant safety. By learning f r o m experience, changes are continually being in t roduced not only in the designs of nuclear power plants, bu t also in training programmes, organizational s t ructures and power-plant operat ion and maintenance procedures.

Safety consciousness and its encouragement and enforcement has t o permeate the entire engineering, manufactur ing and operat ions manpower of the utility and its contractors . Part of the staff , however, has primary responsibilities related to safety matters .

As far as the power plant operat ions staff is concerned, they have to be trained and retrained in their responsibilities for safety and enforcement of procedures. They have to be able to respond to a wide range of accidents including in particular those which appear less severe, bu t which have a higher probabil i ty of occurrence than the design basis accidents. Also, a strict adherence to procedures and a strong involvement of the shift supervisor in daily operations, operat ions problems and safety is needed.

A routine, administrative fulfilling of safety regulations is insufficient for the achievement of safety objectives. The util i ty and its contrac t par tners will have to instill a safety-consciousness and implement safety practices th roughout their management , engineering and technicians ranks. The professionals who have in-depth knowledge of the plant systems, componen t s and analysis must be encouraged t o reveal and correct items of concern regarding safety. Management must give safety pr ior i ty over electricity product ion in order t o honou r the public t rust ref lected by the construct ion and operating licences held. An a tmosphere of mutual trust and co-operation among all par tners involved should be developed, where uti l i ty, cont rac tors and the regulatory body pursue a c o m m o n goal, t he achievement of nuclear safety.

1.3.5.2. Safety analysis reporting and licensing application

Nuclear power plants.have a distinguishing fea ture of being subjected t o a rigorous review and licensing process no t generally undergone by o ther types of plants. The basic objective in the licensing process is t o have reasonable assurance tha t the heal th and safety of the public and the operat ions personnel will no t be subjected to u n d u e risks by the operat ion of the plant . The licences are normally requested by the owner/ut i l i ty and issued by the regulatory author i ty (see Section 1.9).

In suppor t of its application for a construct ion permit fo r a nuclear power plant , a util i ty is required t o submit a safety analysis report t o inform the regulatory au thor i ty of t he detailed na ture of the plant and its intended use. The objectives of t he report are:

— To provide a clear identif icat ion of the safety-related design basis fo r the plant

— To provide a sufficiently detailed description of the system

— To demonst ra te compliance of the design of the plant at the particular site with the stated design basis

The repor t should conta in a systematic presentat ion and analysis of the nuclear safety aspects of siting, design, construct ion and opera t ion to allow an independent review by the regulatory body .

In a n u m b e r of countr ies the safety reports are usually issued as a preliminary safety analysis repor t (PSAR) at the pre-construct ion stage and as a final safety analysis repor t (FSAR) at t he pre-operat ion stage. In addit ion, some countries also require an environmental repor t (ER). The PSAR, which supports the application for author iza t ion to construct , essentially describes h o w the util i ty (applicant) intends t o meet the applicable criteria, standards and regulations in the design and construct ion of the plant . The FSAR, which supports the application t o operate , contains s ta tements of design conclusions and therefore requires support of final design calculations, drawings, circuit and wiring diagrams, etc. It also contains the in format ion developed as a result of t he environmental and meteorological moni tor ing programmes during the construct ion stage, as well as plans for pre-operat ional and s tar tup testing, conduct of normal operat ion and physical pro tec t ion . The best engineering ta lent f r o m each participating organization has to be used to p roduce and keep up-to-date this impor tan t reference document . Most of the work is usually per formed in project engineering. The following major disciplines have to be covered:

— Safety of the reactor site, including the site's physical characteristics, and the popula t ion density and land use of the site's surroundings.

68 SECTION 1.7

LEGEND: ACRS - Advisory Committee on Reactor Safety ASLB — Atomic Safety and Licensing Board NRC — Nuclear Regulatory Commission ONRR — Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation OIE — Office of Inspection and Enforcement

FIG.l.3-6(a). Partners in licensing. (Example: USA.)

— Design of the reactor and essential systems, including the principal design criteria, the design and operating characteristics, unusual or novel design features and principal safety fea tures .

— Analysis of pe r formance of structures, systems and componen t s of t he reactor t o allow assessment of t he risk to public heal th and safety resulting f r o m normal and abnormal plant ope ra t i on .

— Organization and conduct of operat ions personnel training and qualif ication.

— Quali ty assurance programme to be applied during the design, manufactur ing, const ruct ion and testing of structures, systems and componen t s .

PROJECT I M P L E M E N T A T I O N 6 9

LEGEND SCSIN — Central Service for the Safety of Nuclear Installations SUM — Management of Industry and Mines IPSN - Institute of Health, Physics and Nuclear Safety CEA - Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (Atomic Energy Commission) CIINB — Interministerial Commission on Basic Nuclear Installations

FIG.1.3-6(b). Partners in licensing. (Example: France.)

70 SECTION 1.7

Within the uti l i ty undertaking the nuclear power project , application for licensing is usually one of the tasks of Project Management. Activities concerning licensing start early in the pre-project phase, when the regulatory body is contacted about siting considerations. A licensing specialist should already be assigned at that t ime to the team. Licence application activities proceed during the project implementa t ion stage and culminate with the obtaining of the operat ing author-ization f r o m the regulatory authori ty . Various compliance e f fo r t s cont inue thereaf ter th roughout the entire operat ions phase.

To pe r fo rm the licensing application activities, a small team of four to six professionals is usually required (see Table 1.12—2(a)). Most tasks need not only technical bu t also legal and administrative expertise, in view of t he interfaces among several organizations. Figures 1.3—6(a) and (b) contain examples of the interrelationships of the partners involved in licensing. Whenever expor t licences are required, there might be an additional task of satisfying some regulatory requirements of t he export ing country .

The ut i l i ty 's licensing application group should develop close contact with the regulatory body as early in the project as possible, to unders tand fully the requirements of t he regulations and t o avoid problems of misinterpretat ion later on. Since the licensing process is a continuing one which does no t end even with the granting of the full operating licence, it is impor tant that a good documenta t ion system be established t o keep a record of licensing issues and their status, especially those that are pending resolution. An improperly organized licensing documen-tat ion system has been known to cause delays in the issuance of construct ion or opera t ion permits and thus in the entire project . Constant dialogue and communi-cation should be maintained to ensure that the project schedule will no t be delayed. While it is t he immediate task and aim of the licensing group in the util i ty t o obtain the necessary permits and licence as soon as the schedule requires, it is their ulti-mate goal t o demonstra te that the safety objectives set fo r the plant are achieved.

Changes in regulations and standards, which occur as a result of operating experience analysis and additional research, also have to be moni to red by the licensing application group. The cost of a late change in a regulatory requirement (which may mean backfi t t ing) depends strongly on the t ime of in t roduct ion into the pro jec t schedule, i.e. the licensing group should judge the potent ia l effects of such changes and alert project management to them. Fur the rmore , the group should strive to improve nuclear safety by improving the licensing procedure — through suggestions, review of d ra f t s and, in general, th rough co-operating with the regulatory body .

1.3.5.3. Abnormal occurrences — reporting and correction of causes

A licensee is usually required to make a periodic report of its operat ions t o the regulatory body , particularly for occurrences in which there are depar tures f r o m

expected plant behaviour. In format ion on unant ic ipated occurrences which have safety implications are generally utilized in devising corrective actions for the plant involved and for o the r existing plants, where relevant, or fo r introducing improvements in the design of new plants. Because of the broad applicability and varying degrees of safety significance of the technical issues involved in abnormal occurrences, the resolution of the issues for various facilities may be different . Resolution may sometimes result in plant design modif ica t ions and /o r revision in administrative procedures or, perhaps, in the ex t reme case, a new system design being required.

The report ing e f for t can be supplemented meaningfully by a socalled 'plant-fo l low' e f fo r t , which can also include 'normal ' operat ion to obta in proper evalu-ation as a basis fo r a be t te r understanding of the plant, amended operat ing proce-dures and /or equipment improvements . A meaningful plant-follow ef for t should be pe r fo rmed joint ly with the main contractor . To per fo rm effectively this task of report ing and evaluating, a safety engineer with a thorough knowledge of the plant system is required. He can be assisted by one or two engineers f rom the technical section of the plant operat ions group.

The fac t tha t the plant has been licensed and tha t similar plants have pre-viously been operating is no t a complete guarantee that the system is f ree of design or operat ional deficiencies. There should therefore be a continuing e f fo r t on t h e part of the utility to review and assess the plant system design and per formance to detect any deficiencies tha t will a f fec t safety.

Since outages will be very expensive, it is also a wise investment to correct the causes of abnormal occurrences. The ut i l i ty should take the a t t i tude that corrective actions for abnormal occurrences should originate with its own tech-nical personnel; it should no t just report these occurrences t o the regulatory body and await regulatory action. The util i ty management and staff entrusted with operat ions, engineering, quali ty assurance and safety should unders tand and promulgate the owner ' s responsibility towards the public and the plant personnel, with the awareness that safe operat ion is also the most cost effective in the long run.

1.3.5.4. Planning for and handling of emergencies

In spite of all safety effor ts , safety analysis and plant safety features, absolute safe ty cannot be achieved fo r nuclear power plants any more than fo r any o ther type of power plant or industrial facility. There always remains a residual risk of extremely improbable but conceivable events beyond the range of accidents considered in safety analysis. These ext reme events necessitate emergency planning.

As far as preparing t h e plant operating personnel fo r emergencies is con-cerned, t he opera tors ' educat ion, training programme (especially simulator

72 SECTION 1.7

training) and the operat ions procedures should provide the capability to deal with most abnormal operating situations, including major accidents. Diligent and con-scientious maintenance , report ing and evaluation of equipment problems, and plant-follow e f fo r t fo r similar plants provides additional assurance of minimizing abnormal si tuat ions and outages as well as t he necessary awareness and training in operat ions personnel. However, experience with operating plants has shown that no t all s i tuat ions can be covered in this manner . Owing to a combinat ion of unforeseen failures, per formance and/or h u m a n errors, plant status and per formance under certain condi t ions may either not be unders tood by the opera tors or require decisions with severe consequences fo r the plant and /or the general public.

For these situations exper t help must be made available on short not ice and an appropr ia te escalation threshold, i.e. 'p lant emergency' , must be defined, which requires not i f icat ion outside the (shift) operat ing team. This not i f icat ion should first reach the safety engineering team (see also Section 1.7) stat ioned at the site and reachable by permanent ly open communicat ion lines 24 hours a day. This team should consist of professionals with thorough knowledge of systems, oper-ations and accident analysis. The duties of this safety engineering team during an emergency are:

— To assist the plant superintendent and operators in interpret ing abnormal plant pe r formance and devise strategies to mitigate the consequences of the occurrence.

— To help determine the earliest possible point at which pre-existing emergency procedures for on-site radiat ion releases, fo r off-site radiat ion releases and /or for an operating emergency must be pu t in to ef fec t .

— To no t i fy util i ty management , appropriate local and national authori t ies of the existence of an emergency condit ion.

— To convene an operat ing emergency assistance team under compe ten t leadership t o direct t h e emergency measures.

The preparat ion of plans and procedures to cover emergency si tuations transcending the power p lant ' s limits is also essential and involves local and national organizations and authori t ies in addit ion to the util i ty and the regulatory body .

1.3.6. Safeguards and physical protec t ion

The purpose of safeguards is t o ensure tha t special fissionable and o ther nuclear materials, services, equipment , facilities, and informat ion are no t utilized fo r purposes o the r than for the peaceful application of nuclear energy. Physical p ro tec t ion refers t o measures and plans to pro tec t nuclear facilities and to minimize the possibilities of sabotage or unauthor ized removal of nuclear material.

Because of international concerns regarding non-prol iferat ion, a condit ion for nuclear expor ts is the acceptance of safeguards by the recipient country .

Safeguards agreements are negotiated on the governmental level, while t he ut i l i ty/owner in charge of the nuclear power project becomes involved in the implementa t ion of the agreements. Thus, the ut i l i ty 's main tasks consist of performing detailed nuclear materials accountancy, report ing and providing counterpar ts at the plant t o the safeguards inspectors.

While it is no t possible to def ine the number of staff needed to administer a 'S ta te System of Account ing for and Control of Nuclear Materials' (SSAC) under all circumstances, as an approximat ion one can envisage the establishment of one or two professional posts at the national level to operate such a system in a count ry with two power reactors and a small R&D organization. In the case of a count ry with four t o six power reactors and a medium-sized R&D organization, between two and five professional staff would be needed to maintain a system of nuclear material accounting and control . This assumes that one or more of the power plants have two reactors. If there is one reactor per power plant, t hen one professional per plant will be needed to operate the system. In this case, a full-or part- t ime professional would be also required at the national headquar ters for co-ordinating the system and for t he data translation needed for the S ta te / IAEA interface. The professional staff would require clerical and secretarial suppor t t o the ex ten t needed to operate the State System as designed.

For States having extensive nuclear activities (reactor and bulk facilities) the number of professional staff will be increased depending on the number , t ype and size of the plants.

The concept of physical p ro tec t ion is one which requires a mixture of hardware (i.e. security devices), procedures (including the organization and training of t h e security force fo r t h e performance of their duties) and facility design. The IAEA has published INFCIRC/225 which contains recommendat ions for min imum levels of physical protec t ion for nuclear power plants. A number of countries have adopted these recommendat ions .

Adequa te physical pro tec t ion of the plant and of any nuclear material is fundamenta l ly a national responsibility. The activity requires mainly adminis-trative and security funct ions, with a staff of 20 to 50 people, depending on local conditions.

1.3.7. Public information and public relations

A nuclear power programme is a national under taking and hence its intro-duct ion and implementa t ion within the country, including the acceptance by the popula t ion in general, is a ma t t e r t o be handled by national (and regional) governmental organizations and authorit ies.

74 SECTION 1.7

The uti l i ty, however, which is serving the public and implementing a nuclear power project , also has an impor tan t role to play regarding public informat ion and public relations. Nuclear power projects do have local impacts and are in turn af fec ted by local reactions, which might be ei ther favourable or adverse. To p romo te a favourable reaction to the project , the util i ty should under take public in format ion activities which will complement the e f for t s under taken on a national and regional level. A public in format ion programme should be established and properly implemented soon af te r the site of a nuclear power plant has been selected or even earlier, if necessary. The public informat ion programme should be aimed bo th at t he popula t ion around the site and at the general public.

This programme may consist of conferences, dialogues and seminars directed at communicat ions media and at various civic, professional, social and educational organizations. News media and schools are especially impor tant . Film showings, lectures and group discussions giving factual informat ion on bo th the benefi ts and risks involved in the project should be given. This public informat ion task should be conducted in a manner and at a level that the layman will unders tand and appreciate.

An informat ion off icer , preferably a native of the immediate vicinity, should be appointed as a liaison between the communi ty and the utility. The engagement and /or development of additional part- t ime speakers with the adequate technical knowledge and a gift of communica t ion with the public, preferably f r o m the safety, project engineering and project management groups of the util i ty and/or its contractor(s) is advisable. Good public informat ion abilities and effective commu-nication with potent ia l intervenors can require years of on-the-job experience.

Also a permanent exhibit ion pavillion should be established with models of the plant and visual presentat ions of the activities being under taken by the uti l i ty to ensure public safety and minimize impact on the environment . Popular litera-ture on nuclear power has also proven to be an effective ins t rument in a public in format ion campaign.

A full-time staff dedicated to this activity, including manning of the exhibit ion pavillion should be of the order of t w o to fou r experienced public relations people with general nuclear educat ion and specific technical knowledge of the project as well as of the main safety issues involved (see Table 1.12—2(a)). In addition, some project management as well as project engineering staff would also be involved on a part- t ime basis.

1.3.8. Manpower requirements for project implementation

The project implementa t ion areas described in this Section 1.3 comprise all the principal sof tware activities which require qualified personnel, mainly of a professional nature. These activities precede and phase into those areas of project implementa t ion activities which require hardware, and which are described in the subsequent sections.

100 Total

10 - 9 8 - 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 Project implementat ion

0 1 (Years)

Decision to embark Plant construct ion

Commercial operat ion

Contract

FIG.1.3-7. Manpower loading - summary of project implementation activities: project management, engineering, procurement and QA/QC.

The manpower requirements and technical qualif ications fo r each majo r activity have been presented in Table 1 . 1 2 - 2 to 1 . 1 2 - 5 . The condi t ions which apply to the in format ion contained in these tables are summarized in Section 1.12. The corresponding manpower loading curves are contained in Section 1.13.

The overall results indicate that abou t 300 to 400 professionals and 200 to 300 technicians would be required fo r the per formance of these activities; a summary manpower loading curve is presented in Fig. 1 . 3 - 7 . How many and which of these people would be required by what organization, would depend on the contractual approach adopted by the ut i l i ty/owner and the distr ibution of tasks and responsibilities among the par tners involved. The overall numbers would of course also depend on local condit ions. Addit ional manpower fo r administra-tive and general suppor t would also be needed, bu t these people do not require any special training in nuclear power and they are not included in the above estimates.

It should also be ment ioned that t o prepare professional manpower fo r subsequent projects , addit ional staff should be added. Part-t ime specialists will also be required to assist the full-t ime project s taff .

1.4. MANUFACTURING OF EQUIPMENT AND COMPONENTS

Equipment and componen t s represent the largest direct cost i tem for a nuclear power projec t (see Table 2.3—4 in Chapter 2). The construct ion of a 1000 MW(e) plant involves the casting of approximate ly 300 000 m 3 of concrete and the manufac tur ing of thousands of tonnes of steel, some of it of special grade. It will require abou t 30 000 separate i tems consisting of millions of parts requiring di f ferent levels of skills and quality for their product ion and installation. Some equipment manufac tur ing has t o be started as early as two to three years before the first s t ructural concrete is cast, the last pieces being delivered and installed during commissioning of the plant .

Equipment manufac tur ing is the largest block of man-hours in a nuclear project , approximately 20 million man-hours for a 1000 MW(e) plant . This number can vary considerably f r o m count ry t o count ry and also depends on differences in p roduc t sub-division and accounting methods . Labour required for the manufac tu re of ingots, sheets, forgings, etc. or mining labour for raw materials is usually considered as part of the material costs, thus leading to an underes t imate of the manpower involved. A typical cost breakdown for mechanical and electrical equipment would be 50% for direct and indirect man-hours for foremen, craf tsmen, labour and administrat ion; 10 to 15% for equipment engineering and produc t ion engineering; 20 to 25% fo r materials; 10 to 20% for financing, plant amort izat ion, general overheads.

Equ ipment and componen t s are divided into several safety classes according to the influence tha t their failure could have on the safety of the plant . All the NSSS equipment and componen t s and a large por t ion of the rest are included in Class 1. The quali ty requirements for this equipment are very high and a strict quali ty assurance programme has to be applied to them. Conventional equipment not related to the safety of the plant does no t need to fulf i l the same strict quality requirements , al though higher s tandards of quali ty and quali ty control than those normal in conventional fabricat ion are needed to ensure a high reliability and availability of the nuclear power plant.

The relative amount s of materials and man-hours do not change very much f rom class to class, because usually b o t h material and labour increase for the higher safety classes. However, qualif ications required for manufac tur ing facilities, equipment engineering and craf tsmen become very high. In most developing countr ies with limited resources of highly skilled manpower , nat ional part ic ipat ion would logically start wi th equipment of the lower degrees of nuclear specialization or of a lower safety class. Utilization of manpower which has had experience in existing conventional industries depends on the industrial infras t ructure and is most easily done for equipment in the lower safety classes (see also Chapter 2).

MANUFACTURING OF EQUIPMENT A N D COMPONENTS 77

A typical equipment manufac tur ing organization normally consists of the following main divisions:

— Design — Planning — Product ion — Quality assurance — Inspect ion and qual i ty control — Erect ion

In addit ion, there would be divisions for procurement and stores, main-tenance, research and development as well as other support ing services.

Design

For equipment such as pumps, heat exchangers, etc. the customer gives usually only a broad reference design. Detailed design work has to be under taken by the manufac turer . The type of industrial specialization will determine whether structural design, hydraulic design, thermal design, tool /die design, methods design for castings, mechanical design including stress analysis, seismic analysis, vibration analysis, metallurgy, electrical design of equipment such as t ransformers, motors , etc. and process ins t rumenta t ion are called for . Design personnel should have academic degrees and wide professional knowledge. Graduate engineers with specialization as may be required will also be employed. Support ing manpower will be generally draf tsmen, compute r programmers and technical assistants.

Planning

The specification, design and drawings have to be studied in detail and the scope of the work has to be clearly unders tood. Manufactur ing methodology has t o be worked ou t . Shop drawings and bills of materials must be prepared. Details of tools, jigs, f ixtures, etc. need be worked out . These documents have to be released for product ion. Planning for control of schedules and costs and for acquisition of necessary materials is also part of the func t ion of the planning division. This func t ion requires professional engineers wi th knowledge of manufactur ing techniques, materials and scientific management systems. Support ing manpower would be draf t smen and technical assistants.

Production

This division is responsible for all product ion activities based on shop drawings. While the design and planning divisions generally need more

78 SECTION 1.7

professional engineers, the produc t ion division needs more skilled craf tsmen such as welders, f i t ters and machine tool operators. The type of craf tsmen skills required will depend on the industry. While engineers and supervisors are also employed, the number of such personnel in the produc t ion division will be very much less than the n u m b e r of craf tsmen.

Quality assurance

Quality assurance procedures fo r manufactur ing, such as requirements of organization and personnel, manufac tur ing procedure, document control , p rocurement control , ident i f icat ion cont ro l , inspect ion/test control , non-conformance control , records and audit must be prepared for the manufactur-ing organization. The personnel, generally professional engineers, are specialists in quality improvement with overall knowledge of all the QA funct ions .

Inspection and quality control

Quality control plans and inspection procedures must be prepared. NDEs have t o be per formed at various stages. There should be a control laboratory for various metallurgical testing and material evaluation. Dimensional checks and funct iona l testing have to be per formed. The manpower required are professional engineers, metallurgists, NDE technicians and scientific/engineering assistants.

Erection

If the industry under takes the manufac tu re and also the erection of the equipment , there must be a separate erection division included in the organization. Skilled craf tsmen such as pipe fitters, welders, millwrights, electricians and carpenters are required. In addit ion, competen t manpower for p rocurement and stores, research and development, maintenance and other services are also needed.

In general, s tandardizat ion combined with repeat ordering will improve the capabilities of the industry and its qual i ty levels. Also, total volume of business will be an impor t an t fac tor in industry 's taking the lead to develop the required manpower and facilities.

Table 1.4—1 contains an example of the distr ibution of the manpower e f for t required fo r equipment manufactur ing, which is applicable to the condit ions prevailing in the Federal Republic of Germany. More informat ion on the subject is presented in Chapter 2, in particular in the Sections 2.3, 2.4 and in the

MANUFACTURING OF EQUIPMENT AND COMPONENTS 79

TABLE 1 . 4 - 1 . MANPOWER E F F O R T REQUIRED F O R EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING (Example: Federal Republic of Germany)

E f f o r t in man-years Average manufac tur ing t ime (a)

T y p e of equ ipmen t Professionals and technicians

Craf tsmen Unskilled workers

Average manufac tur ing t ime (a)

NSSS and nuclear auxiliary systems

1530 3750 1670 5 - 6

Turbo-generator uni t 250 1170 6 1 0 4 - 5

Balance of p lan t 4 8 0 1670 830 3 - 4

Electrical equ ipmen t 130 1000 250 1 - 3

Ins t rumen ta t ion and cont ro l

6 0 500 50 2 - 4

On-site activities of the manufac tu re r

330 750 80 6 - 8

Co-ordinating and p roduc t engineer ing 3

6 7 0 — — 8 - 1 0

a A por t ion of t he overall engineering and co-ordination e f fo r t of the manufac tu re r is assigned to each p roduc t .

Appendix. The overall manpower requirements for the manufac ture of equip-ment and components (excluding erect ion) are est imated to be of the order of 3000 professionals, technicians and craftsmen (unskilled workers are not included), fo r a single uni t nuclear power plant . A loading curve is presented in Fig. 1.13—6, which corresponds to the sub-division according to type of equipment shown in Table 1 . 4 - 1 .

These overall numbers must be interpreted very carefully. Several hundred industrial manufac tur ing plants might be involved and their product lines would not be for nuclear equipment alone. In fact , for most of these industrial facilities, the manufac ture of nuclear power plant equipment and components may represent only a relatively small por t ion of their overall ou tpu t . Consequently, the overall manpower employed by these industries would be much larger than the number quo ted above and many of these people would be directly or indirectly involved. For manufac tur ing all the equipment and components of a nuclear power plant , a high level of development of the industrial infras t ructure is necessary, wi th all its experience, technology, know-how and qualified manpower .

1.5. PLANT CONSTRUCTION

Plant construct ion begins with preparatory work about six years before plant turnover, which marks the end of the construct ion phase. The role of the uti l i ty/ owner will cont inue th roughout the construct ion through its project management tasks (Section 1.3.1.1), which will become more intensified. Project management will n o w include a team of construct ion experts at the site who will supervise and control the construct ion of the plant . A min imum of five professionals of the uti l i ty project management staff should be stat ioned at the site fo r this purpose. A more impor tan t uti l i ty on-site staff bui ldup will commence with the preparatory activities for plant commissioning (see Section 1.6) and operat ion and maintenance (see Section 1.7). The activities of the main contractor(s) and sub-contractors during this phase of the project are described below. The listing is no t intended to be complete , bu t ra ther t o give the types of activities and the corresponding manpower requirements and qualifications. Local condit ions and site character-istics will have a strong inf luence on these requirements .

1.5.1. Site organization and management

Nuclear power plants are normally located in areas of low popula t ion density. Thus, the plant site will be some distance f r o m the contractors ' or uti l i ty 's headquar ters offices, which are normally located in an industrial centre. The site management responsibility is d i f ferent f r o m overall project management responsi-bility, which includes planning, engineering and procurement . Thus, a proven arrangement , which is usually used, is t o have a site management uni t under headquar ters ' control , closely co-operating in a defined way with the overall projec t manager and having the following responsibilities:

— Perform the project management tasks out l ined in Section 1.3.1.2 which are applicable t o the specific site activities.

— Provide an effect ive organizational infras t ructure t o suppor t the manage-ment and supervision of tasks.

— Co-ordinate all site scheduling in format ion in order t o minimize construct ion t ime and costs, while optimizing the utilization of construct ion personnel .

— Provide technical in terpre ta t ion of engineering and design informat ion.

— Establish warehousing, cost and material control procedures at the site.

— Set u p formal and informal communica t ion channels with sub-contractor personnel at the site and at headquar ters and conduct at least month ly s tatus meetings at the site with all parties concerned.

PLANT CONSTRUCTION 81

A sample organization chart is shown in Fig.l .5—1. Since the pr ime task on the site is project execut ion as def ined by headquarters , a simple line organization (non-matr ix) with a strong chain-of-command is most effective. The site manager should have proven au thor i ty and management capability, preferably acquired at t h e site of another nuclear plant or at another large project (e.g. fossil plant , ref inery, etc.). Varying degrees of headquar ters suppor t are needed th roughout this phase of the project . Usually a site-engineering or field-engineering group will be needed, which normally repor ts to the headquar ters project-engineering division. I ts objective is t o approve or take other action with regard to the changes t o design specifications, suggest/approve on-site modif icat ions wherever required, and ensure tha t the design in tent is me t during construct ion.

While site management has its own planning and scheduling uni t which schedules and controls all its activities, it is necessary to have very close co-ordination with headquar ters project management t o ensure achieving the over-all projec t objective. This site scheduling unit can be supported by the head-quarters ' organization fo r any compute r services, if such services are not available on site.

Sub-contractors fo r one or more construct ion lots shall have management and engineering suppor t on the site amount ing to abou t 8 t o 10% of the workforce . The p ropor t ion is on the higher side at the beginning and becomes lower during workforce peaking.

If responsibility has been delegated to a main contractor , experience has shown tha t the util i ty site organization should be s t ructured along similar lines as that of the main cont rac tor and should maintain close liaison wi th it . The main func t ion of this uti l i ty site organization is t o supervise, control and inspect all phases of the construct ion work; bu t on-the-job training of personnel fo r fu tu re projects may also be an impor tan t aspect. If the uti l i ty retains the overall project management task, its site management staff will be somewhat larger than outl ined for the main contrac tor , because it mus t carry out the responsibilities of bo th the owner and the cons t ruc tor (see also Sections 1.3.1.1 and 1.3.1.2).

The construct ion phase of a nuclear power plant includes a mul t i tude of activities affect ing quali ty which are per formed by various organizations with specific responsibilities assigned to them. These include building, manufactur ing, erecting, installing, handling, shipping, storing, cleaning, inspecting, testing, modifying, repairing and maintaining. Each of the participating organizations is responsible for the establishment and implementa t ion of a quality assurance programme to be approved and supervised by the u t i l i ty /owner and commensura te with the construct ion activities being per fo rmed and their impor tance to plant safety.

The ut i l i ty 's site management staff has been included in its project manage-ment organization (Table 1 . 1 2 - 2 ( a ) and Fig. 1 . 1 3 - 2 ) . The manpower require-ments and technical qualif ications of t he main cont rac tor ' s site management

FIG. 1.5 '-1. Site organization for plant construction activities. (Example)

are presented in Table 1.12—6 as part of the plant construct ion activity. A loading curve is given in Fig. l .13—7, in which only skilled manpower — professionals, technicians and craf tsmen — have been considered. In addit ion, site administrat ion for locat ions far f r o m industrial popula t ion centres, wi th diff icult access, or in foreign countries may require up to 100 people for special e f for t s in:

— Organization and control of t ransport , expediting, customs, relation with por t authori t ies .

— Organization and management of infras t ructure for expatr iates and local staff , such as housing, provisions, catering, medical services, recreation, security.

— Personnel t ransport , general services.

1.5.2. Site prepara t ion and inf ras t ruc ture

As a part of the siting s tudy for the nuclear power project (see Section 1.2.4) the size of the land area, access routes , founda t ion , ground water and geological characteristics have been evaluated. This task is usually done under the lead of the uti l i ty pre-project team with the assistance of consultants as needed, some-times already involving the main contrac tor , should there be one. Once the distr ibution of project responsibilities is established and the site informat ion f rom the pre-project phase is evaluated, the following site preparat ion activities are under taken :

— Building or upgrading access roads and bridges t o a heavy d u t y status. Where possible, rail connect ions and access t o navigable waters and prior docking facilities should be made available t o handle heavy components in the most economical way.

— Provision of flat, suitably graded, crushed s tone surfaced lay-down storage space fo r open storage of materials and equipment . This location should be properly fenced and provided with security services.

— Construct ion of t emporary warehouses for pro tec t ion of equipment . Port ions of these buildings should be provided with environmental controls.

— Installation of site and area fencing for security p urposes during construct ion.

— Installation of communica t ions systems to the outside and within the site.

— Installation of f ire protec t ion equipment and facilities.

— Site levelling, where necessary, and f lood pro tec t ion of the site.

84 SECTION 1.7

— Provision of adequate electric power, fresh water and compressed air supplies for the construct ion period.

— Allotment of t emporary construct ion off ice buildings and housing for const ruct ion personnel.

— Provision of auxiliary services and facilities such as first aid, hospital , canteen, parking, etc.

Part of the site infras t ructure would consist of small to medium size workshops which would be required to take care of some on-site-fabrication works, fabricat ion of some embedded parts and structural items. Although such i tems can be manufac tu red by contract ing them out , field workshops are essential t o take care of urgent requirements so that construct ion work is no t held up. If such facilities are no t set up at the earliest stage of construct ion, the projec t will eventually be negatively affected by not having them.

Depending on the difficulties of the particular site, the tasks t o be per formed will require normally 50 to 150 craf tsmen and labourers during this phase as well as 10 to 20 professionals and managers, who have previously performed similar duties. The number of craf tsmen and labourers could increase by as much as a fac tor of five for exceptionally diff icul t sites, taking in to account that the above tasks should be completed as quickly as possible. ,

1.5.3. Erection of plant buildings and structures

With the casting of the first s t ructural concrete (above the water-proofing and special founda t ions) the erection phase has begun. This activity, o f t en referred to as the casting of the 'base-mat ' , is a major milestone in the project schedule. For this and the subsequent building work the following requirements and activities are essential:

— Prior selection of experienced concrete manufacturers , and installation of cranes and mode rn concrete-making equipment .

: - Timely installation of underground supply systems for site work and for the power plant , with proper consideration given to the t ranspor t of heavy loads during const ruct ion.

— Prior ordering and delivery of nuclear-grade rebar, and establishment of qualified rebar preparat ion and lacing facilities at the site.

— Establ ishment and enforcement of the necessary quality assurance and inspection procedures for concrete.

— Assurance tha t construct ion drawings are correct and up-to-date and tha t they are proper ly in terpre ted and implemented by construct ion personnel.

— Timely delivery, site manufac tu re and quali ty assurance of steel parts (such as anchor plates) t o be cast in to concrete; assurance of proper markings and correct placement with the help of clearly marked construct ion drawings.

— Proper sequencing and moni tor ing of const ruct ion progress for di f ferent building por t ions with the assistance of the contractor ' s civil engineers and of independent civil and structural inspectors; consideration of building interfaces; planning and provision fo r temporary suppor t structures.

— Installation of a proven outside wall insulation by an experienced contractor .

— Placement and removal of concrete forms.

— Final finish wi th plaster, internal insulation, paints and decontaminat ion finishes, where required.

Some of the mos t impor tan t aspects of these activities are the detailed planning, scheduling and control by the site management , including periodic updat ing of schedules and weekly internal status meetings.

Usually the peak of concrete work occurs during the first year of construc-t ion and the peak for interior finish and masoning work is in the third year. The overall manpower requirements fo r civil construct ion will generally peak during the second and third year of construct ion a f te r which they will gradually decline, as shown by the loading curve of Fig. 1.13—7. During the peak period around 1000 to 1200 skilled people would be required. Although the use of modern construct ion equipment is essential to meet the quality standards and the schedule, u p t o twice as much manpower may be required because of local condi t ions and the qualifications of construct ion workers. On the o ther hand, there are examples of having constructed nuclear power plants with less than a thousand workers. Table 1.12—6 contains details regarding manpower require-ments and qualif icat ions.

1.5.4. Plant equipment, components and systems installation

Before these tasks are started, three major requirements have t o be fulfi l led for any area on the building floor where an equipment component or system has t o be installed. These are:

— The interior finish of the rooms should be completed as much as possible, including decontaminat ion paint , clean condit ions or floor-seals (where needed), pedestals, anchors and concise interior 'as-built ' measurements and markings of reference points .

86 SECTION 1.7

— Documenta t ion on vessels, pumps, valves, pipes, cranes, ventilation and electrical equipment t o be installed should be completed. At headquarters complete componen t and systems engineering records, material and manufac tur ing records and licensing documenta t ion must be available. At the site, delivery records with clear identif icat ion, quality assurance records and government regulatory compliance documents , where needed, must be available.

— Final arrangements ( layout) for the area concerned in the f o r m of detailed building section drawings, composi te drawings and /o r a building model must be completed, verified and available at the site. In addit ion, special erection and t ransporta t ion studies for major components , including the provision of temporary equipment openings and hoists, must be completed and documented .

The success, cost and schedule of componen t installation depends to a great ex ten t on the prior fu l f i lment of the above requirements . Reliance on major corrections, revisions and backfi ts on these i tems in the middle of erect ion work can be very costly. Minor corrections, addit ional details and some improvisations are, however, to be expected and may well require experienced personnel with innovative ability. To co-ordinate, manage and expedite componen t installation requires an experienced team at the site of at least 25 professionals during the peak period. This team repor ts t o the site manager. It should be in charge of employee and equipment safety and can also suppor t construct ion supervision and later assist in the commissioning activities. The team leader must have had prior power plant erection experience. At least three senior staff members should possess several years' experience with similar erect ion work in fossil, chemical or similar plants.

The componen t installation will require fu r the r technical and co-ordination suppor t f rom the equ ipment manufacturers and the responsible project-engineering headquar ters division. Craf tsmen should preferably be recruited f r o m experienced componen t manufac turers and piping installation firms. Where nuclear grade qualif ications have no t ye t been obtained, t imely training and qualification (possibly also the corresponding costs) have to be considered. With the except ion of t he rare case of a large uti l i ty possessing a workforce of qualified craf tsmen, one or more contracts should be awarded, preferably for entire systems, to qualified erection firms fo r installation and funct ional testing. The actual splitting of this work among several sub-contractors would not cause problems as long as the essential co-ordination and suppor t func t ions for this activity are executed by an experienced professional team.

For equipment , componen t and systems erection and installation, a peak workforce (about fou r years a f te r construct ion start) of the order of 1300 people (mostly technicians and craf t smen) would be required (see Table 1.12—6 and

Fig. 1.13—7). Many of the welders must be qualified for specialized cover-gas equ ipment . At least 30% of the mechanical technicians and 10% of the electricians should have knowledge and familiarity with relevant codes, s tandards and criteria. Core componen t s erect ion is of a very special nature and requires precision tolerances and aligning to close accuracies. Qualification of procedures by mock-ups and qualif icat ion of personnel are impor tan t ; it might be convenient to organize a special group (task force) for this. F o r diff icult sites (climate, high rate of personnel turnover, low worker efficiency) the overall quan t i ty of manpower could be 2 0 to 50% higher, or it might even double.

This phase of the construct ion provides the best possible oppor tun i ty to complement the training of the fu tu re plant maintenance personnel, who should actively part icipate in the erection and installation e f fo r t and would thus gain fu r the r experience. In addition, the contractors and sub-contractors and their skilled personnel would provide a very valuable manpower source fo r fu tu re plant maintenance and, in particular, f o r major overhauls, repairs or modificat ions.

1.5.5. Manpower requirements for plant construction

Table 1.12—6 gives an estimate of the overall manpower requirements and technical qualif ications for plant construct ion, and Fig. 1 . 1 3 - 7 is t he correspond-ing loading curve. The overall e f for t involved is equivalent t o about 10 million man-hours. Only skilled manpower — professionals, technicians and craf tsmen — have been considered. While their overall number would be between 2300 and 3200, t he manpower requirements do not peak simultaneously, since the d i f ferent construct ion tasks are pe r fo rmed in a certain sequence. Consequent ly , the overall peak value would remain at about 2000.

Local condit ions and characteristics have a relatively large influence on the manpower requirements for the erection of plant buildings and structures and the installation of equipment and systems, which are considered to be essential activities for national part icipat ion (see Section 2.3 and Table 2 . 3 - 1 ) . Thus, the overall number can vary considerably, depending on where the plant is constructed.

1.6. PLANT COMMISSIONING

Commissioning involves all activities required for testing the operat ional . capability of the nuclear power plant and for determining the safety, efficiency and reliability of operat ion of individual systems and components as well as of t he plant itself. It includes funct ional and pre-operational tests, measurements , test runs and adjustments . Although the commissioning and operat ion of a nuclear power plant is no t much more diff icult than tha t of a fossil plant, all tests on a nuclear plant must be documented and per formed in accordance wi th wri t ten, approved procedures. The major e f for t is no t so much in the per formance of the tests themselves, bu t in their preparation, documenta t ion and evaluation. An early start on documenta t ion , combined wi th a properly planned schedule, ensures that the major por t ion of the commissioning task is accomplished well ahead of the final plant acceptance. Data and procedures affect ing the control , opera t ion and maintenance of individual plant systems and componen t s should be proven by tests during the pre-operational phases, t o ensure the correctness and effectiveness of the commissioning procedures.

The major part of nuclear power plant commissioning covers a period of abou t two to three years f r o m the finished erection of the first systems up to the start of the commercial operat ion of the stat ion. About 40 to 50 professionals are usually assigned to pe r fo rm the tasks for this activity and have the qualifica-t ions described in Table 1.12—7. Major suppor t is to be provided by engineers and technicians of the equipment manufacturers . In addit ion, the plant operat ion and maintenance personnel part icipate actively in the commissioning of the plant ; such part icipat ion is in fact considered to be the last essential part of their training. In general, t he commissioning phase provides an excellent oppor tun i ty for on-the-job training of professionals, technicians and craf tsmen.

The testing period can generally be divided in to three phases (see Fig. 1.6—1 ):

Phase 1 : Plant systems and components testing Phase 2: Fuel loading and criticality tests Phase 3: Plant acceptance tests

1.6.1. Plant systems and components testing

The commissioning of the first systems and components can begin relatively early in the overall schedule, approximately three years af ter the start of construct ion. The engineering and component erection phases have t o take commissioning needs into consideration by detailed scheduling, and by providing essential services and facilities.

The first phase of commissioning starts with individual componen t and system checks t o ascertain conformance to design and construct ion specifications.

PLANT COMMISSIONING 89

This is fol lowed by cold hydro tests (i.e. leak and pressure tests) and by system hot - funct ional tests. Heat-up of the system for the hot- funct ional tests is done by running the reactor coolant pumps .

Prior t o the actual commissioning tests, the necessary preparat ion is strongly engineering-oriented, requiring co-ordinating skills and the ability t o develop necessary documenta t ion . In some cases detailed specifications and system descriptions have to be condensed in to overview versions for b o t h commissioning and operat ions (operator instruct ion) staff . Documenta t ion is also needed for erection procedures, partial or complete operating licence steps and for quali ty assurance and compliance purposes. The main documenta t ion needed for the conduc t of actual commissioning tests will consist of :

— Systems descriptions and flow-diagrams — Safety-relevant limit values and operat ional restrictions — Pre-installation check-out requirements — Cleanliness and water chemistry requirements — Test procedures — Fuel-handling procedures — Test surveillance programme — Detailed schedules — Operat ion manuals

To prepare these documents , a commissioning team consisting of pro-fessionals (some with several years of systems design and /or operating experience) should be set up as early as the start of plant construct ion. This would initially involve about five professionals, wi th the lead person having prior power plant (not necessarily nuclear) commissioning responsibility. The team will draw heavily on the suppor t of systems and componen t s engineers in the headquar ters staff of the systems suppliers. Within t w o to three years most of the members of this team would transfer t o the site and generally stay there unti l the plant is turned over t o the operat ion and maintenance staff . When the peak of commissioning occurs, the team should consist of u p to 50 professionals. Some of these may have been previously involved in equipment and componen t erection co-ordinat ion; some jun ior engineers wi thou t prior experience can also be accepted for training. A sample testing schedule is shown in Fig. 1.6—1.

1.6.2. Fuel loading and criticality tests

The fuel arrival at the site, its inspection, handling, storage and loading will require an upgrading of site external and internal security and the direct involvement of radiat ion and nuclear physics experts . Cleanliness of the system and the fuel , a check-out of nuclear ins t rumenta t ion and tests t o ascertain tha t the necessary safety devices are funct ioning will be required. Detailed procedures

PHASE 1 — Plant system and component testing PHASE 2 — Fuelloading and cnticality tests PHASE 3 - Plant acceptance tests \o O

1 A — System checks and cold hydro tests

Commissioning of the secondary systems

Pressure test of primary system (reactor coolant system)

Pressure test of main secondary systems

- 1 4 months -

1 B — Hot functional tests (no fuel load)

1st start of reactor coolant pumps

2 A - Core loading and subcritical operation

t Ultrasonic test of reactor pressure vessel

1st fuel loading

- 2 l months- - 2\ months -

2 B — Approach to criticality and zero-power physics tests

M m n H

3 A — Power trial operations and control and dynamic tests

Ist criticality t t 1st time power 100% power delivered to operation electricity grid

- 2 months - - 4 months -

3 B — Acceptance test run

• Preparation for test run Test

- 2 months -

27 months prior to plant turnover Plant turnover

FIG.l. 6-1. Nuclear power plant testing schedule. (Example)

of criticality safety, zero-power tests and power escalation must be established and approved in advance by the regulatory body . The event preceding fuel loading is usually the complet ion of the hot - funct ional test of the closed but non-radioactive system. It is t o be no ted that the ut i l i ty /owner is always fully responsible for any nuclear liability and, consequent ly , its part icipation is essential starting f r o m this phase, even with a tu rnkey contract .

Subcritical tests

This test period is designed to complement the pre-operational test pro-gramme a f te r initial fuel loading and serves t o check non-nuclear safety parameters . At the end of this per iod, systems are ready for nuclear operat ion.

The reactor coolant system is placed in a cold shut-down condi t ion in order t o proceed with the pre-operational tests which include, among others, the following:

— Measurement of flow rates and pressure losses in the reactor coolant system

— Measurement of drop t ime for each control rod assembly and testing of the open loop control of the rods

— Electrical and mechanical tests of in-core ins t rumenta t ion

— Vibrat ion measurements on componen t s of the reactor coolant system and the reactor vessel and its internals

— Checking and adjus tment of the reactor cont ro l and protect ion systems

Part of the above-mentioned tests are carried ou t bo th in cold and hot condit ions.

First criticality tests

The first stage of the s tar tup includes initial criticality followed by operat ion with the reactor power o u t p u t kep t at about 10"4 t o 10"3 of the rated ou tpu t . The tests are aimed at verifying that the static and kinet ic characteristics of the reactor satisfy pre-established acceptance criteria. The zero-power physics tests include:

— Measuring the core's fundamenta l physical parameters f r o m an operat ional and safety viewpoint

— Establishing the basic data used for regulating the plant before full power escalation

— Testing the balance of plant equ ipment

92 SECTION 1.7

The lead staff required for the above activities, in addit ion to those required for testing, must have a degree in nuclear physics or nuclear engineering, training in nuclear reactors (test or power) , and preferably also plant s imulator training. The technicians involved mus t have undergone nuclear training and, in some cases, qualif ications tests. The manpower required for commissioning activities is very similar quanti tat ively and qualitatively t o part of the operating staff , described in more detail in Section 1.7.

1.6.3. Plant acceptance tests

Afte r complet ion of t he zero-power tests, the reactor power is raised step by s tep unti l full power is reached. During the power trial operat ion, which can last fo r about four months , various control and dynamic tests are per formed with the view to assessing the overall plant behaviour. Following the trial opera t ion period, a test run of the uni t is conducted for plant acceptance purposes.

Plant acceptance tests are an integral part of the transi t ion between commissioning and commercial operat ion and are the most impor tan t contractual events for the owner and his main contractor(s) and/or sub-contractors, depending on t h e type of contract . F o r the scheduling, per formance and documenta t ion , no t only the commissioning and operating teams will be involved b u t also project management (utility as well as main contractor(s)) . The lead role of the project managers should normally be defined in such a way tha t it ends a f te r a successful plant acceptance test .

Depending on the contractual arrangement, equipment acceptance may actually start ahead of plant acceptance tests, abou t one year prior t o fuel loading during the pre-operat ional test period. Much stat ion auxiliary equipment and many systems may be turned over f r o m the commissioning or construct ion group to the operating staff (provisional acceptance) such as the sub-station, auxiliary power, water t rea tment , circulating water , compressed air, etc. F rom that poin t up to a few mon ths af te r fuel loading, the required manpower for running and maintaining the plant equipment increases to the manning level necessary for normal operat ion.

Plant acceptance tests and s tar tup represent the best on-the-job training for t he operat ing staff and an excellent oppor tun i ty for training new personnel. This oppor tun i ty must be taken advantage of by fu tu re test groups and by those performing technical suppor t and station management funct ions.

During equipment and plant acceptance tests it should be expected that some problems may arise which will need the immediate assistance of construc-t ion, erection, and project engineering personnel. Some of these problems may not be critical fo r t he p lant ' s commercial operat ion bu t should be corrected or repaired as soon as possible, usually under equipment warranty. For these activities 5 t o 10 acceptance test personnel, most ly f rom the main contractor(s) are expected to remain on the site fo r one t o t w o years a f te r t he plant acceptance tests have been completed.

LEGEND: Reporting lines

Communication lines

FIG.1.6-2. Commissioning organization. (Example)

1.6.4. Manpower requirements for commissioning

The commissioning team is usually a composi te group made up of construct ion, erection and operat ions personnel f r o m the main contractor(s) , systems suppliers, architect-engineer and /or util i ty (according to the contractual arrangements) , as well as of experienced staff f r o m other projects. Upon complet ion of commissioning the personnel re turn t o their original groups. Sometimes, a formal uni t may no t be fo rmed at all, b u t its existence has been assumed here t o explain the funct ions . An example of a commissioning organiza-t ion is presented in Fig. 1.6—2. The lead role may be wi th the main contrac tor who will tu rn over a funct ioning and tested plant , unde r a turnkey arrangement , or with the uti l i ty or its architect-engineer, under o ther contractual arrangements.

The overall manpower requirements and technical qualifications for t he commissioning e f for t are presented in Table 1,12—7. Should there be a cont rac tor responsible fo r the turnover of the plant , the major part of the manpower would be his personnel; bu t even then, careful follow-up, supervision and approval by ut i l i ty /owner personnel with equivalent competence is essential. In Fig.l .13—8 a manpower loading curve for commissioning is presented, assuming the existence of a main contrac tor . In this loading curve, the part icipation of the uti l i ty 's operat ions and maintenance personnel in commissioning is also included ( for manpower requirements and qualifications see Table 1.12—8). The integration of this opera t ion and maintenance staff in to the commissioning group is necessary regardless of which par tner has the lead role.

1.7. PLANT OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

The key to safe and reliable operation is t he presence of a relatively small highly qualified and dedicated group of utility personnel with mutua l respect fo r each others ' abilities, f r o m the plant super intendent to the lowest level in the plant . Management must be able t o screen personnel at all levels t o ensure that the employees are technically and psychologically qualified. There is no room for incompetent or unmotivated personnel in a nuclear power plant.

A typical uti l i ty organization fo r the operat ion of a nuclear plant is shown in Fig. 1.7—1. Another example is presented in Fig. 1.7—2, which corresponds to a 2 X 900 MW(e) uni t plant in France. This example includes also the number of people required in each organizational uni t , bu t it should be taken in to account that in France each plant is extensively supported by the central uti l i ty (EDF) organization as well as by the local, regional and nat ional industrial infrastructure. The organization char t of Fig.1.7—1 has been used t o def ine the manpower requirements and technical qualifications as presented in Table 1.12—8.

The most impor tan t person f rom the s tandpoint of qualification and selection is the plant super in tendent , since he will probably make the final decisions on the balance of the operat ion and maintenance staff . The plant super intendent , the operat ion, maintenance, safety, technical (services) and training super-in tendents and the shif t supervisors and heal th physicists const i tute the nucleus around which the rest of the organization is built . Their responsibilities are given in Table 1.12—8.

1.7.1. Plantoperation

Under the direct ion and co-ordination of the opera t ion superintendent , the shift supervisors have direct responsibility for plant operat ion. They and their deputies should be professionals (engineers) able t o respond to any conceivable abnormal si tuation. It must be emphasized tha t , a l though normal rout ine operat ion of the plant will be their usual duty , abnormal occurrences are t o be expected, and this is where their character, experience and training must enable them to act correct ly.

The number of technicians required for plant operat ion is relatively large (40 to 70), and consists of the control room and the field operators. In addit ion to the shift supervisor and his depu ty , the operating staff for each shif t should consist of a min imum of five control room operators and three field operators. Five or preferably six shifts, according to prevailing work rules and conditions, will permit training and retraining and will provide suff icient manpower t o per-form the normal duties of plant and equipment operat ion and possibly some additional duties, such as storing spent fuels, receiving and storing new fuel and other process materials, assisting the maintenance staff by removing components

PLANT OPERATION A N D MAINTENANCE 95

f r o m operat ion for overhaul, returning t hem to operat ion and testing them following repairs.

Qualification levels have to be carefully established for operat ing personnel. It is the usual practice t o have several levels, such as senior (or first) operators , operators, assistant operators , each level having carefully def ined duties and responsibilities for which specific licences or authorizat ions are required. If a nuclear power programme expands rapidly it will be found necessary to p romote to higher posit ions those who were trained for the first nuclear power plants. Thus, new recruits with little or no previous related experience or per t inent skills must enter the training programmes early, as replacements. In the case of a relatively modest nuclear power programme with only one or a few operating nuclear power plants, there will be practically no local manpower market where qualified operators could be hired to replace any manpower lost through at t r i t ion. Consequently, a certain degree of overstaffing is indicated. Generous time-spans and sufficient off ice space should be made available for on-the-job training.

A group of professionals (10) and technicians (15 to 25) with experience in a variety of specialities will be required for providing technical support ing services related to plant operat ion. This group might be a separate uni t under the direction of a technical super intendent (see Fig. 1.7—1 and Table 1.12—8). The group will be responsible for evaluating the operat ion of the various systems in the stat ion, following and assisting in the implementa t ion of any necessary modif icat ions t o the equipment or operating procedures. It should include physicists, chemists and engineers with experience in control and ins t rumenta t ion , process systems, mechanical componen t s and computers . Close contact and co-operation between this group and the util i ty headquar ters engineering staff is essential.

1.7.2. Plant maintenance

Plant maintenance will require qualified staff consisting of 10 to 15 pro-fessionals, 40 to 60 technicians and 20 to 35 craf tsmen (see Table 1 . 1 2 - 8 ) .

Besides the maintenance super intendent and the maintenance engineers, the staff will include electricians, machinists, welders, ins t rument technicians and laboratory technicians. These persons should be chosen no t only on the basis of proficiency in their respective professions and crafts bu t also fo r their interest and ability t o comple te successfully the special academic and practical training which is also necessary.

Effective maintenance, in-service inspection and servicing activities require, in addit ion, extensive and cont inuing documenta t ion and an adequate supply of spare parts, tools and services by qualified contractors .

Vi w n H O Z

In some countries, the Health Physicist advises the plant management Out reports and is responsible to the regulatory body or to a higher authority in the operating organization. In respective categories.

I I Denotes Deputy FIG. 1.7—1. Plan t o pera tion and main tenance organ iza tion.

PLANT SUPERINTENDENT 1

H COMMISSIONING ENGINEERS 7

I MAINTENANCE SUPERINTENDENT i l l

8 I EXECUTIVE ENGINEER H i

¡ENGINEER | T | , • 1 ENGINEER | T |

MAINTENANCE DESIGN AND DRAWING SECTION

I 50 I ASSISTANTS | 2 | 2 2

MAINTENANCE DESIGNERS 3

MECHANICAL ASSISTANTS 2

DRAFTING OFFICE HEAD 1 FOREMEN 6 DRAFTSMEN 2 TECHNICIANS 16 SKILLED WORKERS 1 SKILLED WORKERS 26

MECHANICAL SECTION

ELECTRICAL ENGINEER 1

ASSISTANT

PIPE FITTING ASSISTANT 1 I

FOREMEN 5 1

ELECTRICAL ENGINEER 1

RELAYS AND COMPUTER ENGINEER 1

1 MEASUREMENTS AND CONTROL ENGINEER 1

FOREMEN 3 TECHNICIANS 4 1 ASSISTANT 1 I ASSISTANT 1 ASSISTANTS 4

TECHNICIANS 9 HEAD FOREMAN 1 1 FOREMAN 1 FOREMEN 3 FOREMEN 4

SKILLED WORKERS 9 WORKERS & EMPLOYEES 30 I TECHNICIANS 3 TECHNICIANS 4 1 TECHNICIANS 6

PLANNING SKILLED WORKERS b SKILLED WORKERS 2 SKILLED WORKERS 4

PIPE FITTING SECTION I

MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT | STORE & MISCELLANEOUS | SECTION I

ELECTRICAL SECTION I

RELAYS AND COMPUTER

SECTION

1 MEASUREMENTS AND

CONTROL SECTION

MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT

MECHANICAL AND STORE SERVICE MAINTENANCE

DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL AND CONTROL SERVICE

r > z H O •fl m 73 > H

O Z > z o s > M Z H M Z > z o w

I PRODUCTION SUPERINTENDENT | 1 |

OPERATION SUPERVISOR

35 T L

TECHNICAL SECTIONS S U P E R V I S O R ! !

Commissioning period

SHIFT SUPERVISORS

ASSISTANT SHIFT-SUPERVISORS

CONTROL ROOM OPERATORS

ASSISTANT CONTROL ROOM OPERATORS

FIELD TECHNICIANS

FIELD OPERATORS

SKILLED WORKERS

CHEMISTRY SECTION WASTE MANAGEMENT

ENGINEER 1

ASSISTANTS ? FOREMEN 4

TECHNICIANS 7

SKILLED WORKERS 4

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE SECTION

REACTOR PHYSICS SECTION

SAFETY & HEALTH PHYSICS ENGINEER 1

ASSISTANT 1 FOREMEN 2

TECHNICIANS 2

WORKERS 1

SAFETY a. HEALTH PHYSICS SECTION

O.A. ENGINEER O.A. FOREMAN

QUALITY ASSURANCE SECTION

OPERATOR SERVICE TECHNICAL SERVICE OPERATIONS DEPARTMENT

- This organization chart is in force after provisional acceptance of the plant for uti l i ty staff (Electricité de France) who are on site. - The operating and maintenance staff have other means of support (internal means of Electricité de France) from

- Regional organizations for heavy components maintenance and purchasing • National organizations wi th laboratories (metallurgy, chemical, etc.) - Various construction and maintenance works.

The operating and maintenance staff shown takes into account these supplementary means. - Concerning the annual stop for refuelling a huge amount of scheduling, equipment, etc. is necessary to perform it.

During this period much supplementary personnel are required.

FIG.1.7-2. Organization chart for the operations and maintenance departments for two 900 MW(e) units. (Example: France.)

vo - j

98 SECTION 1.7

Before plant acceptance, the contractor(s) must deliver to the utility:

— The documenta t ion necessary to pe r fo rm maintenance operations. Maintenance manuals shall define procedures and establish schedules for examinations, tests and parts replacement .

— The workshops with the necessary tools, inspection and testing equipment .

— The spare and replacement parts, as agreed in scope and schedule.

Separate service con t rac t s may also be required in the following areas:

— Continuing spare and replacement parts delivery — Maintenance studies (process, methods , ...) — Maintenance and repair operations preparat ion — Assistance and experts services during maintenance operat ions

The maintenance services division of the plant is typically responsible for :

— Rout ine preventive maintenance — Urgent maintenance to stay operational — Planned and scheduled maintenance — Executing plant modif icat ions as may be approved

The maintenance du t ies can be divided in to the following areas:

— Mechanical — Electrical — Ins t rumenta t ion — Civil engineering and general services

In an ideal s i tuat ion (well-designed, constructed and commissioned plant and proper preventive maintenance) defects causing breakdowns should be minimal. However, b reakdowns do occur and a good repair j o b as well as speedy re turn to operat ion is required. Owing to the diff icul t working environment for maintenance, protect ive clothing, noise, heat , airmasks and other factors will have to be taken in to account . The radiation exposure of personnel must stay within permissible limits; this may require ro ta t ion of or additional personnel. In these circumstances, t he maintenance super intendent may have difficulties in f inding such manpower on short notice. Pre-planning fo r such cases and coverage by appropr ia te service contracts is necessary.

Spares are necessary to replace parts that fail because of wearing out , p remature failure etc. Advance procurement act ion for spares, in co-ordination wi th the purchase and stores units, is impor tan t , since lead times are long. An adequate inventory of spare parts is a necessity, since down-t ime of the plant is very expensive.

The overall amoun t of manpower required for maintenance (as given in Table 1 . 1 2 - 8 ) is of the order of 70 to 100. Support f r o m site engineering personnel, headquar ters and contractors will typically double or triple these numbers at ma jo r overhaul periods.

The non-availability of off-site suppor t , qualified outs ide service contrac tors within the coun t ry and /or a centralized maintenance service uni t within the utility will increase substantially the in-plant manpower requirements for maintenance.

It is also t o be noted that maintenance of a single nuclear power plant is relatively more manpower intensive than that of a series of uni ts belonging to the same util i ty, where there is a chance of a more eff icient util ization of specialized manpower .

1.7.3. Plant safety and radiological protection

The significance of nuclear safety and radiological protect ion becomes more and more impor tan t , as licensing authori t ies, uti l i ty management and the public interpret the c o m m o n defini t ion of radioactive release 'as low as reasonably achievable' in an increasingly stricter way. Indeed, as knowledge, reliable per-formance and au tomat ion increase, the chances for reduced radiation exposure improve. Therefore radiological protec t ion is today more than ever connected with plant engineering, operat ion and maintenance. The util i ty should have some qualified professionals working in these areas as early as during bid specifica-t ion. This activity can provide the leadership, training and /o r co-ordination of safety and radiological pro tec t ion at the operating plant .

The responsibility of operat ing a nuclear power plant within the permissible limits of radiat ion doses t o the plant personnel and to the public, and the e f fo r t s to reduce such releases t o levels 'as low as reasonably achievable' , lies with the plant owner . The role of the regulatory body is t o ensure that the owner complies with its responsibilities (see Section 1.9).

The p roper handling of low- and medium-level wastes in a nuclear power plant is also an increasingly impor tan t aspect of plant operat ion and maintenance. The technology is sufficiently advanced, and adequate solidification and packing machinery can be obtained. A b o u t 5 to 10 operators and technicians have to be trained in these activities. A sharing of facilities be tween several nuclear uni ts at t he same site is sometimes possible.

Shipments of solidified and packaged waste off-site have t o be arranged in advance to licensed waste depositories. Waste handling, as part of the fuel cycle, is covered in Section 1.8.

Al though plant safety and radiological protect ion is the common concern of all operat ion and maintenance personnel, the establishment of a special safe ty division unde r a safety super in tendent , s taffed with 4 t o 7 professionals and

1 0 0 SECTION 1.7

10 to 12 technicians, is advisable. The funct ions , tasks and technical qualifications are given in Table 1.12—8.

1.7.4. Quality assurance for operations

Quality assurance during operat ion of a nuclear power plant includes all those actions necessary to ensure plant opera t ion in accordance with specified quali ty requirements . These actions are carried out bo th by personnel performing work and by individuals or groups assigned the task of verifying the quali ty, completeness and adequacy of the work. The variety of the activities per formed during plant operat ion makes the scope of quali ty assurance rather large. It includes all those quali ty assurance activities pertaining to the design and construct ion phase, as well as to plant operat ion, inspection, periodic testing, maintenance, repair, refuelling, modif icat ion, final shu tdown and decommissioning. These activities are usually per formed in an organizational s t ructure which includes bo th the on-site plant operat ions personnel as well as off-site operat ions suppor t personnel.

On-site operat ions personnel have overall responsibility for plant operations and for implementa t ion of the quality assurance programme. In plant operations, operat ions control and verifications are usually the responsibility of the plant management , which implements these func t ions in accordance with established procedures by delegation to the on-site quality assurance group. Only a few quality assurance personnel are needed for plant operat ion (one to two pro-fessionals and six t o eight technicians).

Impor tan t activities related to plant operat ion such as design of plant modif icat ion, refuelling, p rocurement and supply of i tems and services, review of operating procedures, áudits etc. are normally per formed by off-site personnel no t directly involved in the day-to-day operat ion of the plant . The off-site organization includes an off-site quali ty assurance unit . When the plant operat ion organization has bo th an on- and off-site quali ty assurance unit , the off-site uni t is normally responsible fo r establishing the practices and procedures for quality assurance activities which are t o be implemented by the on-site unit . The off-site unit may also be responsible for verification of the correct implementa t ion of the quality assurance programme and for co-ordination of on-site and off-site quali ty assurance activities. Each unit is responsible for implementa t ion of the practices and procedures def ined for its activities.

Scheduled, planned and documented audits of all aspects of plant operat ions are per formed by a team of component and qualified off-site personnel which includes quality assurance personnel. The programme of audits includes verifica-t ion of compliance with the correct implementa t ion of internal rules, procedures, licence provisions, training, retraining and per formance of operat ions staff , record 's system etc. Independent reviews of impor tan t activities and changes in

the operat ion procedures are per formed by off-site personnel. This includes such activities as: proposed plant modificat ions, changes in safety procedures, operating limits and condit ions, abnormal occurrences and equ ipment failures, audit reports and follow-up actions.

1.7.5. Training activity

Because of the extensive training and retraining requirements , a special training division may be established, responsible for:

— Training and retraining of operat ions staff

— Training of maintenance staff

— Training of new plant personnel

— Training of all the stat ion staff in radiation pro tec t ion , emergency procedures etc.

— Training of personnel fo r activities o ther than plant opera t ion and maintenance

— Manpower studies

Manpower studies include arranging for the supplementary manpower needed during outages, and also industrial-engineering studies t o reduce the t ime taken for radiation exposure jobs.

The training super in tendent would be assisted by a relatively small staff consisting of two to three training engineers and two to three technician instruc-tors, bu t a large part of t he most highly qualified operat ion and maintenance staff should actively part icipate in the training e f fo r t bo th by lecturing on their specialized subjects and by supervising on-the-job trainees. Off-site utility personnel as well as outs ide professionals would also be involved.

The great advantages of fered by the possibility of practical in-plant training should always be fully utilized, especially by countries start ing their nuclear power programmes.

1.7.6. Manpower requirements for operation and maintenance

The number and qualif icat ions of the personnel needed are independent of the size of the uni t . For plants containing more than one uni t , especially if the units are identical, some small reduct ion of personnel per uni t can be expected.

Decisions regarding the size of the operat ion and maintenance team have to take in to account a t t r i t ion as well as the possibilities of replacing losses when they occur. In a count ry tha t has one or only a few nuclear power plants, there are great difficulties in providing replacements for qualified personnel, and thus

102 SECTION 1.7

over-staffing is advisable. As the number of nuclear power plants increases, the degree of over-staffing can be correspondingly reduced.

The overall number of plant operat ion and maintenance personnel (exclud-ing trainees and administrat ion) is usually of the order of 170 to 270 professionals, technicians and craf tsmen. Table 1.12—8 contains the distr ibution of this personnel according to funct ions/ tasks as well as their technical qualifications. This corresponds to the organization chart of Fig. 1.7—1. For first nuclear power plants the overall numbers would tend to be on the higher side, and somewhat lower fo r subsequent units. Similarly, relatively more personnel would be required in developing countr ies than in highly industrialized ones, owing mainly t o differences in the respective infrastructures. The requirements of operat ion and maintenance staff also depend somewhat on the reactor type as well as on local condit ions and labour practices.

In Fig. 1.13—9 a manpower loading curve is presented which shows a gradual increase of personnel, reaching the full complement during plant commissioning.

1.8. NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE ACTIVITIES

1.8.1. National activities in the fuel cycle

When a nuclear power programme or any individual nuclear power project is planned, t he s tudy and planning of the fuel cycle activities is an integral and essential part of this planning activity. Similarly, during implementat ion of t he programme, fue l cycle activities and nuclear power project activities have to be implemented concurrent ly.

The fue l cycle activities can be grouped in to the following stages:

(a) Provision of fresh fuel fo r the reactors. These activities are usually called front-end activities (see Section 1.8.2).

(b) Fuel management at the power plant . These activities start with the recept ion of fuel at the plant site and end with the preparat ions for t ransport ing spent fuel away f r o m the site (see Section 1.8.3).

( c ) Spent fuel management including fuel handling, t ransport , away-from-reactor s torage and eventual reprocessing or permanent disposal of spent fuel as well as waste management . These activities are usually called back-end activities (see Section 1.8.4).

The planning and implementa t ion of the nuclear fuel cycle activities must be done on a nat ional basis and decisions must be taken at the highest governmental level.

There are some fuel cycle activities which must be carried out domestically; how many and which addit ional activities a particular count ry wishes to embark on are mat te rs of policy.

The min imum essential activities which must be per formed by the count ry itself are:

— Procurement of uranium

— Procurement of uranium conversion and enr ichment (when needed) and fuel fabr icat ion

— Fuel management at the power plant

— Disposal of spent fuel

— Waste management

Usually, it is the responsibility of the owner of the nuclear power plant t o carry out these tasks, bu t o ther organizations will also be involved, especially in the f ron t - and back-end activities. If addit ional fuel cycle activities are taken up in the count ry , such as uranium explorat ion and product ion , or fuel element

104 SECTION 1.7

fabricat ion, specific organizations and the corresponding manpower will be required to carry out the tasks. Such activities can be per formed by specialized companies which supply their services or products , essentially as would a main contrac tor .

1.8.2. Front-end activities

1.8.2.1. Fuel procurement

Contract ing fo r nuclear fuel cycle activities is a technically, commercially and legally specialized area affect ing no t only the financial success but also the feasibility of a nuclear project and programme.

A nuclear fue l uni t within the utility's headquar ters staff must be available, s tart ing in the pre-project period. The func t ions of this section at this stage are to analyse and moni to r t he overall fuel cycle, mainly in a strategic and advisory capacity, regardless of the degree of involvement of the count ry or the utility in various nuclear fuel cycle activities. This section can vary in size f r o m a min imum of two professionals t o as many as fou r t o six. The resulting knowledge and skill in fuel cycle p rocurement can readily jus t i fy this level in a headquar ters group.

When nuclear power project implementa t ion starts, the fuel p rocurement activities will have to be carried out by the nuclear fuel uni t concurrent ly with the tasks involved in the bidding and contract ing of the power plant . The pro-vision of uranium and of all the essential f ront -end services (conversion and enr ichment if needed and fuel element fabr icat ion) must be assured by negotiating and closing the corresponding commercial contracts as well as by any internat ional agreements which are required. It is highly advisable tha t most of these fuel contracts be long-term and oriented to the nat ional nuclear power programme ra ther than to a single project . This means involvement of those nat ional organizations and their staff which are responsible for nat ional nuclear power programme planning and implementa t ion activities.

Fuel p rocurement is a long-range and cont inu ing activity; thus it is advisable to establish a permanent organic unit , which should handle bo th the initial and on-going fuel requirements of all nuclear power plants in the nat ional programme or at least all those within each utili ty, if there is more than one uti l i ty with nuclear power plants in the count ry . This uni t could also handle p rocurement of back-end fue l cycle services (see Section 1.8.4).

A fue l p rocurement group would normally be part of the uti l i ty head-quarters ' s taff support ing the power plant opera t ion and maintenance organiza-tion, and close contac t should be maintained between these two groups, in part icular fo r on-going fue l requirements.

NUCLEAR F U E L CYCLE ACTIVITIES 105

A fuel p rocurement group s taf fed with six to eight professionals with a combined expertise in the technical, economic, commercial and legal aspects would be needed.

1.8.2.2. Uranium exploration, mining and milling

The ini t iat ion of a nuclear power programme in a count ry could be a s t rong incentive for under taking uranium explorat ion and produc t ion . But , of course, this activity could be also totally independent of the existence of any kind of nat ional nuclear power programme and be pursued for the sole purpose of expor t ing uranium to foreign customers, subject t o nat ional policies.

One or some combinat ions of the following modes can be adop ted for initiating a programme of uranium explorat ion and p roduc t ion :

— Initiating national programmes in a planned manner

— Obtaining assistance f r o m internat ional organizations such as the UN revolving fund , UNDP, IBRD or the IAEA

— Entering in to bilateral or mul t inat ional arrangements for explorat ion and produc t ion activities

The explorat ion programme would be implemented through geological reconnaissance, selection of favourable areas t o be prospected, detect ion of radiometr ic anomalous areas, ident i f icat ion of uranium mineralization, explora-t ion drilling, determinat ion of reserves, mining exploi tat ion and studies on uranium recovery. Experience has demonst ra ted tha t , for an unknown area, 6 t o 10 years are necessary f r o m the start of explorat ion t o preparat ion of the mine for u ran ium product ion , and 8 t o 13 years f r o m the start of explorat ion to uranium concent ra te (yellow cake) product ion . The implementat ion of an explorat ion project can generally be under taken in three phases:

— General reconnaissance. Geological, geophysical and geochemical me thods are used in explorat ions a t a scale of 1 : 2 5 0 000 to 1 : 25 000:

— Follow-up. The classification of the uranium anomalies according t o priorities ( ' interesting areas') as a result of be t te r knowledge of their characteristics. This fol low-up explorat ion is a t a scale of 1 : 2 5 000 to 1 : 5 0 0 0 .

— Detailed surveys. A scale of operat ion f r o m 1 : 5000 to 1 : 500 is used to ident i fy uranium mineralizations and to s tudy the extension of ore bodies and their satellite occurrences. Geochemistry surveys, geophysical surveys, mapping, trenching, drilling, logging etc. are involved as needed.

The above explorat ion steps can also be done wi th limited manpower and modest investments, bu t results usually depend on the e f for t s expended. The key

106 SECTION 1.7

starting requirement is the judgement of a competen t geologist tha t a country has potent ia l uranium resources and where this potent ial is located. The IAEA has part icipated in uranium prospecting and explorat ion with a number of develop-ing countr ies and has obtained some estimates regarding manpower requirements. One project surveyed some 14 000 km 2 at the rate of 28 k m 2 per man-year. This comprised air-borne radiometr ic surveys and geochemical work including follow-up re-evaluation, which located the best places for drilling or tunnelling explorat ion in the nex t s tep, which is development . In general, a good estimate for a well co-ordinated, professional explorat ion team is 50 km 2 per man-year.

The overall manpower requirements will mainly depend on the e f for t t o be expended. As a general indication, Table 1.12—9(a) contains the manpower requirements and qualifications of basic teams to perform the various kinds of explorat ion activities.

Once a prospect is evaluated and a definite resource is identif ied, the next steps involve:

(a) Mining exploitation

— Preparat ion of the required infras t ructure (access roads, clearing, construct ion, water, electrical and communicat ion systems, draining and disposal systems)

— Pre-production development (drifts, shafts, raises, stopes, core drilling, clearing and transport of ore and waste etc.)

— Product ion (extract ion operations, hauling of ore, surface operations, t ransporta t ion and safe disposal of ore and waste etc.)

(b) Milling

— Previous ore-dressing assays on a laboratory- and a pilot-plant scale t o def ine the best me thod of product ion

— Mill project and installation, including facilities for tails and liquids disposal, neutralization etc.

— Product ion

The technology and equipment for explorat ion, mining and milling is no t difficult t o acquire. Going ahead wi th the actual mining and milling operat ion requires some major investments in equipment and manpower . No t all such projects successfully reach an economically viable operat ion.

The economics and productivi ty of mining is d i f ferent for each particular site and count ry . There are examples where productivi ty averaged about 0.1 tonne of ore per man-day wi th a significant personnel turnover. In other cases, an appropria te figure is over 10 tonnes of ore per man-day. For a profi table uranium o u t p u t , in general several hundred to several thousand people are

NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE ACTIVITIES 1 0 7

TABLE 1 . 8 - 1 . MANPOWER DISTRIBUTION F O R A MINING-MILLING O P E R A T I O N 3

Personnel required

General management (mining-milling) 2 - 3

Mining

Management 2 - 4

Professionals, supervisors, technicians 2 0 - 3 0

Labour-craf t smen 1 2 0 - 1 5 0

Milling

Management 2 - 4

Professionals, supervisors, technicians 2 0 - 3 0

Labour-craf t smen 6 0 - 8 0

Associated departments

Management 2 - 4

Professionals, technicians 1 0 - 1 5

Labour-craf t smen 5 0 - 7 0

Adminis t ra t ion 1 0 - 2 0

Tota l ( rounded) 3 0 0 - 4 0 0

a Example of m a n p o w e r requ i rements fo r a mine-mill complex processing 2 0 0 0 tonnes of ore per day, in open pit opera t ion .

needed, depending on the produc t ion rate. Prior mining experience will be required for practically all of them. Addit ional training in uranium mining and milling will be required most ly for the management and professional s taff . The mining operat ions have to include know-how and personnel over and above what is required in conventional mining, namely in the areas of uranium ore geological features and radiat ion pro tec t ion and surveillance (mainly due to radon) .

An example of t he type of manpower for a mine-mill complex of 2000 tonnes per day is given in Table 1.8—1. For this capacity, on the order of 300 to 4 0 0 people would be needed under condit ions prevailing in many industrialized countries. Requirements will depend on whether it is underground or open-pit mining; on the locat ion and technical characteristics of the mine; and on nat ional condit ions affect ing the labour market , such as product ivi ty , efficiency, employmen t policies and labour costs.

108 SECTION 1.8

1.8.2.3. Conversion

Conversion is used only if t he reactor fuel is enriched uranium. For natural-uranium-fuel led reactors, this is no t required. Prior t o enr ichment , the yellow cake (end-product of t he mining-milling operat ion) is processed to convert it in to U F 6 . This conversion opera t ion has been a normal commercial enterprise for many years. Costs are qui te sensitive t o th roughpu t level, and plants should be of t he order of 3000 tonnes per year to be economical . It is est imated tha t the to ta l manpower fo r a p lant of this size is abou t 100 people. F o r a un i t wi th a 10 000 tonnes /year capacity, over 180 people are est imated to be needed. These estimates, a l though based on experience in industrialized countries, may be applicable t o developing countries. The conversion plants are basically chemical process plants and consequent ly manpower with qualifications in related chemical activities of an in termediate level of technology are needed. In addi t ion, the plant personnel mus t be trained and qualified fo r radiat ion pro tec t ion measuring and account ing me thods fo r relatively low-level radiat ion, and for fulfilling safeguards requirements .

1.8.2.4. Enrichment

Proven enr ichment technologies (applicable t o those reactor types which require enriched uran ium) are no t available commercially because of non-prol i ferat ion concerns. Relevant informat ion , including manpower requirements which vary according t o the .enrichment process used, is also very restricted. The scale of an economic operat ion, the advanced technology required and the sizeable energy requirements are in general considered to be an undue and inappropr ia te burden on the resources of mos t developing countries. Thus, they must rely on enr ichment contracts with the few industrialized countries which are able to supply enr ichment services. Complex long-term enr ichment contracts including safeguards and reprocessing considerations must be negotiated. Owing to the increased uncertaint ies in regard to t ime schedules, t he need for flexibility in such contracts is emphasized.

There is also a possibility t o part icipate as shareholder in mult inat ional enr ichment companies, which may o f fe r certain advantages in assuring supplies. This aspect may be of part icular interest t o those developing countr ies which have ident if ied u ran ium ore reserves and/or a reasonably good financial s tatus.

1.8.2.5. Fuel fabrication

Some countries wi th nuclear power programmes have f o u n d tha t setting u p domest ic fue l fabricat ion plants is at tractive and achievable b o t h economically and technically. In this activity, the fabricat ion process is modula r and modules

NUCLEAR F U E L CYCLE ACTIVITIES 109

of the order of 100 to 250 tonnes per year appear practical. Also, the fabricat ion process can be implemented in stages. For example, initially a fabrication plant may only assemble fuel elements or may receive U 0 2 powder or even pellets and then the plant can be gradually increased t o include all of the steps.

Manpower estimates given below are based on the full process for LWR fuel. This process begins with enriched U F 6 conversion to U 0 2 powder , f r o m which pellets are prepared and inserted in to cladding tubes; t he fuel elements are then assembled. The estimated manpower requirements for a small bu t viable plant of 250 tonnes per year are 30 professionals and 40 to 60 technicians. Such a uni t would supply the annual refuel l ing requirements for an LWR capacity of abou t 8000 MW(e) wi th operat ion at a 75% capacity factor . A similar size plant would supply replacement fuel fo r abou t 2000 MW(e) of HWR capacity, where conversion of U F 6 t o U 0 2 would n o t be necessary. Modest economies of scale can be achieved in investment and operating staff wi th larger capacity plants.

Personnel experienced in the manufac ture of nuclear fuel are not generally available. It is usually necessary t o appoint individuals with appropriate educat ion and experience to the more responsible posit ions and t o provide them with the training necessary for nuclear fuel manufac ture . Table 1 . 1 2 - 9 (b) indicates the requirements and qualifications fo r the management and supervisory personnel of a fuel fabricat ion plant .

Selecting and training personnel fo r a fuel fabricating operat ion is one of the more impor tan t activities in establishing such a plant . The management must be commit ted t o manufac tur ing using very strict quality standards. In all aspects of the planning and developing of equipment and procedures for fuel manufac tu re there must be n o compromise with regard to quality.

Personnel with chemical, ceramic and mechanical backgrounds and industrial experience could be selected to staff a new plant . Individuals with experience in areas where the quality of the p roduc t is highly impor tan t can be trained to fill key posit ions, bu t even they will require addit ional background training to establish an unders tanding of nuclear manufac tur ing technology and quality requirements . If it is at all feasible, the most eff icient means of complement ing the training of the personnel t o fill these positions is t o place them in an operat ing fuel fabricat ing plant fo r varying periods of t ime. In this way, the individuals have an oppor tun i ty t o part icipate in the rout ine operat ion of the plant and to gain an unders tanding of the underlying philosophy of the manufac tur ing process and organization.

1.8.3. Fuel management at the power plant

In addi t ion to providing suppor t fo r the fuel p rocurement activities (see Section 1.8.2.1) the following rout ine fuel activities are per formed at the power plants by the operat ion and maintenance personnel during operat ion:

110 SECTION 1.7

— Recept ion and inspection of fresh fue l — Storage of fresh fuel — Refuelling of t he reactor — In-core fuel management — Unloading of spent fuel — Inspect ion and investigation of failed fuel elements — Temporary storage of spent fuel — Loading for off-site t ransport — Fuel safeguards procedures and account ing

To per fo rm these activities, specially trained personnel are needed in the reactor operat ions staff , usually under the technical and the operat ion super-in tendents (see Section 1.7). At least two professionals should be well versed in the practical aspects of in-core fuel management , which includes:

— Developing and updat ing of in-core fuel management plans — Scheduling of refuelling — Unloading and loading pat terns — Continuing b u r n u p calculations — Economic opt imizat ion of the fuel cycle

The ' in-plant ' fuel activities should be co-ordinated with those in radiation physics, plant chemistry a n d plant security, as described in Section 1.7, as well as with plant operat ions. The fuel management group would be headed by a nuclear physicist or nuclear engineer and comprise four t o six professionals, possibly including also one technician and one accountan t . This group would also provide input t o the headquar ters fuel section staff on: the fuel per formance , the possibility of design modificat ions, mat ters related to the quali ty assurance of the replacement fuel and off-site spent fuel management .

1.8.4. Back-end activities

1.8.4.1. Planning and procurement

There are several activities in this area for which the owner must bear full responsibility, and either plan to perform them himself or have them per formed by o the r organizations. These include, in particular, spent fuel t ransport and storage away f rom the reactor, ei ther t o an independent interim storage facility or t o one a t tached to a reprocessing plant . In addition, reprocessors require at least at present that customers agree t o accept the high-level waste f r o m the reprocessing operat ion; therefore storage and ul t imate disposal of such waste would have to be planned and prepared. In several industrialized countries, there are now regulatory requirements which call for arrangements for the assured disposal of radioactive waste generated in the fuel before a nuclear power plant is granted a const ruct ion permit .

NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE ACTIVITIES 111

Performing the activities related to the back-end of the fue l cycle should be examined very carefully by developing countries and also by the industrialized countries wi th small nuclear power programmes. In all these activities economies of scale of operat ions may be significant and hence decisions regarding reprocessing and recycling of fuel materials could be influenced considerably on economic grounds, depending on the size and expected rate of growth of the nuclear power programme of the count ry . For example, the IAEA's Regional Nuclear Fuel Cycle Centres (RFCC) Study (Ref . [6]) indicated that t he unit costs of fue l reprocessing, mixed oxide fuel fabricat ion and waste management could be two to three t imes higher when carried out in plants with a th roughput capacity of 300 tonnes of spent fuel per year as compared to 1500 tonnes per year. It should also be taken in to account that most back-end fuel cycle activities involve sensitive technologies f r o m the non-proliferat ion poin t of view.

Countries should also evaluate the back-end fuel cycle activities in terms of their financial commitments , the requirements for scientific and technical staff and their specialized training, the need for appropriate t ransfer of technology and the assurance fo r the supply of nuclear fuel on a long-term basis.

F o r planning and procurement of back-end services, there should be two to three professionals within the procurement group, as described in Section 1.8.2.1.

1.8.4.2. Spent fuel transport and storage

Transport of spent fue l is a well-established and regulated activity. Thousands of shipments have been made in specially designed containers by surface, water or air with few minor incidents which did not represent any danger t o the public. Private service companies are available which per form these t ransports . This service can be procured ei ther by contracting or by the establishment of a domest ic t ranspor t company which might be a licensee or a jo in t venture. Combinat ion with o ther service activities is advisable. The uti l i ty fuel cycle and operat ions organizations should be in charge of planning this activity and could even provide the very few engineers and technicians needed with the necessary basic training.

If the spent fue l cannot be removed within a reasonable period to away-from-reactor storage or t o a reprocessing facility, its on-site storage will be a problem for many nuclear power plant owners for the nex t several years, as the storage capacities provided at the LWR plants are normally inadequate for accepting spent fuel f rom more than a few years ' operat ion, while still providing space for a full core of spent fuel , which is a normal safety requirement . This problem is less significant for operators of HWR plants with on-site storage capacities for abou t 10 o r more years of operat ion. For existing plants, storage capacity can be expanded with the use of compact fuel storage racks. Also, interim storage facilities at away-from-reactor sites might be considered on ei ther a national

112 SECTION 1.7

or on an internat ional basis. These activities can be planned and contracted by the fuel p rocurement team (see Sections 1.8.2.1 and 1.8.4.1).

The const ruct ion and operat ion of a large central interim storage facility would require substantial planning, licensing, construct ion and operational resources. Al though the technology involved should n o t present major difficulties, it should also be taken in to account tha t no such facilities have as yet been built . Consequent ly , no actual experience is available regarding manpower requirements .

1.8.4.3. Spent fuel reprocessing

The reprocessing opt ions being explored, as well as the techniques and facilities still under development in mos t industrialized countries, should be fol lowed by the ut i l i ty 's staff which per forms planning and procurement of materials and services of the entire nuclear fuel cycle, including the possibility of reprocessing spent fue l and the recycle of recovered fissionable materials.

A comprehensive evaluation of reprocessing was carried out in the IAEA Regional Nuclear Fuel Cycle Centres (RFCC) Study, published in 1977 (Ref.[6]) . Even more recent relevant informat ion was produced during the 1 9 7 8 - 8 0 Internat ional Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation (INFCE) (Re f . f l ] ) . But it should also be taken into account tha t experience in industrial reprocessing is limited and that certain restrictions apply t o this technology, because of non-proliferat ion concerns.

The manpower requirements for spent fuel reprocessing and waste manage-ment were analysed in some detail during the RFCC Study. Manpower require-ments for spent fue l storage at the reprocessing plant were also studied. It was estimated that a fue l receiving and storage facil i ty servicing a 300 tonnes per yeaf ( t /a) plant would require 70 people, and 150 people would be sufficient for a fácility which would service a 3000 t /a reprocessing plant . The storage facility considered was for servicing the reprocessing plant only and did not include excess capacity to store an accumulat ion of spent fuel over an extended period prior to reprocessing. Based on conceptual studies, it has been estimated that the man-power required for various reprocessing plant sizes would be about :

500 people for a 300 t /a plant 800 people fo r a 750 t /a plant

1100 people for a 1500 t /a plant 1500 people for a 3000 t /a plant

Table 1.8—2 illustrates a possible distr ibution of the personnel among the various main tasks fo r a 300 t /a reprocessing plant . Abou t 20% would be professionals, 20 t o 30% technicians and the rest craf tsmen and unskilled workers.

T A B L E 1 . 8 - 2 . M A N P O W E R R E Q U I R E M E N T S O F A 3 0 0 t / a

R E P R O C E S S I N G P L A N T 3

Main tasks N u m b e r

Production

Fuel handl ing and storage sub-facility 20

Separat ion sub-facility 125

U conversion sub-facili ty 10

Pu conversion sub-facili ty 20

Sub-total 175 •

Technical services

Analyt ical sub-facility 60

Radia t ion pro tec t ion 50

Maintenance 125

Technical assistance (new works design, d ra f t smen , etc . )

Sub-tota l 250

General services

Service func t ions ( laundry , jani tor ial , uti l i t ies, can teen , medical , etc.)

Clerical services 25

Sub- to ta l 75

Tota l 500

a Reference: IAEA Regional Nuclear F u e l Cycle Centres S tudy .

Note: All personnel are included.

1.8.4.4. Was te managemen t

T h e n a t u r e a n d p r o p e r t i e s o f n u c l e a r f u e l c y c l e w a s t e s d e p e n d s t r o n g l y o n

t h e c h e m i c a l flowsheets a n d o p e r a t i n g p r a c t i c e s u s e d , t h e n a t i o n a l l i c e n s i n g

c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e d i s p o s a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e f u e l c y c l e w a s t e s c a n b e g r o u p e d

i n t o w a s t e s f r o m :

114 SECTION 1.7

— Ore processing — Refining, conversion and enrichment — Fuel element fabricat ion — Reactors — Spent fuel — Reprocessing

It will be no ted that t he spent fuel and reprocessing waste groups are mutual ly exclusive.

More than 99% of the total radioactivity generated in nuclear power plants is contained in the high-level solutions f r o m fuel reprocessing. These relatively small quanti t ies of high-level wastes (HLW) ( 1 5 m 3 f r o m a 1000 MW(e) nuclear power plant) have generally been stored in liquid form in stainless steel tanks to await decay of most of their radioactivity and heat product ion. It is planned to convert these wastes t o encapsulated stable solid fo rms for final disposal in geological repositories. The preferred system is t o incorporate the waste in to monol i th ic glass cylinders.

The low- and medium-level wastes are generally incorporated in to concrete or b i tumen . Table 1.8—3 shows the volume and the radioactivity conten t of wastes ready for disposal f r o m the product ion of 1000 megawatt-year of electricity. These data apply t o LWRs fuelled by enriched U 0 2 .

Some regulatory authori t ies now require inspection of waste package contents ; in some cases retrievability of the waste package (typically 200 litre steel drums) is required. A summary of packaged wastes arising f r o m selected fuel cycle steps is given in the INFCE repor t of Working Group 7 (Ref . [ l ]).

A solidification plant fo r high-level waste would , at this stage of develop-ment , be a ma jo r technological undertaking, with relatively high financial and qualified manpower requirements . The establishment and operat ion of a solid waste geological reposi tory is estimated to require a team of about 200 pro-fessionals and technicians, who can be trained and recruited f rom related operat ions. A breakdown of manpower requirements for the waste generated in a 300 t /a reprocessing plant can be found in Table 1.8—4.

Manpower requirements for waste management depend fundamenta l ly on the t y p e and size of facilities needed, and these in turn depend on the type and volume of the waste generated in the fuel cycle of the nuclear power programme.

The example given in Table 1.12—9(c) provides an indication of the man-power requirements and qualifications fo r this activity, based on the nuclear waste t r ea tment facility in the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Centre in the Federal Republ ic of Germany.

1.8.5. Manpower requirements for the nuclear fuel cycle

The manpower requirements for the fuel cycle depend on the type and scale of activities under taken , as defined by national policy. For a nuclear power

TABLE 1 . 8 - 3 . F U E L CYCLE WASTES FROM THE GENERATION O F 1000 MW(e) O F ELECTRICITY BY ENRICHED U 0 2 - F U E L L E D LWRs a

Volume ( m 3 )

Activity (MCi)

Mass of actinides ( t )

The rmal power (kW)

High-level solidified 3 .0 78 0.19 b 390

Cladding hulls 2.6 0.87 0 .017 3.6

Noble gases 0.1 0.27 - 0 .405

Iodine 0 .043 1.1 X 10"6 - 6.7 X 10" 7

LWR tr i t ium (water ) 140 0 . 0 0 0 7 4 - 2.3 X 10"5

Fission-product t r i t ium 0 .31 0 .016 - 0 .00057 (solidified)

C-14 - 2 X 10" s - -

Low-level T R U 3.5 0 .0035 0 .0003 0 .002

Intermediate-level T R U 8.7 0 . 0 1 1 7.7 X 10"5 0 .054

Low and in te rmedia te level 535 0 .002 - 0 .0065

Ore tailings 57 0 0 0 0 .006 9.2 0 . 0 1 4

a Proceedings of the In terna t ional Confe rence on Nuclear Power and its Fue l Cycle, Salzburg (1977 ) Vol .4, p .341 .

k Includes u ran ium.

programme which includes only the min imum of essential domest ic activities t o be per formed (see Table 2.3—1 ), the manpower requirements are relatively low.

For the activities involving the procurement of fue l cycle materials and services, a team of six to eight professionals is usually adequate . It should be noted , however, tha t these professionals must be highly trained and qualified in order to carry out their funct ions . Fuel management at the power plant is one of the tasks of the operat ion and maintenance staff .

For spent fuel management , the manpower requirements will depend on the kind of fue l cycle adopted . Without reprocessing (domestic or foreign), the back-end activities will require possibly 100 to 200 people (10 to 20% professionals), most of them to handle domestic storage of spent fuel. Should storage in a foreign count ry be the approach adopted, national manpower requirements could practically remain at the procurement- team level. With foreign reprocessing, there would be no nat ional manpower requirements fo r away-from-reactor storage of spent fuel , bu t waste management could

116 SECTION 1.7

TABLE 1 . 8 - 4 . ESTIMATED OPERATING P E R S O N N E L F O R A WASTE T R E A T M E N T AND STORAGE FACILITY T O SUPPORT A 3 0 0 t /a REPROCESSING P L A N T a

N u m b e r of

Non-professional Professional Non-professional Professional

Co-located b Single

1. Waste treatment facility

Opera t ions 50 30 40 40

Ancillary services 3 0 20 6 0 30

Tota l 80 50 100 70

2. Geological disposal facility

Opera t ions including services

50 15 6 0 10

Suppor t activities 5 5 35 5

To ta l 55 20 95 15

Overall to ta l 135 70 195 85

a Reference: IAEA Regional Nuclear Fue l Cycle Centres S tudy , b Co-located wi th the reprocessing p lant .

be expected to create a demand fo r several hundred people, depending on the scope of the nuclear power programme and the reprocessor 's policy regarding waste disposal.

F o r those fuel cycle activities which are n o t essential, there appears t o be min imum scale which defines the threshold for economic industrial operat ions, under which the per formance of the activity does no t seem to be feasible or advisable.

A meaningful uranium explorat ion e f fo r t on a national level would require at least 20 to 30 experienced and well-trained professionals and technicians. Mining and milling would depend very much on the resources available, bu t it would seem tha t uranium produc t ion should be on the scale of some hundreds

of tonnes of yellow cake per year t o jus t i fy the development of the corresponding industry. In the example given in Table 1.8—1, the manpower requirements of a 2000 t /d mining-milling complex would be a round 300 to 400 skilled people (10% professionals).

The economic size of conversion plants (yellow cake to U F 6 ) seems to be a capacity of around 3000 t /a , requiring some hundred people. For fuel e lement fabricat ion, plants of 100 t o 25Q t /a capacity appear t o be practical, requiring approximately 30 professionals and 4 0 to 60 technicians.

Owing to non-prol iferat ion concerns, in format ion on enr ichment technology is very restricted, bu t economic operat ion appears to require a very large-scale facility. Non-prol iferat ion concerns are also involved in reprocessing; however, some estimates regarding manpower requirements are available. For a 300 t /a plant , abou t 500 people seem to be necessary.

1.9. NUCLEAR LICENSING AND REGULATION

1.9.1. The regulatory authority

The regulatory author i ty has the primary responsibility for ensuring the heal th and safety of the general public against the possible adverse effects arising f r o m the activities associated with nuclear power. In order to carry out this responsibility, the author i ty undertakes the following activities:

— Establishment of regulatory standards, codes and criteria which will govern the design, construct ion and operat ion of nuclear power plants.

— Review and evaluation of the safety analysis and environmental reports submit ted by a utility in support of its application to construct and operate a nuclear power plant ; issue of licences.

— Conduc t of a programme of inspection of a licensee's facility, to ensure that the design, manufacture , installation and operat ion of a facility, fo r which a permit or licence is issued, conforms to established rules and regulations.

To be able to carry out effectively its funct ions , the regulatory author i ty should be:

— Vested by enabling legislation with a broad s ta tu tory author i ty and funct iona l au tonomy to carry ou t its func t ions independent ly of applicants, manufacturers , suppliers and o ther interested parties in bo th the public and private sectors.

— Staf fed by highly qualified professionals t o pe r fo rm the required tasks.

1.9.1.1. Responsibilities and functions of units in the regulatory body

To carry oiit the basic objectives, a regulatory body may be organized into uni ts which discharge each of the above funct ions. A possible organizational s t ructure is presented in Fig. 1.9—1.

The Codes and Standards Unit shall under take the following specific activities:

— Planning and implementa t ion of a programme for the development of safety standards and for the protect ion of t he public against the potential hazards of nuclear power plants.

— Establishment of criteria and guides in the siting, design, construct ion and operat ion of nuclear plants.

NUCLEAR LICENSING A N D REGULATION 119

— Collation, analysis and dissemination of informat ion pertaining to experiences in the design and opera t ion of nuclear plants. (This task might jus t i fy a separate unit .)

— Establ ishment of broad procedures and /o r methods required fo r the a t ta inment of the above objectives.

The Licensing and Assessment Unit shall:

- Plan, direct and co-ordinate the licensing activities of the regulatory author i ty with respect t o the issuance of permits and operat ing licences.

— Per fo rm a review of the technical submissions of the applicant to determine that the design of the plant complies with the specific safety objectives for construct ion and operat ion.

- Prepare and publish evaluation repor ts and o ther related documents resulting f r o m the review of the safety analysis and environmental repor ts submit ted by the applicant , to f o r m the bases for the issuance of permits and licences.

— Prescribe broad procedures and /o r methods t o be fol lowed in the attain-ment of defined objectives.

The Inspection and Enforcement Unit shall be responsible for the development and implementa t ion of the programme and policies fo r :

— Ensuring, through inspections, audits and tests, tha t t he plant design and const ruct ion meet the requirements of the approved codes, standards, criteria and specifications.

— Reviewing the commissioning tests t o verify that the reactor per formance meets t he design requirements and tha t tests are conducted in accordance with approved plans and procedures.

— Preparing a programme of audits to determine tha t t he operat ion is in compliance with approved plans, procedures and limits.

— Investigating eventual accidents, incidents and t h e f t or diversion of special nuclear materials.

— Evaluating licensed operat ions as a basis for recommending changes t o s tandards and licence conditions.

— Suspending plant opera t ion if required.

09 W o g

OPERATOR QUALIF ICATION RE-QUALIFICATION LICENSING

FIG.1.9-1. Possible structure of a nuclear regulatory authority.

1.9.1.2. Organization and staffing

Proper organization, qualified staff and effective procedures are essential condit ions to be fulfil led. The author i ty of the regulatory body must be based on a clear and well-defined legal mandate .

The organization of the regulatory body will necessarily depend upon the governmental s tructure, the legal system and the administrative practices of a country . Some examples of national organizational s tructures for nuclear power are presented in Figs 1.1—2 to 1.1—5. Examples are also contained in the Appendix to Chapter 2. No existing pat tern , notwithstanding h o w rational it may look, can be adop ted wi thout due account being taken of the specific condit ions existing in a country . In particular, the size and organization of the regulatory body will have to reflect the planned in t roduct ion and expected growth of nuclear power in the country. Whatever s tructure may be adopted , the regulatory body must be provided in due t ime with sufficient staff qualified to carry ou t its func t ions in such a manner as t o convey credible assurance of the quality of its assessments and the effectiveness of its enforcement activity.

At the earliest stages, extensive use can be made of outside experts t o assist the regulatory author i ty in the per formance of its funct ions , but it is essential to aim at developing national competence in as many technical areas as possible.

I t is to be emphasized that t he regulatory body is n o t expected to be entirely self-sufficient in all technical areas and the use of outside experts to conduct assessment and inspection activities is necessary and desirable. The outside technical assistance (preferably local but , if no t available, foreign) may take any or a combinat ion of t he following forms:

- Assistance f r o m other governmental agencies with legal responsibility for or interest in areas associated with nuclear-related heal th and safety (e.g. public health, occupat ional safety, environmental protect ion, civil works inspection).

- Exper ts provided by or through the auspices of international organizations. The IAEA, for example, provides a wide variety of technical assistance and advisory services on safety matters through missions of experts.

- Exper ts provided by other regulatory organizations, technical and scientific societies, research and development inst i tutes or universities.

- Private consultants of recognized skills and experience provided they are n o t involved either directly or indirectly with the activities of t he applicant or its contractors .

- Independent experts f r o m o ther governmental and /or private inst i tut ions forming themselves in to an advisory commit tee on safety and other related matters.

122 SECTION 1.7

As nuclear power programmes expand, the regulatory body will grow to a large organization. Within a large group of regulatory experts, the same sub-divisions into sections are used as discussed for project engineering (see Section 1.3.2). The regulatory e f for t expended on a nuclear power project is of t he order of 10 to 20% of the overall engineering man-hours spent .

1.9.1.3. Conduct of activities

The three major tasks of t he regulatory body suggest a f o r m of close interrelat ionship among t h e major units and an interfacing of their activities during all phases of a nuclear power project . F o r a count ry embarking on its first nuclear power project , it is necessary, as early as the pre-project activities phase, to develop the standards, criteria, codes and regulations that will govern each of the activities of t he nuclear power programme. These standards and criteria will be utilized by the licensing and assessment uni t in their evaluation of t he technical conten t of a licence application for a nuclear power plant or facility and also by the inspection and enforcement uni t in connect ion with their regulatory activities during the construct ion and plant operat ion phases.

During the pre-construct ion period when site evaluation and initial assessment of plant safety is t o be under taken, t he personnel responsible for the safe ty review of specific areas of the plant design should be designated. Contac ts among the d i f ferent uni ts conducting the review should be encouraged. Also discussions and meetings between the regulatory staff and the uti l i ty group should be made as f requent ly as necessary in order to ensure mutual understanding of significant safety issues and timely resolution of safety concerns (see also Section 1.3.5).

During t h e construct ion phase of the project , the inspection and enforcement programme of the regulatory staff will commence. The major i ty of t he inspection activities at this t ime will be aimed at ascertaining that the approved design is being fa i thful ly executed by the applicant and his contractors. Addit ional in format ion f r o m the applicant and feedback f r o m inspection repor ts will be used by the licensing and assessment unit in their continuing evaluation work of the plant safety. This close interrelationship of the work of the inspection and enforcement uni t and the licensing and assessment uni t cont inues during the commissioning phase. Any procedural changes in the conduct of tests as well as déficiences detected during inspection should be subject to assessment.

The activities of the regulatory staff during the operat ions phase of a nuclear power plant or facility will involve more inspection than assessment work. Proposals fo r plant modif icat ions and changes in approved procedures should be subjected t o thorough assessment. Close surveillance and control should be exercised to ensure strict compliance with approved technical specifications and operating limits.

1.9.2. Codes and s tandards

Af te r t he enac tment of the s ta tu tory bases for licensing nuclear power plants and facilities, the regulatory body has t o develop substantive regulations and s tandards to govern all the activities of a nuclear power programme. The principal objective of these regulations, codes, standards and criteria is t o provide reasonable assurance tha t the heal th and safety of the public and of the operat ing t eam will not be endangered by the opera t ion of the nuclear power plant or facility. These regulations and standards specify requirements that t he applicant has to translate and ref lect in the design, const ruct ion and opera t ion of t he plant .

Countries which are technically advanced in nuclear power have developed regulations and s tandards for their own use; regulations have also been developed by the IAEA. There is, however, a lack of sufficient s tandards for t he safety of nuclear power plants which have been internationally accepted. Therefore , regulatory bodies in countr ies just starting their nuclear power programmes, are faced with a decision on the approach to t ake regarding the task of regulations and s tandards development. The usual approach taken initially in all areas where relevant local s tandards are lacking is to adopt the regulations of a particular foreign count ry , or the count ry of the supplier of the nuclear power plant .

If this approach is taken, t he foreign regulations and standards should be carefully evaluated in terms of:

— Applicabili ty to the specific condi t ions within the count ry

— Completeness

— The necessity of a continuing exchange of in format ion between the two countries

— Foreign language problems

Since 1975, t he IAEA has carried ou t a programme fo r establishing codes of pract ice and guides on the safety of nuclear power plants ( the Nuclear Safety Standards or NUSS programme ( R e f s . [ 2 5 - 3 2 ] ) ) t o make available to its Member States recommendat ions to provide a basis fo r regulatory development and to serve as a s tandard f rame of reference for safety analysis review and assessment. Internat ional s tandards and criteria supplemented by acceptable me thods and procedures to implement them, as set ou t in the IAEA Codes of Practice and Safety Guides, can be of considerable assistance to developing countr ies in providing a formalized approach to the regulation of nuclear power plants. Of particular relevance to the subject of this section of the Guidebook is t he Code of Practice 50-C-G: 'Governmental Organization for the Regulat ion of Nuclear Power Plants ' and the Safety Guide 50-SG-G1 : 'Qualif ications and Training of Staff of the Regulatory Body f o r Nuclear Power Plants ' (Refs [25, 26]).

124 SECTION 1.7

Whatever regulations are adopted, some modif icat ions of the reference regulations will be required to adapt them to the specific condit ions in the count ry . However, it may n o t be advisable to make significant condit ions in the reference regulations, nor to a t t empt to combine regulations of d i f ferent countries. Many of the regulatory systems have evolved in a complex but integrated manner and there is a risk of inadvertently omit t ing some impor tan t fea tures if such a t t empts are made.

In the long run, a count ry may well choose to develop its own set of regulations and standards. These are likely to be based on the reference regulations chosen for their first few nuclear plants but modif ied to the local condit ions as experience is subsequently gained.

1.9.3. Licensing and safety assessment

The objectives of t he review by the regulatory body of the safety analysis repor t submit ted in suppor t of a licence application are to obtain adequate technical in format ion on the reactor design and to reach an understanding of the technical basis fo r the proposed plant. The enviromental report review, on the o ther hand, is in tended to allow an assessment of t he possible effects on the environment of the proposed construct ion and operat ion of the nuclear plant. The environmental review also seeks t o assess t h e benefi ts of the proposed nuclear power plant against the costs represented by the possible negative ef fec ts of the plant on the environment .

This review work may be per formed in stages, such as a preliminary review at the pre-construct ion stage and a final review at the pre-operation stage. The depth of these reviews depends on the capability of the regulatory body to make independent reviews and the degree to which it relies on industry self-control. Al though a complete re-check of design specifications and analysis of the applicants is impractical, spot-check capability is generally needed for a good and credible review ef for t . For this t y p e of review and the subsequent preparat ion of the requisite evaluation repor t , it is estimated that t h e regulatory staff will spend about 10% of the engineering man-hours spent by the applicants in preparing the reports . A breakdown of disciplines required for such a review e f fo r t is similar t o the one required for project engineering, as described in Section 1.3.2.

The const ruct ion permit is usually issued by the regulatory au thor i ty a f te r it has completed its safety review and is convinced that there is reasonable assurance that t he opera t ion of t he plant will no t pose an unacceptable risk to the heal th and safety of t h e public. This permit will const i tute an author izat ion to the applicant t o proceed with the construct ion of the plant. Some regulatory authori t ies allow provisional construct ion permits or limited work authorizat ions which permit the applicant to proceed with the construct ion of por t ions of the plant under certain condit ions which are defined.

Towards the complet ion of the plant construct ion, an applicat ion for an operat ing licence is filed by the utility. This application includes a final safety analysis repor t and, in some countries, an upda ted environmental repor t in which t h e technical in format ion is brought up-to-date and the informat ion developed by the environmental and meteorological programme during const ruct ion is included. Af te r satisfying itself regarding the safety aspects of the plant , the regulatory author i ty issues the operating licence.

1.9.4. Inspection and enforcement

The inspection and enforcement programme helps t o ensure compliance by the applicant with the regulations. The inspection programme varies f r o m one count ry t o another . In some countries, regulatory inspectors visit t he plant site every o ther week, wi th each inspection having a durat ion of one week. In others, nuclear power plants have resident inspectors at t he plant site. Some countries require independent spot checks of virtually all s teps in the cons t ruct ion of a nuclear plant .

Through a system of surveillance and audits, the inspectors ensure tha t the required quality and per formance are maintained in the plant components , s t ructures and systems, during bo th the construct ion and operat ions of the plant. Reac tor inspections are generally directed toward five principal areas:

( 1 ) Organization and management (2) Quali ty assurance and control (3) Test programmes (4) Procedures (5) Plant operat ions

The auditing func t ion provides an independent check of the quality of work under taken. Since quali ty assurance is already an independent check on engineering and manufactur ing, t he phi losophy for audits varies considerably f r o m count ry to country and depends primarily on h o w independent and thorough the quality assurance e f fo r t is. As an average requirement , however, about 5% of the quali ty assurance man-hours should be planned for audits at a high level of professional experience. The hiring of outside consultants is advisable for this work, if capability in the national regulatory organization has no t ye t been developed. Quality assurance audits are generally the func t ion of t he inspection and enforcement unit .

Staff ing of a regulatory body for nuclear safeguards and physical pro tec t ion audit func t ions would normally consist of technically oriented personnel with backgrounds in mechanical, chemical and nuclear engineering. Expertise in statistics, accounting and inventory control is needed for safeguards work. F o r large nuclear power programmes requiring numerous t ransact ions of nuclear

126 SECTION 1.7

material, a computer ized system is advisable. Staff ing for this would require personnel with mathematical , computer programming and systems analysis backgrounds.

1.9.5. Emergency planning

The recent accident involving the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in the Uni ted States of America clearly underl ines the importance of the establishment, by the regulatory author i ty , of requirements for the plans and procedures for coping with emergencies and of their in-depth review. The review of the applicant 's emergency plans and procedures should ensure that t he following essential i tems are covered:

— Utility organization for coping with emergencies

— Arrangements with off-site organizations (NSSS suppliers, architect-engineers, regulatory body, etc.) during an emergency

— Measures to be t aken bo th on-site and off-site to protect public heal th and safety, and prevent environmental and proper ty damage

— Provisions for emergency first aid on-site

— Provisions for emergency t rea tment off-site

— Training programme for employees

— Criteria and procedures for re-entry a f te r an accident

— Provisions for public in format ion

Should an emergency situation develop, t he regulatory body must be prepared to render immediate assistance. This means the preparat ion of internal emergency plans and procedures, which must be continually updated .

The ut i l i ty 's preparat ion for handling emergencies is described in Section 1.3.5.4.

1.9.6. Manpower requirements of the regulatory body

The e f fo r t expended by a regulatory body in the licensing of a nuclear power plant is est imated to be 150 to 200 man-years. Owing to differences in organizational structures, licensing procedures and t ime accounting methods , these numbers may be somewhat higher or lower for di f ferent countries. In addi t ion to plant licensing, all the o ther activities described in the preceding sections have to be per formed.

The present world-wide t rend in nuclear regulation is towards more stringent safety requirements , which result not only in greater e f fo r t s in the design, const ruct ion and opera t ions of t he power plants, bu t also in increasingly greater responsibilities and workloads fo r the regulatory staff.

Regulatory and licensing activities require mainly professionals; t he role of technicians or craf tsmen is no t significant. The manpower requirements and technical qualif ications of a regulatory body are presented in Table 1.12—10. This corresponds to the organizational s t ructure shown in Fig. 1.9—1. But it should be taken in to account tha t the s t ructure and staffing of the regulatory body will depend on the specific condit ions prevailing in a particular count ry . According to the informat ion contained in Table 1.12—10, about 50 t o 60 professionals would be required to staff a regulatory body . This would correspond to a si tuat ion in the development of a nuclear power programme where several (possibly five to seven) nuclear power plants are in various stages of planning, implementa t ion and operat ion.

When a first nuclear power project is initiated, a basic regulatory organization would probably start with a professional staff of about 15 to 20 people and with relatively heavy reliance on outside consultants and advisors. This staff will grow, and reliance on outside experts will diminish, as t he nuclear power programme progresses and as the activities of the programme are implemented.

A manpower loading curve is presented in Fig. 1.13—10 applicable to the case of a first nuclear power project . In this figure, the staff required for the project-oriented activities is shown as a separate curve, where peaking occurs during the preliminary and the final safety analysis reviews, before plant const ruct ion and plant opera t ion begin.

The requirement of quali ty in the regulatory staff cannot be overemphasized. Without highly capable, well-trained and experienced professionals, the legal and organizational existence of a regulatory body would only provide a country with an illusion of having adop ted all necessary nuclear safety measures.

1.10. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN NUCLEAR POWER

The present role of research and development within a nuclear power programme is a controversial subject. Opinions range f r o m assigning a continuing priori ty role t o this area, to considering it a somewhat quest ionable e f fo r t at the present state of development of proven reactor types, in particular for countries which have no t ye t started or are at the earliest stages of their nuclear power programmes.

I t is an undisputed fact that research and development played a vital role in launching nuclear power. I t is also a fact tha t no developed or developing count ry has ever init iated a nuclear power programme wi thout first having established a nuclear research and development organization. This last fact in itself does no t prove the essential need for such an organization and activity, bu t experience has shown tha t such organizations did play an impor tant and, in most cases, a leading role in the success of national nuclear power programmes.

Successful technology t ransfer requires the existence and part icipat ion of nat ional research and development as part of the nat ional infrastructure. The effect ive in t roduct ion of nuclear technology in to a count ry has usually been accomplished at least part ly through nuclear research inst i tutes (or research centres) as an initial step towards a nuclear power programme. Such inst i tutes n o t only provided educat ion in and adapta t ion of nuclear science and technology, bu t also p romoted the fo rmat ion of an overall scientific and technological infras t ructure within the country .

But it should also be recognized tha t , as a nuclear power programme develops, t he original lead role in the programme of such a nuclear research inst i tute is gradually t ransformed into a support ing role and applied research and development start to take precedence over academic or basic research in nuclear power. Adapting to the new role and research activities can be ef fec ted , bu t is usually resisted by the inst i tutes and their scientific staff which o f t e n prefer basic t o applied or technology-oriented research. This possibly accounts for most of the reasons regarding the differences of opinion on the role of research and development for nuclear power.

Nuclear research insti tutes vary f r o m count ry to count ry , differing in size, goals, roles, scope, facilities etc. In developing countries, they are usually more modest than in highly developed countr ies with ongoing nuclear power programmes. The possible role of such inst i tutes in the nuclear power programmes of developing countries, where the industrial infrastructures are not yet sufficiently developed, could be the following:

— Provide t h e government and utilities with technical in format ion and suppor t on nuclear science and engineering.

- Suppor t nuclear-safety-related activities in particular.

R&D IN NUCLEAR POWER 129

— Participate in nuclear manpower development, especially by offering courses, seminars and on-the-job practical training in laboratories.

— Assist indus t r ies in selecting adop t i ng a n d / o r adapt ing new technologies .

— Develop ind igenous technical capabil i t ies a n d k n o w - h o w , wi th t h e a im of enhanc ing na t iona l par t i c ipa t ion .

— Provide a base f o r basic and appl ied research in areas of p r io r i ty in teres t f o r t h e c o u n t r y .

— Provide scient if ic and technica l services in such areas as mater ia ls test ing, analysis, special studies, inspec t ions etc.

— Ac t as an i n f o r m a t i o n ga ther ing and d i s t r ibu t ion cen t re o n nuc lear mat ters .

T h e above should n o t be i n t e rp re t ed as a comple t e or exclusive listing of universal appl icabi l i ty . Each c o u n t r y has its o w n characteris t ics , cond i t ions and r equ i r emen t s and these will de f ine t h e ro le of its nuc lea r research ins t i tu te , if any. S o m e developing count r ies w i t h nuclear p o w e r p rog rammes have con-cen t ra t ed pract ical ly all nuclear activit ies in the i r nuc lear energy commiss ions , while o t h e r s have d i s t r ibu ted responsibi l i t ies a m o n g several separa te organizat ions .

Technologica l research and deve lopmen t acqui res special re levance when a c o u n t r y has goals f o r increasing the na t iona l pa r t i c ipa t ion of i ts i ndus t ry in the nuc lea r p o w e r p rog ramme. T o achieve these goals, research and deve lopment e f f o r t s have t o b e u n d e r t a k e n , which are mos t ly o r i en ted towards t h e so-called ' conven t iona l ' indust r ia l technologies and t h e ach ievement of t h e qua l i ty r equ i r emen t s of t h e e q u i p m e n t and c o m p o n e n t s of nuclear p o w e r plants . T h e par t i c ipa t ion of t h e c o u n t r y ' s technologica l research and deve lopmen t ins t i tu tes or cen t res (o the r t h a n nuclear) as well as of t h e i ndus t ry itself cons t i tu te s an essential con t r i bu t i on and should be p r o m o t e d .

The re are m i n i m u m m a n p o w e r r equ i r emen t s f o r launching a n d carrying o u t a n y mean ingfu l e f f o r t s in research and deve lopmen t in nuclear power . A research and deve lopmen t ins t i tu te o r cen t re wou ld seem t o need a profess ional s taff of a b o u t 50 peop le t o s tar t f u n c t i o n i n g p roper ly , assisted and s u p p o r t e d by a technica l and adminis t ra t ive i n f r a s t ruc tu re possibly twice as large as the n u m b e r of professionals . A nuclear p o w e r p r o g r a m m e wou ld possibly requ i re t h e s u p p o r t of a research and deve lopmen t e f f o r t involving a b o u t 5 t o 10% of t h e overall m a n p o w e r involved in t h e p r o g r a m m e activities, b u t th i s p r o p o r t i o n could be higher depending o n t h e po l icy and goals f o r na t ional par t ic ipa t ion .

1.11. MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS FOR EDUCATION AND TRAINING

In addi t ion to the manpower required to pe r fo rm the activities of planning and implementing a nuclear power programme (described in the preceding sections of this Chapter) , manpower is also required to develop manpower , i.e. to educate , train and otherwise prepare this personnel. Development of the manpower required fo r a nuclear power programme is t reated in Chapter 3 of this Guidebook.

I t suffices to no te here tha t the activity of 'manpower development ' creates its own manpower requirements, which are substantial. The need to train others should be recognized and supported at all levels, and almost all those who have the knowledge and are able t o train others will have to part icipate in this activity. For most of them, this will only be a part- t ime occupat ion consisting of holding some lectures or seminars during formal training courses and transferring their knowledge and experience through on-the-job training to the trainees. But educators, teachers, trainers, instructors, managers and administrators, for whom manpower development is,a full-t ime activity, will also be needed. Their number will depend on the number of trainees and they must be qualified bo th in their specific subjects and in the art of teaching.

For a country about to embark on a nuclear power programme, the lack of qualified people t o start the manpower development activity might be one of the greatest constraints. Should the country have a relatively weak educational infrastructure, its problems are even greater. Recourse t o foreign assistance at this stage might be the only solution, but it must also be recognized that this cannot be a long-range and permanent solution. Each count ry must develop its own manpower development infrastructure, otherwise a successful nuclear power programme is no t possible.

1.12. MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS AND TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS -TABLES

In the sections of Chapter 1, which describe the manpower requirements for t he different activities of nuclear power programmes, systematic reference has been made to t h e tables which are contained in this section. These tables are also referred to in Section 3.4. The tables in this section are:

Table 1 .12--1 Pre-project activities (Section 1.2) Table 1 .12--2(a) Project management (utili ty) (Sect ion 1.3.1.1) Table 1 .12--2(b) Project management (main contrac tor) (Section 1.3.1.2) Table 1 .12--3 Project engineering (Section 1.3.2) Table 1 .12-- 4 Procurement (Section 1.3.3) Table 1, .12--5 Quali ty assurance/Quality control (Section 1.3.4) Table 1. .12--6 Plant const ruct ion (Section 1.5) Table 1. .12--7 Commissioning (Section 1.6) Table 1 .12--8 Operat ion and maintenance (Section 1.7) Table 1. .12--9(a) Nuclear fuel cycle (explorat ion) (Section 1.8.2.2) Table 1 .12--9(b) Nuclear fuel cycle ( fuel fabricat ion) (Section 1.8.2.5) Table 1. 12 --9(c) Nuclear fuel cycle (waste management) (Section 1.8.4.4) Table 1. 1 2 - -10 Nuclear licensing and regulation (Section 1.9)

The informat ion contained in these tables should be used together with the organization s tructures described in the relevant sections of Chapter 1 and the manpower loading curves contained in Section 1.13.

The following general criteria apply:

— The tables are mean t t o provide guidance of general applicability for t he assessment by each part icular count ry and organization of its own manpower requirements on the basis of its needs and resources.

— F o r nuclear power project-oriented activities, the tables refer to a single uni t in t he size range of 600 t o 1300 MW(e).

— Only those funct ions / tasks are listed which require professionals or a significant n u m b e r of technicians and skilled craf tsmen. Administrat ive suppor t and unskilled labour are in general no t included.

— The brief summary of the func t ion / task is in tended t o show the general scope of responsibilities; it is no t a detailed j ob description.

— The manpower requirements are usually presented as a range with upper and lower values. These should be interpreted as indications of orders of magnitude.

132 SECTION 1.12

— To def ine the technical qualifications, three components have been considered which complement each o ther : educat ion, experience and specialized training.

— The technical qualif ications defined in the tables are those which are considered as desirable for the person to have in order to per form the func t ion / task .

— The educat ion qualifications are given in terms of t he US educational system. For each count ry , the equivalents in terms of its own educational system can generally be determined f r o m Figs 3.3—1 to 3.3—6 (see also Section 3.3).

— The B.S. is a Bachelor of Science degree, obta ined af te r (usually) fou r years of university s tudy and examinat ions in engineering or the physical sciences. The B.A. is a Bachelor of Ar ts degree obta ined af te r (usually) four years of university s tudy and examinat ions in non-scientific areas such as economics, business administrat ion, educat ion and psychology. (Some US universities also award a B.A. degree in the physical and o ther sciences.)

— The M.S. is a Master of Science degree and the M.A. a Master of Ar ts degree, bo th obta ined af te r (usually) two years of university s tudy and examinat ions beyond the B.S. and B.A., respectively. The M.S. or M.A. educat ion requi rement in these tables refers to addit ional higher level university s tudy and practical experience, and not t o research activities. Research as part of the advanced educat ion is in general no t necessary or relevant for the tasks or func t ions in these tables.

— With regard to specialized training, t he basic course in nuclear power and t h e nuclear power technology course refer t o the descriptions as contained in Section 3.3 and in Table 3 . 3 - 3 .

— The three componen t s of the technical qualif ications are to some extent compensatory . Relevant experience may in some cases take the place of some of the educat ion and /or specialized training requirements. Similarly, educat ion and specialized training might subst i tute for some of the experience requirements , bu t no t fo r all of them.

It is t o be emphasized tha t these tables are limited to technical qualif ications and do not include o ther impor tan t qualifications such as character, psychological suitability and (where necessary) foreign language ability.

Text continued on p. 185

TABLE 1.12-1. MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS AND TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS Activity: Pre-project activities

Function/Task Number (range) Qualifications

Education Experience Specialized training

Manager

Direct, co-ordinate and control the pre-project activities. Provide primary interface with external organizations and experts involved.

Nuclear power programme planning

Analysis of the role of nuclear power within national energy plan; nuclear power programme development and periodic up-dating; imple-mentation procedures and methods; schedule; economic and financial analysis; organi-zational and legal framework requirements; evaluation of national participation; nuclear manpower develop-ment programme.

5 - 1 0 (specialist con-sultants should be available on request).

M.S. in engineering, preferably power plant engineering.

Mostly engineering, at least B.S. level; 1—2 Economists (B.A.).

10—15 years professional experience, including at least 5 years in planning and management of major industrial projects, preferably in electric power.

5 - 1 0 y ears in project planning and programming, preferably involving inter-disciplinary large projects and programmes. Contact with international aspects of the nuclear power market.

Basic course in nuclear power, preferably also specialized course in nuclear power technology (one year). Foreign language (when needed).

Basic course in nuclear power; project evaluation; energy economics.

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TABLE 1 . 1 2 - 1 (cont . ) u>

Function/Task Number (range) Education Experience Specialized training

Power system planning

Technical, economic and financial power systems expansion studies.

1 - 2 1 - 2

B.S. in engineering, preferably electric power; Economist (B.Á.); Computer programming technician.

3—5 years in profession, at least 2 years in power systems planning.

Basic course in nuclear power; courses on systems analysis; economics of power supply, power systems planning.

Feasibility studies

Performance of feasibility studies for nuclear power projects.

7 - 1 2 2 1

B.S. in engineering; Economists; Law degree.

Interdisciplinary experience is required within the team on major aspects involved. In general about 5 years in profession with at least 2 years in power projects, preferably nuclear.

Basic course in nuclear power and plant systems for all team members. Different courses, for individual members on nuclear power technology, quality assurance, nuclear power economics, nuclear safety, etc.

Site survey

Development of site selection criteria and methodology; identifi-cation of potential sites; preliminary site investi-gations; general safety evaluation.

Site qualification

Detailed study of all relevant site characteristics and conditions.

5 - 7 (additional expert's advice should be available on request of specialities not covered in the team)

1 2 - 1 5 (plus additional special-ized expert's advice and services)

2 4 - 3 8 1 - 2

2 5 - 4 0

B.S. or B.A. in engineering, geology, hydrology, meteorology, ecology, biology, seismology, etc.

At least B.S. or B.A. in engineering, geology, hydrology, etc.

Professionals Technicians

a Not included in total.

3—5 years in profession, at least 1 - 2 years involved in power project siting.

3—10 years in profession, 1 —5 years in site evaluation of power projects, depending on special field of activity.

Basic course in nuclear power and nuclear safety. For some members special-ized courses and on-the-job training (up to one year) on siting of nuclear power plants, nuclear technology, environmental effects, safety analysis, seismology, etc.

As above for site survey.

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TABLE 1.12—2(a). MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS AND TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS Activity: Project management (utility)

Project manager

Responsibility for entire nuclear power project: engineering, design, licensing, purchasing, construction, installation, preoperational tests and startup. Co-ordination of all project activities to ensure meeting schedules, cost and quality requirements.

1 M.S. in engineering (nuclear, mechanical or electrical).

10—15 years in profession; at least 5 years in power plant project management. Experience in planning and operation of thermal power plants; demonstrated managerial ability.

Nuclear power technology (1 year); on-the-job training in nuclear power projects (6 months).

Deputy project manager

Sharing of project manager's tasks and replacing him when necessary.

1 M.S. in engineering (nuclear, mechanical or electrical).

8 - 1 0 years in profession; at least 2 years in power plant design and management, fossil fired thermal or preferably nuclear.

Nuclear power technology (1 year); 6 months on-the-job training in nuclear power projects.

Legal adviser

Project legal support. 1 Degree in law. 5 - 1 0 years in profession; at least 2 years in contract administration of major industrial projects, preferably power plants;

Basic course on nuclear power; legal aspects of nuclear power.

previous involvement in contracting highly desirable.

Planning and scheduling

Project planning and schedule control, including supervision of the engineering planning and cost control.

Engineering manager

Management and supervision of project engineering group, plant design and technical specifications. Engineering review and approval. Promotion of national industrial participation.

ENGINEERING SUPER Vf S ORS

Responsible for supervision of relevant project engineering aspects.

Nuclear engineering supervisor

B.S. in engineering.

M.S. in engineering (nuclear, mechanical or electrical).

B.S. in nuclear engineering or physics.

5—8 years in profession, at least 3 years in project planning and scheduling;

3 - 5 years in profession, 2 years in planning and scheduling.

8 - 1 0 years in profession; 4 years power plant design, preferably nuclear. Experi-ence in power related industries in engineering anc planning. Demonstrated managerial ability.

3 - 5 years in profession; at least 2 years in power plant design.

Basic course in nuclear power; scheduling tech-niques; on-the-job training in nuclear projects (6 months).

Basic course in nuclear power; scheduling techniques.

Nuclear power technology ( 1 year) ; on-the-job training (6 months).

Nuclear power technology (1 year); on-the-job training (6 months) in nuclear power projects.

TABLE 1 . 1 2 - 2 ( a ) (cont. ) U) 00

Mechanical engineering supervisor

1 B.S. in mechanical engineering.

3—5 years in profession; 2 years in power plant design ; experience in power related industries.

Basic course in nuclear power; 3—6 months on-the-job training.

Electrical engineering supervisor

1 B.S. in electrical engineering.

3 - 5 years in profession; 2 years in power plant design.

Basic course in nuclear power; 3 - 6 months on-the-job training.

Control and instrumentation supervisor

1 B.S. in engineering (electronics).

3 - 5 years in profession; 2 - 3 years in power plant design.

Nuclear power technology (1 year) oriented towards control and instrumentation; 6 months on-the-job training.

Civil engineering supervisor 1 B.S. in civil engineering. 3 - 5 years in profession; construction experience in large projects, preferably power plants.

Basic course in nuclear power.

Fuel management supervisor 1 B.S. in mechanical engineering or metallurgist.

5 - 8 years in profession; at least 1 year in nuclear fuel cycle activities.

Basic course in nuclear power; nuclear fuel cycle ; QA/QC and NDE courses.

Site supervisor 1 B.S. in engineering, preferably civil.

3 - 5 years in profession; at least 2 years on construction and erection of major projects.

Engineering staff 15-20 B.S. in engineering (mechanical, electrical, electronics, civil or chemical); Metallurgist; Physicist.

2 - 3 years in profession, some experience in power plant design and engineering, preferably nuclear.

Basic course in nuclear power; specialized courses according to subject area.

Technician staff 5 - 7 Draftsmen. 2 - 3 years practical experi-ence in power projects.

Safety and licensing group

Responsibility for ensuring safe design and licensability of the plant. Co-ordination of activities concerning the licensing procedures. Liaison with regulatory body. Responsibility for environ-mental studies and

1 M.S. in nuclear engineering or physics.

8 - 1 0 years in profession, at least 2—3 years in nuclear safety related work.

Basic course in nuclear power; courses in nuclear safety, health physics, regulatory and legal aspects; 6 months on-the-job training.

programmes.

3 - 5 B.S. in engineering (nuclear physics, chemistry).

3 - 5 years in profession; 1 - 2 years in nuclear safety, health physics, regulatory work or nuclear engineering.

Basic course in nuclear power; safety-oriented specialization courses; 3—6 months on-the-job training.

Quality assurance group

Responsibility for introducing and co-ordinating QA and QC programmes in the design, engineering, procurement, construction, erection, testing and operation of the project. (QA and QC implementation is considered separately in Table 1.12-6.)

1 M.S. in mechanical engineering.

8—10 years in profession; 3 - 5 years in QA/QC in position of senior responsibility.

Basic course in nuclear power; QA courses; 3—6 months on-the-job training in nuclear power project.

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T A B L E 1 . 1 2 - 2 ( a ) (cont . )

Quality assurance group (cont.)

3 - 4 B.S. in engineering (mechanical, electrical or civil).

3 - 5 years in profession; 2 years in QA/QC work.

Basic course in nuclear power; QA courses; 3 months on-the-job training in power projects.

Training and personnel management

Responsibility for developing, co-ordinating and supervising training programmes for all project personnel, in particu-lar the O&M staff; responsibility for personnel management including recruitment.

M.S. in engineering.

10-15 years in profession; 3—5 years in power projects; 5 - 1 0 years in teaching, experience in nuclear power projects.

3 - 5 years in profession; experience in power plants and in training.

Nuclear power technology ( 1 —2 years) including on-the-job training in nuclear power plant construction and operations; nuclear manpower development course.

Basic course in nuclear power; courses on training and education, psychology, management.

Finance and commercial

Responsibility for accounting, cost control, budgeting, finance and payments. (Procurement is considered separately in Table 1.12-5.)

1 M.A. in economics or business administration.

10-15 years in profession ; at least 5 years in senior responsibility position involving large projects, preferably power plants.

Basic course in nuclear power; nuclear power economics.

3 - 5 B.A. in economics, 3—5 years in profession; Basic course in nuclear business administration, 1 - 2 years in major projects. power; cost control B.S. in engineering. methodology.

3 - 4 Accountants. 2 - 3 years in profession.

Administration and public relations

Responsible for adminis- 1 B.A. in business 8 - 1 0 years in profession, Basic course in nuclear tration support of project administration preferably involved in large power. management, auxiliary or equivalent. industrial or power projects. services, filing, records management, public infor-mation and relations. 1 - 2 B.S. in engineering. 3—5 years in profession, Basic course in nuclear

familiar with project work. power.

1 - 2 B.A. in journalism. 2 - 3 years in public infor- Basic courses in nuclear mation and public relations. power; safety and environ-

mental aspects; public acceptance.

Total 4 8 - 6 3 Professionals 8 - 1 1 Technicians

5 6 - 7 4

TABLE L12—2(b). MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS AND TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS Activity: Project management (main-contractor)

Project manager

Overall responsibility for execution of the project; planning co-ordination, direction and control of all activities involved.

Planning and scheduling Overall project planning scheduling and schedule control.

Group supervisors Responsibility for overall co-ordination of the project management tasks assigned to their specific groups; maintaining contract and communication with other organizational units, reporting directly to the project manager. — Nuclear group

M.S. in engineering (mechanical, electrical or nuclear).

M.S. in engineering (nuclear, mechanical, electrical); B.A. in business administration.

10—15 years in profession; 3—5 years in nuclear power projects. Demonstrated project management ability; background also in eco* nomics, legal aspects.

8 - 1 0 years in profession; 3 - 5 years in project scheduling; involved in large industrial projects, preferably power plants.

8—10 years in profession; at least 3—5 years in power projects, preferably nuclear, experience in specific field of activity and interdisciplinary work.

Course in nuclear technology (1—2 years).

Basic course on nuclear power. Course on scheduling techniques.

Basic courses on nuclear power. Course in nuclear technology ( 1 year) and on-the-job training (6 months) for nuclear, control and instrumentation and licensing supervisors, specialized training in QA, safety and regulatory aspects etc. according to tasks.

- Conventional group - Electrical, control and

instrumentation group - Licensing group - Commercial group

ENGINEERING STAFF

Nuclear group 3-4 B.S. in engineering (nuclear, mechanical, electronics).

5 - 8 years in profession; 3—5 years in project manage-ment or engineering of power plants, preferably nuclear.

Course in nuclear technology (1 year) and on-the-job training ( 3 - 6 months), QA, safety aspects.

Conventional group 7-9 B.S. in engineering (civil, mechanical, chemical).

5—8 years in profession; 3 - 5 years in thermal power plant projects.

Basic course in nuclear power; QA overview course.

Electrical and instrumentation and control group

4-5 B.S. in engineering (electrical, electronics).

5—8 years in profession; 3—5 years in power projects, preferably nuclear.

Basic course in nuclear power; QA, systems analysis, control and instrumentation courses.

Licensing group 4-6 B.S. in engineering, (nuclear, mechanical, civil, electrical).

5—8 years in profession; 3—5 years in power projects, at least 1 - 2 years in nuclear activity.

Course in nuclear technology (1 year); on-the-job training ( 3 - 6 months) in regulatory activity; safety analysis, health physics, systems analysis.

Commercial group 2-3 B.A. in business adminis-tration or economics; B.S. in engineering.

5—8 years in profession; 3 - 5 years in project manage-ment, commercial aspects.

Basic course in nuclear power; cost control methodology.

3-4 Accountants. 3 - 5 years in industry undertakings.

Total 27-36 3-4

TABLE 1.12-3. MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS AND TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS Activity: Project engineering

Project engineering manager

Responsibility for conceptual, basic and detailed engineering design of the nuclear power plant; licensing documen-tation; equipment and component specifications; manufacturing surveillance; construction, erection and co.mmissioning support.

1 M.S. in engineering (mechanical, electrical or nuclear).

10—15 years in profession; 8 - 1 0 years in nuclear projects; demonstrated managerial ability.

Nuclear power technology ( 1 - 2 years).

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Deputy manager H* to

Sharing management tasks and replacing manager when necessary.

1 M.S. in engineering (nuclear, mechanical, electrical).

10-12 years in profession ; 5 - 8 years in nuclear power projects; senior position.

Nuclear power technology (1—2 years).

Group supervisors

Responsibility for carrying out the project engineering tasks assigned to then-specific groups. Interfacing within the project engineering department and with project management.

10-15 B.S. in engineering (nuclear, mechanical, electrical, electronics, civil, chemical); M.S. might be required for safety-related areas.

8—10 years in profession; at least 3—5 years in nuclear power projects, involved in the specific aspects of their group's assigned field.

Basic course in nuclear power for all; nuclear power technology ( 1 - 2 years) for those involved in reactor engineering courses according to specialized field.

Nuclear engineering area

Different groups could be constituted such as: reactor systems design; systems analysis; components design; fuel elements; core design, process engineering; shielding, thermohydraulic design; safety analysis.

Civil engineering area

Groups could be formed for; layout; structural design; stress analysis; plant design; buildings, inbedments and supports.

Mechanical engineering area

Groups could be formed for: conventional systems design; components design and engineering; piping; ventilation systems; etc.

B.S. in engineering (nuclear, mechanical, chemical); Physicists; Metallurgists.

Technician (mostly draftsmen); Computer technician.

B.S. in civil engineering (mostly).

Technician (mostly draftsmen); Computer technician ..

B.S. in mechanical engineering.

5 - 1 0 years in profession; at least 2—3 years in reactor design and engineering.

3 - 5 years in profession, preferably in nuclear power project work.

5 - 1 0 years in profession; 2—5 years in power plant engineering, preferably nuclear.

3 - 5 years in profession; preferably in power plant design.

5 - 1 0 years in profession; at least 2 - 3 years in power plant engineering, preferably nuclear.

Nuclear power technology (1 -2 years) for about 20 to 30%; basic course in nuclear power for the others; specialized courses on specific subjects and on-the-job training ( 3 - 6 months) according to tasks.

Basic course in nuclear power for about 30—40%; specialized courses for some in radiation protection; shielding, stress analysis, etc.

Basic course in nuclear power for most engineers; specialized training for some in QA/QC or other relevant subjects.

TABLE 1 . 1 2 - 3 (cont . )

Mechanical engineering area (cont.)

3 0 - 4 0 Technicians, mostly draftsmen, mechanical design.

3—5 years in profession, preferably in power projects.

Electrical engineering area 15-20 B.S. in electrical engineering.

5—10 years in profession; at least 2—3 years in power projects.

Basic course in nuclear power for about 50%.

2 0 - 3 0 Technicians, Draftsmen, Electricians.

3—5 years in profession, preferably power plants.

Control and instrumentation engineering area

13-15 B.S. in engineering (electronics, computers, electrical).

5—10 years in profession; at least 2—3 years in nuclear power project engineering.

Basic course in nuclear power for all; specialized courses and/or on-the-job training (3—6 months) in relevant subjects.

10-20 Technician (electronics, draftsmen, computer).

3—5 years in profession, preferably on nuclear projects.

Other engineering areas

Chemical; processes; systems; codes and standards; licensing; quality assurance; quality control; scheduling; cost control; etc.

10-13 B.S. in engineering; chemistry, physics.

8 - 1 0 years in profession; 3—5 years in special subject area; 1—2 years in nuclear project engineering.

Basic course in nuclear power; courses and on-the-job training in special subject area.

Total 180-240 130-190

310-430

03 M n H O as

TABLE 1.12-4. MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS AND TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS Activity: Procurement

Procurement manager

Co-ordinate and supervise procurement activity; distribute and supervise procurement tasks; develop and maintain procurement interface with engineering and project management.

1 M.S. in engineering or M.A. in commerce or law.

10 years in procurement; 3 years of these in managing responsibility. Experience in managing interface problems; familiarity with nuclear codes and standards. Experience in negotiation, financing and scheduling.

Basic course in nuclear power, nuclear regulations, nuclear codes and standards.

Commercial assistant

Monitor cost performance against terms and conditions; prepare cost reports to accounting and project management; handle claims in co-operation with legal department.

1 - 2 M.A. in commerce or business administration.

5 years in procurement. Familiarity with contract terms and conditions; experience in cost control and accountancy.

Markets and co-ordination

Evaluate relevant national and international suppliers and products; co-ordinate flow of information between engineering project manage-ment and procurement.

1 M.S. in engineering (mechanical, electrical or nuclear).

8 - 1 0 years in profession; 3 - 5 years in nuclear power projects; familiarity with industry and the nuclear market.

Course in nuclear technology (one year); on-the-job training in procurement for nuclear projects (6 months). QA course.

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T A B L E 1 . 1 2 - 4 (cont . ) 00

Markets and co-ordination (cont.)

3 - 5 B.S. in engineering or B.A. in commerce.

3—5 years in evaluating suppliers and soliciting bids; knowledge of relevant market ; familiarity with national industrial infrastructure.

Basic course in nuclear power; QA/QC course.

Bidding and contracting

Prepare commercial and legal bid specifications; evaluate bids with respect to commercial terms and schedule ; obtain technical evaluation; select supplier; negotiate contract terms and conditions.

M.S. in engineering, M.A. in commerce or in law.

Commercial technician.

At least 5 years in multi-disciplinary purchasing for lead personnel; 2—3 years for other staff; familiarity with nuclear codes and standards and with equipment specifica-tions; negotiating experience.

6—12 months in purchasing; familiarity with scheduling and filing.

Basic course in nuclear power; for lead personnel, specialized training (6 months) in nuclear power plant design and engineering and in quality assurance.

Monitoring

In-plant monitoring of critical items regarding schedule progress; co-ordination with expeditors, QA and QC organization; on-site reception-inspection of equipment (this activity being delegated to site management, when possible).

1 B.S. in engineering. 2 - 5 years in inspection of mechanical and electrical equipment, in particular heavy equipment.

Expediting

3 - 5 Technician. 2—3 years in equipment inspection, preferably QA or QC.

QA/QC course.

Define items to be expedited; develop milestones to measure the performance of the suppliers; expedite and evaluate supplier progress reports; expedite fabrication and delivery; follow project schedule; propose strategies for remedy of delay to project management.

3 - 6 3 - 6

B!S. in engineering, B.A. in commerce.

2 - 3 years in expediting; familiarity with supplies, market, and contractual terms and conditions.

Course in scheduling technics; for leader, also basic course in nuclear power.

Total 17-28 8 - 1 2

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TABLE 1.12-5. MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS AND TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS Activity: Quality assurance/Quality control (QA/QC)

UTILITY QA/QC ACTIVITY

Manager

Responsibility for develop-ment and execution of the utility's QA/QC programme.

1 M.S. in engineering. 10-15 years in profession; 5 - 8 years in QA/QC of nuclear power projects. Demonstrated managerial ability.

Course in nuclear technology (1 year); QA course.

Headquarters staff

Development of QA/QC programme and procedures; review, evaluation and audit supplier QA/QC programmes.

5 - 1 0 B.S. in engineering. 5 - 1 0 years in QA/QC; 2—3 years in nuclear power projects.

Basic course in nuclear power; QA course; 6 - 1 2 months on-the-job training.

Auditors

Surveillance and auditing of QA/QC activities of suppliers.

6 - 1 2 B.S. in engineering. 5 - 1 0 years in profession; 3 - 5 years in QA/QC or in nuclear power plant engineering.

Basic course in nuclear power; QA course, 6 - 1 2 months on-the-job training (lead auditors must be certified).

On-site auditors

Surveillance and auditing of site QA/QC activities of the constructor.

QA documentation personnel

Responsibility for develop-ment and maintenance of QA documentation and records.

QC laboratory technicians

Concrete testing, NDE etc.

PROJECT ENGINEERING QA/QC ACTIVITY

Headquarters staff

Responsibility for review of specifications and design; development of procurement QA/QC plans and procedures.

Site QA/QC technicians Surveillance of sub-contractors inspection and testing activities, sampling inspection.

Technician.

5—10 years in profession; 3 - 5 years in QA/QC, preferably in nuclear power plant construction.

3 - 5 years of administrative/ documentation work.

3 - 5 years in materials testing; QC.

8 - 1 0 years in profession ; 5 - 1 0 years QA/QC; 2 - 3 years in nuclear power engineering.

8 - 1 0 years QC in inspection and NDE.

Basic course in nuclear power; QA course; 6—12 months on-the-job training (lead auditors must be certified).

Course on QA systems and records, 3 - 6 months on-the-job training.

Basic course on nuclear power; NDE course; (technicians should be certified in NDE).

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Course in nuclear technology (1 year); QA course; 3—6 months on-the-job training.

Basic course in nuclear power; NDE course; (should have certification in inspection and NDE).

TABLE 1 . 1 2 - 5 (cont . )

SUPPLIERS' QA/QC ACTIVITY

NSSS supplier's site QA/QC

Surveillance and testing during installation of the NSSS; and of interface of NSSS with other systems.

1 - 3 B.S. in engineering. 5 - 1 0 years in profession; 3 - 5 years in nuclear power project QA/QC.

Course in nuclear technology (1—2 years); courses on QA/QC, NDE; (should be certified in NDE and inspection).

4 - 6 Technician. 5 - 1 0 years in QC testing and inspection.

Basic course in nuclear power; courses on NDE, QA/QC; 2 - 3 months on-the-job training.

Other suppliers' and contractors QA/QC

Inspection, testing and other QC activities during construc-tion and installation of structures, mechanical and electrical' components, control and instrumentation system, etc.

7 - 1 0

3 0 - 4 0

Technician (mechanical, electrical, electronics).

3—5 years in profession; 2 - 3 years in QA/QC activities.

5 - 1 0 years in QC testing and inspection.

Courses on NDE and QA/QC; 3 - 6 months on-the-job training.

Courses on NDE and QC.

Total 3 0 - 5 0 5 0 - 7 0

80-120

TABLE 1.12-5. MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS AND TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS Activity: Quality assurance/Quality c o n t r o l (QA/QC)

Site manager S

M SO SO w iO G M SO M g W

Responsibility for direction and co-ordination of on-site activities; construction, erection, planning, scheduling, cost control, QA/QC (on-site), etc. Interfacing with other units involved in the project.

1 M.S. in engineering, preferably civil or mechanical.

10—15 years in profession ; 5—8 years in power plant construction; at least 3 years in nuclear power plant construction; demonstrated managerial ability.

Course in nuclear technology ( 1 - 2 years); on-the-job training in nuclear plant construction ( 3 - 6 months).

M SO SO w iO G M SO M g W Deputy site manager

M SO SO w iO G M SO M g W

Sharing of site manager's tasks and replacing him when necessary.

1 B.S, in engineering, preferably civil or mechanical.

8— 10 years in profession ; 5—8 years in power plant construction; at least 2 - 3 years in nuclear plant.

Course in nuclear technology (1 -2 years).

2 H t»

Superintendents (managers)

Construction; Construction services; Site Engineering services; Erection; Planning and scheduling; QA/QC; Records and administration.

5 - 8 B.S. in engineering (civil, mechanical, electrical).

8 - 1 0 years in profession; 5—6 years in power plant construction; 2 - 3 years in nuclear projects; demonstrated ability in senior position.

Basic course in nuclear power; 3—6 months on-the-job training in nuclear power plant construction and erection; specialized courses according to field of activity; course in nuclear technology ( 1 year) for construction, site engineering, erection, QA/QC. U)

TABLE 1.12-9(a) (cont.)

Function/Task Qualifications

Superintendents (managers) (cont.)

Responsibility for planning, co-ordinating and supervising the specific activities they are in charge of.

Supervisors (chief engineers)

Responsibility for supervising the performance of the work in their specific fields. Reporting to superintendents (managers).

Supervisors (commercial and administration)

Professional staff Civil and structural construction; mechanical construction,"electrical construction; piping; reactor erection; instrumentation and control; scheduling;

2 0 - 2 5

4 0 - 6 0

B.S. in engineering (mechanical, civil, electrical, electronics).

B.S./B.A. in business administration, accounting.

B.S. in engineering (mechanical, civil, electrical, etc.).

5—8 years in profession; 2—4 years in power plant contruction and erection, preferably nuclear plant.

5—8 years in profession; 3—5 years in power plant construction and erection.

3—5 years in profession; 2 - 3 years in construction and erection of power plants, preferably nuclear.

Basic course in nuclear power; 3—6 months on-the-job training in nuclear power plant construction and erection; specialized courses in specific fields of activity ; course in nuclear power technology ( 1 year) for about 25%.

Basic course in nuclear power; 2 - 3 months on-the-job training; courses in specific fields as appropriate.

accounting cost control; procurement; warehousing; materials control; contract supervision; equipment, component and systems erection; engineering services; systems engineering; welders engineering; QA/QC implementation; inspections; equipment inspection ; records and documentation. Responsibility for perform-ance of engineering tasks; reporting to supervisors.

Technicians

Construction, erection, installation, testing and inspection of structures, equipment, components, systems.

Craftsmen

Construction, erection, installation of buildings, structures, equipment and components; 50% mechanical crafts; 25% civil construction crafts; 10% "electricians; 15% other crafts.

Mechanical, Electrical, Civil construction, Instrumentation, Accountants, Draftsmen, Computer, etc.

Boilermakers, Carpenters, Concrete workers, Electricians, Insulators, Iron workers, Millwrights, Operators (heavy equipment).

5 - 1 0 years in profession; 2 - 3 years in power plant construction and erection work.

3—5 years in construction and erection, preferably of power plants.

Basic technician's course in nuclear power for about 30 to 50% of mechanical, electrical and instrumentation technicians; specialized courses according to field of activity.

Basic craftsmen course in nuclear power for about 10 to 20%; training in crafts, upgrading to requirements of nuclear plants according to specific needs, in particular for mechanical and electrical crafts.

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TABLE 1 . 1 2 - 6 (cont . )

Craftsmen (cont.)

5 0 - 8 0 350-450 120-150 300-400 200-300

7 0 - 1 0 0 280-400

2000-2700

Painters, Pipe fitters, Sheet-metal workers, Welders, Miscellaneous crafts.

Professionals Technicians Craftsmen

Craftsmen (cont.)

2350-3200

Craftsmen (cont.)

Note: Unskilled labour is not included; total numbers do not correspond to overall peak working force which would be about 2000 people (see loading curve Fig. 1.13-7).

Function/Task Number (range)

Qualifications Function/Task Number (range)

Commissioning superintendent

Responsibility for planning,

co-ordination and direction of

all commissioning activities;

pre-operational and oper-

ational testing of components,

systems and plant; interfacing

with site management;

project engineering, plant

superintendent, regulatory

authority, etc.

Supervisors

Responsibility for planning,

co-ordinating and supervising

the commissioning tasks of

groups which may be formed

for nuclear, conventional and

common components and

systems; electrical, instru-

mentation and control systems;

pre-operational testing, fuel

loading and criticality tests,

plant operation and per-

formance testing.

M.S. in engineering

(preferably mechanical).

B.S. in engineering

(mechanical, electrical,

nuclear, chemical).

10—15 years in profession;

5—8 years in power plants;

at least 2—3 years of nuclear

power plant commissioning

experience; demonstrated

management ability.

8—10 years in profession;

3—5 years in power plant

commissioning or operations;

at least 2—3 years in nuclear

power plants.

£ > Course in nuclear technology 2

( 1 - 2 years). O

M PB PB W o G PB W 2 w Z H en > Z Ö

Course in nuclear technology !

(1—2 years); fo r those

involved in nuclear systems

and operational testing;

basic course in nuclear power

for the others; instruction in

the specific plant to be

commissioned ( 1 —2 months) ;

radiation protect ion and QA ~

courses. - J

TABLE 1.12-9(a) (cont.)

Function/Task

PROFESSIONAL STAFF

Responsibility for carrying out commissioning tasks; development of procedures, performance of tests, pre-paration of reports; adjustments, modifications.

Number (range)

3 0 - 4 0

TECHNICIANS

Performance of equipment, component and systems pre-operational and operational testing.

Nuclear 1 0 - 1 5

Qualifications

B.S. in engineering (mainly mechanical, electrical, nuclear, also electronics, chemical, civil); Physicist; Chemist; Metallurgist,

Technician-,

5—8 years in profession; 2—3 years in power plant commissioning, preferably nuclear. Industrial experience (chemical plants) useful.

3—5 years in profession; 2—3 years in power plant; at least one year in nuclear reactor.

Course in nuclear technology ( 1 year) fo r staff involved in nuclear systems; basic course in nuclear power for others; 3—6 months on-the-job training; instruction on specific plant to be com-missioned (1 month) ; NDE, QA/QC courses for some. Plant operator training for shift engineers of operational tests.

Basic course in nuclear power; radiation protection ; familiarization with specific plant; operator 's training for those in operational testing.

Mechanical

Electrical

Instrumentation and control

CRAFTSMEN

Nuclear

Mechanical

Electrician

Instrumentation

Other crafts

1 0 - 1 5

1 5 - 2 5

2 0 - 3 0

1 5 - 2 5

1 5 - 2 0

3 8 - 5 0 4 0 - 6 0 8 0 - 1 2 0

1 5 8 - 2 3 0

Technicians, in specific field of activity.

Craftsmen training in specific fields.

3—5 years in power plant or industry; familiarity with commissioning procedures.

2—5 years in profession; 1—2 years in power plants.

Basic course in nuclear power; instruction in specific plant layout, components, systems; radiation protection practices.

Basic course in nuclear power; plant orientat ion; radiation protect ion practices.

X > 2 "O O

m to PB W O G NN fO M SE w Z H ce

Note: Staff of equipment manufacturers are not included. Plant operations and maintenance personnel participate in commissioning (see Table 1 .12 -8 ) .

Ln <-o

Plant superintendent

Overall responsibility for planning, direction and co-ordination of all activities involved in plant operation and maintenance.

1 M.S. in engineering. 12-15 years in profession ; 8—10 years in power plant operations; at least 2 - 3 years in nuclear power plant; demonstrated managerial ability.

Course in nuclear technology ( 1 - 2 years); specific training ( 1 —2 years) for power plant operations subjects such as operators' course, nuclear safety, fuel management, systems analysis, process control, instrumentation.

Plant deputy superintendent

Sharing of plant super-intendent's tasks; replacing him in his absence.

1 M.S. in engineering. 10-12 years in profession ; 5 - 1 0 years in power plants ; at least 2—3 years in nuclear power plant, senior position.

As above for plant superintendent.

OPERA TION Di VIS /ON

Operation superintendent

Responsibility for plant operation in accordance with established procedures and conditions. Liaison with plant maintenance and other technical divisions.

1 M.S. in engineering. 8 - 1 0 years in profession; 4—5 years in power plant operations; at least 2—3 years in nuclear power plant operations.

Course in nuclear technology ( 1 - 2 years); operator training, simulator, on-the-job; systems analysis, detailed instruction in the specific plant; active participation in commissioning of the plant; operator licence (or authorization) Í A C ..^»wt

Shift supervisors Responsibility for supervising the operation staff in his shift and for the operation of the plant. Authorization for removal from service and restoring to service of plant equipment, components or systems; responsibility for initial assessment of any unusual occurrence and subsequent actions.

Deputy shift supervisors Sharing shift supervisor's tasks and replacing him in his absence.

Control room operators Performance of operations' tasks in the control room.

Senior operators

Operators

1 0 - 1 8

B.S. in engineering, preferably electrical or mechanical.

Technician (might be B.S. in engineering), electrical or mechanical.

Technician (electrical or mechanical).

5 - 1 0 years in profession; 3 - 5 years in power plant operation, preferably nuclear.

5—8 years in profession; 3—5 years in power plant operation, preferably nuclear.

5 — 10 years in profession; 3—5 years in power plants, preferably nuclear.

4 - 6 years in profession; 2 - 3 years in power plant operation.

Nuclear power plant operator training (licence or authorization). Detailed training in the specific power plant; extensive courses in systems, safety, operations (3—4 years including active participation in commis-sioning and on-the-job training).

As above for shift supervisor.

Extensive operator training ( 2 - 3 years) including on-the-job training and participation in commissioning.

Extensive operator training (2—3 years) including on-the-job training and parti-cipation in commissioning.

s • z O

M 7) » M O g

w SS w

TABLE 1 . 1 2 - 8 (cont.)

OPERA TION DI VISION (cont.)

Assistant operators 5-12 Technician 3 — 5 years in profession; 1 —2 years in power plant.

Operators' training ( 1 - 2 years).

Field operators

Responsibility for operations' activities in the plant, outside the control room; local auxiliary operations on decentralized control panels; equipment monitoring in service.

15-24 Technician (mechanical, electrical).

4—6 years in profession; 2 - 3 years in power plants, preferably nuclear.

Field operator training (1 -2 years); radiation protection, extensive training in the specific power plant systems, components, equipment.

MAINTENANCE DIVISION

Maintenance superintendent

Responsibility for plant main-tenance activities; preventive maintenance, repair, modifications of equipment, components, systems, spare parts, materials, tools, workshops, maintenance planning, scheduling, budgeting; radiation protection, procedures and instructions implementation.

1 B.S. in engineering (preferably mechanical).

10—15 years in profession; 5—8 years in power plants; at least 2 - 3 years in nuclear power plant.

Basic course in nuclear power; power plant main-tenance training ( 1 - 2 years); radiation protection, QA/QC, control and instrumentation; detailed training in specific power plant components, systems; participate in erection and plant commissioning.

Maintenance engineers Responsibility for organizing and implementing preventive and breakdown maintenance and annual overhauling

— mechanical — electrical - instrumentation & control — civil

Maintenance supervisors (foremen/

- mechanical — electrical - instrumentation & control - civil

Maintenance technicians

Performance of maintenance.

Maintenance craftsmen Performance of maintenance, repairs, shop-work, according to skills.

8 - 1 4

15-24 7-10

1 0 - 2 0

1 2 - 2 0

Technician.

Mechanical technician; Electrical technician ; Instrumentation and control technician.

Mechanical crafts, Electrician and electronics, Civil crafts.

5 - 1 0 years in profession; 3—5 years in power plants; at least one year in nuclear power plant.

8 - 1 0 years in profession; 3—5 years in power plants.

5 - 8 years in industry, or preferably power plants.

3 - 5 years in industry or preferably power plants.

2—3 years in nuclear power plant training; systems, component, equipment, safety, radiation protection, instrumentation, QA/QC; particpation in erection and commissioning.

As above for maintenance engineers, but on technician level.

Basic course on nuclear power; radiation protection; 3—6 months on-the-job training.

Basic course in nuclear power; 3 months on-the-job training. Special instruc-tion on relevant crafts and on radiation protection.

TABLE 1 . 1 2 - 8 (cont.)

SAFETY DIVISION

Safety superintendent

Responsibility for nuclear and industrial safety and for health physics. Supervising compliance with established safety procedures, rules, guides.

1 M.S. in engineering 10-12 years in profession ; 4 - 6 years in health physics or nuclear safety; 1 —2 years in nuclear power plant.

Course in nuclear technology (1 -2 years), safety orien-tation; regulatory training; systems components of the specific power plant; parti-cipation in commissioning.

Industrial safety engineer

Responsibility for plant industrial safety. Supervising compliance with procedures, rules, regulations, fire pro-tection, security.

1 B.S. in engineering. 5—10 years in profession, involved in industrial safety; at least 2—3 years in power plants.

Basic course in nuclear power; 3 - 6 months on-the-job training; participate in erection and commissioning.

Nuclear safety engineer

Responsibility for supervising compliance with nuclear safety procedures, rules, regulations during normal operation and maintenance activities. Assisting operation staff during abnormal occurrences.

2 - 4 M.S. in engineering. 8 - 1 0 years in profession; 4 - 6 years in health physics or nuclear safety; 2 - 3 years in nuclear power plant.

Course in nuclear technology ( 1 - 2 years), safety-oriented ; extensive training in the specific power plant systems, procedures, components, engineering, operation (2 -3 years); participation in commissioning.

Health physicist

Responsibility for radiation protection matters, monitoring, surveys, waste management, discharges, records management, planning and performance of radiation protection actions in case of abnormal occurrences.

1 - 2 M.S. in engineering or physicist.

8—10 years in profession; 4—6 years in health physics or nuclear safety.

Course in nuclear technology ( 1 —2 years), safety-oriented; radiation protection; 3—6 months on-the-job training.

Safety technicians

Performance of safety and radiation protection activities, monitoring, surveys, fire protection, personnel training, decontamination, etc.

10-12 Technician, 3—5 years in profession; 2 - 3 years in nuclear safety related activities.

Basic course in nuclear power; nuclear safety and radiation protection courses; 3 - 6 months on-the-job training; participate in at least the last phases of commissioning; fire protec-tion course.

TRAINING DIVISION

Training^ superintendent

Responsibility for developing and implementing training and retraining programmes; management of training facilities; analysing plant and personnel performance to improve training. Supervision, control and examination of trainees.

1 M.S. in engineering. 10-15 years in profession ; 5—10 years in training activities; 3—5 years in power plants; 2—3 years in nuclear power; licenced (or authorized) operation shift supervisor. -

Course in nuclear technology (1—2 years); operator training (1—2 years); special-ized courses on nuclear power systems, QA/QC, simulators, radiation protection; participation in commissioning.

TABLE 1 . 1 2 - 8 (cont.)

TRAINING DIVISION (cont.)

Training engineers

Performance of training activities under the direction of the training superintendent.

2 - 3 B.S. in engineering. 8—10 years in profession; 4—6 years in training activities 2—3 years in power plants, preferably nuclear.

As above for training superintendent.

Training instructors

Performance of technicians' training and retraining.

2 - 3 Technician (mechanical, electrical, radiation protection).

8 - 1 0 years in profession ; 4—6 years in training activities: 2—3 years in power plants, preferably nuclear plant operation or maintenance.

Basic course in nuclear power; operator training ( 1 —2 years); courses in radiation protection, QA/QC, maintenance crafts, etc.

TECHNICAL DIVISION

Basic course in nuclear power; operator training ( 1 —2 years); courses in radiation protection, QA/QC, maintenance crafts, etc.

Technical superintendent

Responsibility for providing all technical supporting services required for safe and efficient operation and main-tenance. Development and analysis of procedures; overall planning of activities; fuel management; metallurgical and chemical aspects; reactor physics; corrective actions; improve-ments; in-service inspection ; documentation management; safeguards activities.

1 M.S. in engineering. 10—15 years in profession; 5 — 10 years in power plants; at least 2—3 years in nuclear power plant.

Course in nuclear technology ( 1 - 2 years); training in the specific plant's systems, procedures, components, operation and maintenance (1 — 2 years); participation in commissioning.

Tech n ical engin eering s taff Direction and performance of technical division activities in the specific fields.

Performance of technical division activities.

QUALITY ASSURANCE DIVISION

Quality assurance engineer Responsibility for planning, implementing and supervising QA procedures and actions during plant operation and maintenance.

8 - 1 0

B.S. or M.S. in engineering (nuclear, mechanical, electrical, electronics, chemical); Physicist? Chemist.

Technician (mechanical, electrical, electronics, chemical, computer, draftsmen).

B.S. in engineering (preferably mechanical).

8—10 years in profession; 4—6 years in specific field; at least 1 —2 years in nuclear power plant.

5—10 years in profession; 3—4 years in specific field.

8 - 1 0 years in profession; 4 - 6 years in QA/QC; at least 2 - 3 years in power plant, preferably nuclear.

Course in nuclear technology (1 — 2 years), orientation according to specific field; 3—6 months on-the-job training; participation in commissioning desirable.

Basic course in nuclear power; specialized courses according to field of activity; 3 - 6 months on-the-job training.

Basic course in nuclear power; QA/QC course; instruction in the specific power plants systems, components, equipment, procedures. Participation during erection and commissioning.

T A B L E 1 . 1 2 - 8 (cont . )

QUALITY ASSURANCE DIVISION (cont.)

Qi/QC technicians and auditors Performance of QA/QC tasks, inspection, testing, auditing, during plant operation and maintenance.

6 - 8 Technicians (mechanical, electrical, civil, welding).

5 - 1 0 years in specific field ; at least 3 - 5 years in QA/QC activities.

Total 40-55 110-180 20-35

170-270

TABLE 1 . 1 2 - 5 . MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS AND TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS Activity: Quality assurance/Quality control ( Q A / Q C )

I. PRELIMINARY STUDIES (including reconnaissances)

Senior geologist

Evaluation of uranium geological potential

1 Geologist (Ph.D./M.S.). 15 years in uranium geology, prospecting and exploration techniques.

Exploration geologist^

Uranium prospecting and exploration

1 - 3 Geologist (M.S., B.S.). 5 — 10 years in uranium geology, prospecting and exploration.

Exploration technicians0

Uranium prospecting and exploration

1 - 5 Technician (in geology, mining).

3—5 years in mineral exploration.

Course on uranium exploration.

II. PROSPECTING

Project manager

Planning and co-ordination of all prospecting activities.

1 Geologist (Ph.D./M.S.). 10 years in uranium prospecting and exploration.

T A B L E 1 . 1 2 - 9 ( a ) (cont . ) o

II. PROSPECTING (cont.)

ILA. Geochemical survey

Senior geochemist

Planning and co-ordination of geochemical surveys.

1 Geologist (Ph.D./M.S.). 10 years in geochemical prospecting for uranium.

Geochemists

Sampling, interpretation.

1 - 3 Geologist (M.S./B.S.). 5 years in geochemical prospecting for uranium.

On-the-job training in geochemical prospecting.

Geochemical prospectors

Assistance of geochemist

2 - 6 Technician (in geology or mining).

Senior chemical analyste

Chief of laboratory 1 Chemist (Ph.D./M.S.). 5 years in geochemical laboratories (for uranium).

Laboratory technicians6

2 - 3 Technician (in chemistry).

On-the-job training in laboratory.

II.tí. Radiometric and emanometric surveys

Senior geologist ^

Planning and 1

co-Ordination. 1 Geologist (Ph.D./M.S.). 10 years in uranium

prospecting and exploration.

Geologist — Geophysicist

Operation, mapping, 2 etc. in airborne, carbon.

Geologistd

Operation, mapping, 2 in ground surveys.

Technicians ̂

Operators, mapping, 4 - 8 assisting geologists

Electronics ^

Instrumental 1 - 2 maintenance.

Surveys^

Mapping, topo- 1—2 graphic support.

Draftsman** 1 -2

Geologist or Geophysicist (M.S.).

Geologist (M.S./B.S.).

Technician (in geology, mining).

Electronic engineer B.S. or expert technician in electronics.

Surveyor (B.S./ Technician).

Draftsman technician.

5 years in radiometric surveys (especially in airborne).

5 years in uranium prospecting and exploration.

5 years of experience in electronics.

5 years of experience.

On-the-job training and courses in gamma-ray spectrometry, aerial navigation.

6 months training in "pulse electronics".

2—3 years of experience.

TABLE 1.12-9(a) (cont.) -o K>

III. EXPLORATION (including follow-up)

Senior geologist

Planning and co-ordination.

1 Geologist (Ph.D./M.S.). 10 years in uranium exploration.

Geologists

Follow-up, mapping, surveying, drilling control, etc.

3 - 6 Geologist (M.S./B.S.). 5 years in uranium exploration.

Technicians

Follow-up, surveying, drilling, control, etc.

6 - 8 Technician (geology, mining).

On-the-job training and courses in gamma-ray spectrometry, etc.

Senior driller

Planning any control. 1 Mechanical engineer (B.S.) or experienced technician.

5 years in mineral exploration drilling.

Course (6 months) in uranium exploration by drilling?

Driller

Drilling 4 - 6 Technician or craftsman.

5 years in mineral exploration drilling.

Economic geologist

Evaluation 1 Geologist - Mining engineer (M.S./B.S.).

6 years in uranium evaluation.

Geophysicist (borehole logging).

1 Geophysicist (M.S.). 5 years in borehole logging.

Technicians 1 - 2 Technician. 3 years in normal sample preparation.

Course on uranium minerals, sampling, etc.

IV. ANALYTICAL SUPPORT

Chemist

Planning and control. 1 Chemist (Ph.D./M.S.). 5 years in analyses.

Technicians

Assistant to the chemist, sample preparations, etc.

3 Technician (chemistry). On-the-job training.

a Manpower requirements refer to basic teams to perform the activity, k When first stage is finished (I) this personnel can be transferred to II.B, or III. c Idem, to II.A, II.B or III. ^ When the general radiometric survey is finished (II.B), part of this personnel can be transferred to III. e When stage III (Exploration) is in implementation the laboratory personnel would be transferred to IV.

TABLE 1.12—9(b). MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS AND TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS Activity: Nuclear fuel cycle (fuel fabrication)3

Function/Task Number (range)3 Qualifications

Function/Task Number (range)3

Plant manager

Overall direction of the plant. 1 M. S. in metallurgical or mechanical engineering.

10-15 years in high-quality light equipment manufacturing plants. Familiarity with nuclear technology and nuclear fuel and structural materials.

Basic course in nuclear power. Specialized courses in nuclear materials properties including radiation effects.

Production manager 1 B.S. in metallurgical or mechanical engineering.

5 - 1 0 years in high-quality metals fabrication or light equipment manufacturing plants. Familiarity with nuclear technology and significance of quality in fuel components. Experi-ence in high-quality precision welding of reactive metals.

Quality control manager 1 B.S. in metallurgical or chemical engineering.

5 years in quality control management in high-quality light equipment manufac-turing plant. Familiarity with NDE methods and equipment and with statistical quality control procedures.

Basic course in nuclear power. Specialized courses in nuclear materials properties including radiation effects; course in QA/QC.

Manufacturing engineering manager

1 B.S. in metallurgical or mechanical engineering.

3—5 years in process develop-ment and welding of reactive metals and stainless steel.

Production control manager 1 B.S. in metallurgical or mechanical engineering.

5 years in metals fabrication, light equipment manufacture or chemical process industry production control.

Nuclear materials control manager

1 B.S. in engineering. 3 years professional experi-ence and experience in mathematical statistics.

Radiation safety officer 1 B.S. in physical sciences or biology.

3 years professional experi-ence in radiation measure-ments and effects.

Basic course in nuclear power and nuclear materials.

Nuclear safety officer 2 - 3 B.S. in nuclear physics. 2 years in nuclear calculations. On-the-job training on nuclear safety.

Manufacturing foremen 4 - 6 Mechanical technician. 5 years in supervision in light equipment manufacturing plant. Familiarity with high-quality manufacturing, weld-ing and assembly methods.

Inspection foremen 3 - 4 Mechanical technician. 5 years in supervision of inspection of high-quality precision equipment. Familiarity with statistical quality control methods and with NDE methods.

Introductory course in nuclear power.

a Refers to a 250 t/a plant (approximative). Only management and supervisory personnel are included.

T A B L E 1 . 1 2 — 9 ( c ) . M A N P O W E R R E Q U I R E M E N T S A N D T E C H N I C A L Q U A L I F I C A T I O N S

Activity: N u c l e a r f u e l c y c l e ( w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t ) 3

Qualifications Function/Task Number (range) Function/Task Number (range)

Plant manager

Overall direction, costing, 1 M.S. in chemical 10—15 years in chemical Courses and on-the-job scheduling, contracting. engineering or process industry, familiar training in nuclear waste

chemistry. with nuclear technology and radioactive materials handling.

treatment procedures.

Superintendents for 2 M.S./B.S. in chemical 5 - 1 0 years in chemical process Courses and on-the-job production and maintenance engineering or industry, familiar with nuclear training in nuclear waste

chemistry technology and radioactive materials handling.

treatment procedures.

(Production and maintenance are not separated into different departments).

Chiefs of waste treatment 5 B.S. in engineering, 5 years in chemical process Basic course in nuclear facilities preferably chemical or industry (conventional), power; courses in radio-

For concentration by evaporation, bituminization, cementation, incineration,

industrial. power plants, or marine active materials handling For concentration by evaporation, bituminization, cementation, incineration,

power plants. and nuclear waste treatment procedures.

purification, decontamina-tion and scrapping, etc. 10 Mechanical and/or 3—5 years in chemical process Basic course in nuclear

Shift supervisors/production chemical technician. industry (conventional), or

power plants. power; courses in radio-active materials handling and nuclear waste treatment procedures.

Operators/production 55 Technicians and craftsmen (in mechanics and/or chemistry).

3 - 5 years in operating facilities in chemical processes or other industry, or power plants.

Basic course in nuclear power; courses in radio-active materials handling and nuclear waste treat-ment procedures.

Maintenance chief technicians 5 Mechanical, electrical, instrumentation and control technicians.

5 years in chemical process, other industry, or power plant maintenance.

Maintenance technicians 35 Mechanical, electrical, instrumentation and control technicians and/or craftsmen.

3 - 5 years in chemical process, other heavy industry or power plant maintenance.

Basic course in nuclear power; courses in nuclear waste treatment procedures.

Superintendent-technical services

1 M.S. in mechanical, chemical or nuclear engineering.

10 years in chemical process, other heavy industry or power plant engineering or technical services.

Basic course in nuclear power; courses in radio-active materials handling and nuclear waste treatment procedures.

Head of engineering group 1 M.S./B.S. in mechanical, chemical or nuclear engineering.

5 years in chemical process, other heavy industry or power plant engineering.

Engineers 4 B.S. in mechanical, chemical or instrumen-tation and control engineering.

3 - 5 years in chemical processes, other industry or power plant engineering.

Basic course in nuclear power; courses in radio-active materials handling and nuclear waste treatment procedures.

i w 90 90 M O c 53 m SS M Z H CO

TABLE 1 . 1 2 - 9 ( c ) (cont . ) 00

Planning technicians 1 Technician. 2—3 years in industry.

Head of QA group 1 M.S. in chemistry. 5 - 1 0 years in analytical chemistry and radiochemistry.

Courses in radioactive materials handling and nuclear waste treatment procedures.

QA/QC engineer 1 B.S. in chemistry. 3—5 years in analytical chemistry and radio-chemistry.

Courses in radioactive materials handling and nuclear waste treatment procedures.

QA/QC technicians 5 Technicians in chemistry.

1 - 3 years in analytical chemistry.

Courses in radiochemistry ; basic course in nuclear power; courses in radio-active materials handling and nuclear waste treatment procedures.

Officer: safety, health physics 1 B.S. in physics or chemistry.

3 years in nuclear safety and radiation protection.

Course in nuclear waste treatment procedures.

Health physics technicians 5 Technician. 3 years in radiation measure-ment and protection.

Course in nuclear waste treatment procedures.

Repair workshop personnel 1 Technician. 3 years in industry.

3 Craftsmen (foremen). 3 years in industry.

3 Craftsmen.

Total 17 123

Professionals Technicians and craftsmen

a Staffing figures correspond to the Nuclear Waste Treatment Facility in the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Centre (Federal Republic of Germany) with the following functions: ( 1 ) nuclear reprocessing plant (WAK with 40 t/a), waste treatment (~40%) (mainly MAW and LAW concentration by evaporation, kerosine purification, cementation, bituminization); (2) Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Centre waste treatment (~50%) (mainly LAW and MAW decontamination and scrapping, LAW concentration by evaporation, waste incineration, bituminization, cementation); (3) Waste treatment of the Karlsruhe reactors MZFR (50 MW(e)) and KNK (20 MW(e)) and other facilities (~10%) (mainly LAW concentration by evaporation, bituminization, cementation, incineration, decontamination and scrapping.

TABLE 1 . 1 2 - 5 . MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS AND TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS Activity: Quality a s s u r a n c e / Q u a l i t y control (QA/QC)

Function/Task

Head, regulatory authority

Responsible for overall management of regulatory activities; establishes programme plan, co-ordinates interface of supporting functions, recommends implementations, acts as final authority in dealing with emergencies.

Deputy head, regulatory authority

Acts in absence of head.

CODES AND STANDARDS

Director

Responsible for regulatory standards establishing the criteria for siting, design, quality assurance, construc-tion and operation of nuclear

Number (range) Qualifications

Education

M.S. in nuclear engineering.

M.S. in engineering (mechanical, civil, electrical or nuclear).

Experience

Min. 15 years in progressively responsible positions in power plant engineering, including 5 years in nuclear power, preferably safety-oriented activities. Demonstrated managerial ability.

10—15 years as above.

10-12 years in progressively responsible positions in codes and standards development; 3 years in nuclear power plant or research centre.

Specialized training

1 —2 years nuclear safety regulations, orientation in foreign regulations and other international codes of practice, safety guides, etc., seminars or courses in nuclear power plant siting and environmental sciences.

As above for head of regulatory authority.

ce M O H M O Z

power facilities and for the transportation, production, use of and accounting for nuclear materials; codify and maintain criteria and detailed engineering and site health standards against which site and operating lincences appli-cations, as well as power plant facility design, construc-tion and operations are reviewed. Make designers, constructors and operators fully aware of these regulations and changes to them.

Professional staff

LICENSING AND ASSESSMENT

Director

Responsible for the review of safety analysis reports and assessment of. applications for site approval, work

4 - 5 M.S. in engineering (nuclear, civil, electrical, or mechanical), especially with courses in stress analysis, seismology, health physics, hydrology, geology, geophysics.

M.S. preferably in nuclear engineering.

8 - 1 0 years in area of special-ization including 1 - 2 years in nuclear power plant or research centre. Experience in standards and codes development preferred.

10—12 years in progressively responsible positions involving nuclear power plant engineer-ing, QA/QC of large

1 year on-the-job and academic training similar to that described above.

Same as for head of authority.

TABLE 1 . 1 2 - 9 ( a ) (cont . ) 00 t o

LICENSING AND ASSESSMENT

Director (cont.)

permits, construction permits and operating licences, and for operator licensing and requalifying examinations.

engineering projects (preferably nuclear) and conventional power plant construction.

Professional staff 15-25 M.S./B.S. in civil, mechanical, electrical, chemical or nuclear engineering or sciences; areas of specialization: nuclear safety, radiation protection geology, meteorology, seismology, environ-mental sciences, etc.

8—10 years in area of specialization; including 1 —2 years in nuclear industry, preferably design and construction.

One year academic and on-the-job training in nuclear licensing process, development and issuance of regulatory guides, standards and criteria.

INSPECTION AND ENFORCEMENT

Director

Development and administration of programmes of inspection and enforce-

1 M.S. in nuclear or mechanical engineering.

10-12 years in progressively responsible positions involving mechanical

1 - 2 years in nuclear regulations, reactor technology and inspection

ment to assure the conduct of revie ws of nuclear facilities in the construction, com-missioning and operating stages; the investigation of and report on incidents, accidents, allegations and unusual circumstances; the enforcement of standards, rules, regulations and adherence to licensing provisions; co-ordination with the licensing and standards groups to factor operating experiences into codes, standards and licensing.

Professional staff 15-20 M.S./B.S. in engineering (nuclear, chemical, civil, mechanical, electronics, etc.).

ADMINISTRA TIVE, LEGAL, AND RECORDS MANAGEMENT SER VICES

Director

Manages supporting services, 1 including financial manage-ment and accounting.

M.S. in business administration.

property and materials evaluation work; QA/QC, and including 1 - 2 years in nuclear industry.

8—10 years in area of specialization, preferably in QA/QC field; at least 2 - 3 years in nuclear power plants.

10—12 years in progressively responsible positions. Demonstrated managerial ability.

techniques and requirements; QA/QC courses.

1 —2 years in nuclear power technology; QA/QC courses; nuclear safety.

M 7¡ 7) W O C M 7> Cl S w Z H en

Basic course in nuclear power; orientation in nuclear regulatory activities.

TABLE 1 . 1 2 - 9 ( a ) (cont . )

ADMINISTRATIVE, LEGAL, AND RECORDS MANAGEMENT SER VICES (cont.)

Professional staff 5 - 9 B.A. or equivalent in law, economics, business administration, computer, library.

5—8 years in profession, preferably involving nuclear field.

Basic course in nuclear power; orientation in regulatory activities.

TECHNICAL SUPPORT STAFF, CONSULTANTS AND AD VISOR Y BODIES

Provide technical, legal and other expertise to supplement the regular staff as the need arises. This would be on call to provide expert advice in a particular area of a discipline for which it would not be economical or feasible to maintain full-time staffing.

According to need. M.S. and Ph. D* in disciplines required for the regulatory activities.

15-20 years specialized experience.'

Total 4 5 - 6 5 Professionals

a Only professional staff are listed. Requirements for technicians or craftsmen are not significant.

1.13. MANPOWER LOADING CURVES FOR NUCLEAR POWER ACTIVITIES

The manpower loading curves (Figs 1.13—1 to 1.13—10) presented in this section are intended to complement the information contained in the tables of Section 1.12. Table 1 . 1 3 - 1 contains a list of these curves together with an estimate of the approximate numbers of professionals, technicians and craftsmen corresponding to the peaks (100%) of the curves.

All loading curves correspond to the schedule of a nuclear power project as presented in Fig. 1.1—1.

The loading curves are intended to provide general guidance; they represent trends rather than exact values.

All loading curves represent the manpower requirements for effectively performing the activity. Training and trainees are not included. It is assumed that all professionals, technicians and craftsmen have been recruited and are assigned to their tasks after having received the training needed to qualify them for the performance of their respective functions. The curve for plant operation and maintenance (Fig. 1.13—9) is an exception — here the manpower loading begins when the staff is to be recruited and assigned to the activity. Up to the initiation of plant operations, the staff might be considered as trainees, even if in addition to undergoing training certain tasks (for example, participation in commissioning) are effectively performed by them.

Complementing the general loading curves, a numerical example is presented in Table 1 . 1 3 - 2 . This corresponds to the experience in Spain, on which further information is given in Appendix A-6 of Chapter 2.

In a nuclear power programme, there are normally a series of power projects, one after the other. Each manpower loading curve of a project-oriented activity corresponds to the tasks involved in a single project. Consequently, in a power programme there would be a series of such overlapping curves displaced in time, and the overall programme loading curve would tend to be smoothed out with only minor fluctuations. It is even possible to adjust somewhat the work in a schedule of particular projects to reduce fluctuations as much as possible. Rotating people among different tasks according to the demand is another possibility to increase the overall efficiency of the utilization of qualified manpower. Such a policy has an additional beneficial effect of increasing and widening the experience of the staff.

The following figures and tables complete Chapter 1. Chapter 2 begins on p. 195.

1610 SECTION 1.12

Power system planning /

Site selection and qual i f ica t ion ^ (not included in

» total of pre-project

- 1 2 - 1 1

Pre-project activit ies

Power system planning — — — —

Feasibi l i ty study H

Site survey-

(cont inuing act iv i ty) —- — -

Sue selection and qual i f icat ion

9 (Years before commercial operation)

Project implementat ion

FIG. 1.13-1. Manpower loading for pre-project activities.

0 1 (Years)

Commercial

Bid evaluation

FIG. 1.13-2. Manpower loading for project management.

MANPOWER LOADING CURVES . 187

FIG.1.13-3. Manpower loading for project engineering.

- 1 1 - 1 0

Decision ,

to embark

Let ter

of in tent

- 6 - 5 - 4 - 3

Project implementat ion ' - 2

Plant construct ion

- 1 0 1 (Years)

Commercial

Contract

operat ion

FIG.1.13-4. Manpower loading for procurement of equipment and materials.

188 SECTION 1.12

Project implementat ion Commercial

Manufactur ing j Commercial

Letter of intent

Manufactur ing j operat ion Letter

of intent f , Plant construct ion operat ion

1" Contract .Commiss ion ing b

FIG.1.13-5. Manpower loading for quality assurance and quality control.

FIG.1.13-6. Manpower loading for manufacturing of equipment and components.

MANPOWER LOADING CURVES . 1 8 9

FIG.1.13-7. Manpower loading for plant construction.

FIG.1.13—8. Manpower loading for commissioning.

1 9 0 SECTION 1.12

FIG. 1.13-9. Manpower loading for operation and maintenance.

FIG.1.13-10. Manpower loading for licensing and regulation. (Regulatory body.)

TABLE 1.13-1. MANPOWER LOADING CURVES FOR NUCLEAR POWER ACTIVITIES

Number of Figure

Activity Approximate number corresponding to 100% a

References Number of Figure

Activity Approximate number corresponding to 100% a

Table in Section 1 .12

Section in Chapter 1

1 .13 -1 Pre-project activities 30 1 .12 -1 1.2

1 . 1 3 - 2 Project management 100 1 . 1 2 - 2 1.3.1

1 . 1 3 - 3 Project engineering 370 1 . 1 2 - 3 1.3.2

1 . 1 3 - 4 Procurement of equipment and materials 30 1 . 1 2 - 4 1.3.3

1 . 1 3 - 5 Quality assurance and quality control 100 1 . 1 2 - 5 1.3.4

1 . 1 3 - 6 Manufacturing of equipment and components 3000 1.4

1 . 1 3 - 7 Plant construction 2000 1 . 1 2 - 6 1.5

1 . 1 3 - 8 Plant commissioning 200 1 . 1 2 - 7 1.6

1 . 1 3 - 9 Plant operation and maintenance 220 1 . 1 2 - 8 1.7

1 . 1 3 - 1 0 Licensing and regulation 50 1 . 1 2 - 1 0 1.9

S $ ««

i w 50

S s z o O G

3 Included are professionals, technicians and craftsmen. An approximate mean value has been estimated.

TABLE 1 . 1 3 - 2 . MANPOWER LOADING F O R A NUCLEAR POWER PROJECT (Example: Spain. Average case based on 1000 MW(e) PWR plants under construction)

Manpower classification

Activity P = Professionals T = Technicians C = Craftsmen

Years to fuel load P = Professionals T = Technicians C = Craftsmen - 1 1 - 1 0 - 9 - 8 -7 - 6 - 5 -4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 +1 on

Pre-project activities P

c Total

Project management P 10 10 10 13 13 26 63 70 70 48 26

T 2 2 2 3 3 5 8 9 9 6 4

Total 12 12 12 16 16 31 71 79 79 54 30

Project engineering P 9 12 12 30 135 180 205 130 50 40 30

T 1 3 3 8 100 145 165 100 40 25 15

Total 10 15 15 38 235 325 370 230 90 65 45

QA/QC P

1 6 22 36 36 32 13 8

Total 1 6 22 36 36 32 13 8

Purchasing P

2 15 15 25 25 21 8 6

Total 2 15 15 25 25 21 8 6

Licensing (applicant) P

22 11 28 11 11 11 11 11 6 6

Total 22 11 28 U 11 11 11 11 6 6

Plant construction activities P 160 325 415 284 153 53

T 117 219 317 287 152 74

C 712 1786 2497 1918 1326 319

Total 989 2330 3229 2489 1631 446

Commissioning P 30 42 42

T 10 29 29

C - 70 70

Total 40 141 141

•o O

ta 90 r o • o 2 o o e » < M co

TABLE 1 . 1 3 - 2 (cont.)

Activity

Manpower classification

P = Professionals T = Technicians C = Craftsmen

Years to fuel load

- 1 1 - 1 0 - 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 on

Operation and maintenance 37

171 co m o H M O 2

Licensing and regulation (regulatory body)

29 20 29 29 24 29 21 21 21

Chapter 2

NATIONAL PARTICIPATION AND MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 2

NATIONAL PARTICIPATION AND MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT

2.1. PLANNING A N D IMPLEMENTATION O F N A T I O N A L PARTICIPATION

2.1.1. Purpose and scope of nat ional part icipat ion

Every country has the overall responsibility for the planning and implemen-tation of its national nuclear power programme. These responsibilities cannot be carried out without national participation, which in turn requires national manpower.

The purpose of national participation is twofold:

(a) To perform those activities and supply those goods and services which are necessary for the nuclear programme, and which have to be per-formed or supplied locally because importing them would not be feasible. (On that particular subject, more details are provided in Section 2.3.2.)

(b) To achieve the benefits of national participation through the performance of activities and the supply of goods and services in addition to those included in the scope of (a) above.

The interest in maximum use of national resources is common to all countries, the highly industrialized as well as the developing ones. The nuclear power programmes of most countries have been heavily influenced by a clear preference for the use of national resources, as is shown by the respective choices of reactor types, technologies, fuel and engineering designs.

The scope and level of national participation will vary according to the specific conditions prevailing within each country and will depend mainly on national policies and infrastructures and on the influence of the various applicable limiting factors which are discussed in Section 2.1.2.

The minimum scope of national participation applicable to any country would correspond to a policy of fulfilling only the first purpose as defined above under (a).

Should the national participation policy include the achievement of the second purpose (b), the scope will be larger, increasing to what may be called an optimum. It should be noted that an optimum scope does not necessarily correspond to 100% national production. A balance between the benefits to be obtained and the disadvantages, constraints and limitations would probably lead

198 SECTION 1.12

to a lower figure. Practically no country pe r fo rms all the activities involved nor produces all the goods and services required for its nuclear power programme.

For a first nuclear power project in a count ry with a reasonably developed industrial infras t ructure , an o p t i m u m achievable part icipat ion would probably be between 20 and 50% of the to ta l cost. This could gradually be increased over 10 to 15 years and through several successive projects to 70 to 80% with the inpu t of sizeable e f fo r t s and a firm and well-implemented nat ional policy. Only for very few countr ies and exceptional condit ions, could a level above this range be considered an op t imum.

2.1.2. Benefits, constraints and limitations

The main benef i ts expected f rom nat ional part icipat ion are:

— Improvement of the overall economy of the count ry by increasing national p roduc t ion

— Promot ion of the development of nat ional industrial, technological and educat ional infras t ructures

— Raising of the general level of industrial qualifications, standards and capabilities

— Development of highly qualified manpower

— Acquisi t ion of new technology and technical know-how

— Creation of new employment oppor tuni t ies

— Reduct ion of foreign exchange expendi tures

— Increase of the count ry ' s self-sufficiency

In general, the benefi ts derived f rom nat ional part icipat ion in a nuclear power programme would no t be limited to this programme. The potent ia l spin-off benefi ts affect ing the technological development of the entire count ry can be very large.

National part icipat ion in a nuclear power programme is limited by the following main economic, financial, technical and political constraining factors:

Cost of national products

While local manpower may be less expensive, the overall manufac tur ing costs o f t e n turn ou t to be higher than the price (including t ransport) t o be paid for impor ted goods. The cost difference — depending on the i tem and count ry — may be anywhere f r o m a few per cent which could be negligible, to double or triple, which could be t o o high a price t o pay if no t compensated by o ther benefi ts .

PLANNING A N D IMPLEMENTATION. 199

Financing

National participation implies local currency expenditures which normally have to be financed by local sources. An increased burden on the financial resources of the country will reduce availability for other sectors' requirements which might have an even higher priority.

Investment capability

An increase in national production capability will require capital investments in the industrial sector, either to adjust existing installations to the new requirements, or to install new facilities. Should available capital be scarce, this might constitute a major constraint.

Adequate market size

To be competitive, a certain minimum size and production level are required in any industrial facility. This minimum is defined by the market for the products. The national market for special products required by the nuclear power programme may be below the minimum and the possibilities for exporting uncertain.

Qualified manpower

Manpower, of course, constitutes one of the most fundamental requirements for national participation. Manpower must be developed if not available and, until this is done, foreign supply is the only alternative for anything beyond the essential national activities and supplies.

Industrial capability and quality standards

Manufacturing the products for nuclear power plants poses a serious problem for the industry of any country, whether highly developed or developing. The strict requirements regarding quality, reliability and production on schedule are difficult to meet and, as past experience shows, not always met. Quality in engineering, manufacturing, construction, erection and testing is essential both for plant safety and reliability.

Technology and know-how

A high level of technology and specific know-how is needed to perform most of the activities and to produce most of the components for nuclear power projects. If national participation is desired, technology and know-how must either be developed within the country, which is usually a difficult, expensive and time-consuming task, or imported from foreign sources. Successful technology transfer not only requires a country able and willing to transfer the technology, but also a recipient country capable of absorbing it. Both partners are necessary.

200 SECTION 2.1

Nuclear safety

Nuclear safety must be ensured and interest in national participation should never be allowed to supersede safety requirements.

Availability of raw materials

National participation regarding the supply of raw materials is obviously limited by the availability of resources and of production capability. It should be recalled, however, that no known resources do not mean no resources. Exploration efforts could produce positive results.

Non-proliferation

Non-proliferation concerns must be taken into account. These mainly affect the sensitive technologies, especially in the fuel cycle and may act as impediments to national participation in the corresponding activities.

Conflict of interests

It should be recognized that there is an inherent conflict of interest between the country promoting national participation and the foreign supplier(s) whose goal is to export services and products. Foreign suppliers might, however, be willing to set up local subsidiaries or to participate in developing local capability through supply contracts or joint ventures.

2.1.3. Policies and strategies

National participation requires national policies and strategies which are based on the special needs and conditions of the country. This is a complex undertaking where political, technical, economic and financial factors are involved and interrelated, and where no standard solutions are available.

A national participation policy should, in general, be:

— Defined in realistic terms, taking into account the existing industrial, technological, manpower and educational infrastructures and their future development possibilities

— Oriented towards the nuclear power programme of the country and not only towards particular projects

— Integrated into the overall economic and industrial development plan of the country

National participation policies to achieve the ability to perform the minimum required activities and to increase the scope to the optimum level should be implemented by strategies based on the following:

PLANNING A N D IMPLEMENTATION. 201

— Assign first priority to the scope of essential activities and supplies which have to be performed or supplied locally and to national manpower development

— To increase national participation, assign priority to:

• Items which can be produced by an existing national infrastructure with no or only reasonably additional efforts

• Items where national production is feasible and for which long-range assurance of supply is considered essential

• Engineering services which constitute the connecting link to national construction and manufacturing capacities

• Items where the technology involved can have important spin-off benefits

• Items for which there is an assured adequate domestic market

— Develop a consistent set of governmental actions and incentives promoting national participation and transfer of technology

— Promote standardization within the nuclear power programme (type and size of reactors, components, equipment, engineering, design etc.)

2.1.4. Procedures and me thods of implementa t ion

The procedures and methods for achieving the desired national participation goals and for implementing national policies and strategies will depend on the local conditions and characteristics. In Section 2.4 national experience is discussed and in the Appendix examples of several countries are presented.

The principal partners involved in national participation are the country's government, utilities, industry, research and development institutes and educational and training institutions. Foreign governments, suppliers and international organi-zations also have important roles; without their active co-operation, support and assistance, the demands on the national resources could become unreasonably high in most countries and in particular in developing countries. Table 2 .1 -1 contains the typical distribution of responsibilities and functions among the principal partners. Needless to say, co-operation among partners is essential for success.

The extent of foreign participation in developing national capability depends on national policy decisions of the country itself as well as of the foreign countries involved. In some countries, the procedure of implementing national participation has been based on assigning a primary role to joint ventures and co-operative arrangements, covering practically all fields of nuclear activity. In others, foreign support and assistance has had a much more limited role. But, whatever the extent

202 SECTION 1.12

TABLE 2 . 1 - 1 . DIVISION OF RESPONSIBILITIES AND FUNCTIONS F O R NATIONAL PARTICIPATION

Partners Main responsibilities and func t i ons

Government - Development of the nuclear power p rogramme

— Nuclear licensing and regulat ion

— Establ ishment of bilateral or mult i la teral agreements, fo r the implementa t ion of technology t ransfer , training, technical assistance, exchange of i n fo rma t ion and safeguards

— Def in i t ion of nat ional par t ic ipa t ion policy and strategy

— Legislation f o r nuclear power and fo r p romot ing nat ional par t ic ipat ion

— Survey of the available nat ional in f ras t ruc ture and its capabil i ty

— S tudy of t he feasibility of nat ional par t ic ipa t ion in general and in detail

— Planning and co-ordinat ion of t he nat ional e f f o r t

— Elabora t ion of p rocedures and m e t h o d s to implement and to increase nat ional par t ic ipat ion

— Provision of f inancial assistance

— Establ ishment of nat ional pol icy fo r qual i ty assurance

Ut i l i ty /Owner — Def in i t ion of overall and detailed supply requi rements of the nuclear p o w e r projects

— Comple t ion of commercial ar rangements fo r p ro jec t implementa t ion

— Suppor t ing advice and assistance t o the Government in its tasks and func t ions

— Development of manpower f o r u t i l i ty /owner ' s requ i rements

Analysis of supply requirements , market condi t ions and p roduc t i on possibilities, in part icular regarding qual i ty , schedule and cost

Development of supply proposals

P roduc t ion and supply of goods and services

Specialized and on-the-job training in the respective fields of compe tence

Imp lemen ta t ion of improvements and addi t ions t o existing capabil i ty

Suppor t ing advice and assistance t o the Government in its tasks and func t i ons

Nat ional indus t ry

PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION. 203

TABLE 2 .1-1 (cont.)

Par tners Main responsibili t ies and f u n c t i o n s

Research and development ins t i tu tes

— Technical research and development in nat ional par t ic ipa t ion areas

— Technical and scientific assistance t o t he Government , u t i l i ty and indus t ry

— Manpower development in basic and specialized fields

— Practical training

— Nat ional in fo rmat ion exchange centre

— Suppor t ing advice and assistance t o the Government in i ts tasks and func t i ons

Educat iona l and training ins t i tu t ions

— Provision of basic and specialized academic educa t ion and training t o professionals, technicians and c ra f t smen in f ields of na t ional interest

— Planning and development of new nat ional training capabil i ty according to requi rements

— Suppor t ing advice and assistance t o the Governmen t in its tasks and func t i ons

Foreign governments and suppliers; In te rna t iona l organizat ions

— Conclude agreements and /o r supply con t rac t s wi th appropr ia te governmenta l or industr ial organizat ions

— Provision of technology t ransfer

— Provision of in format ion and technical assistance as established in bilateral or mult i la teral agreements

— Provision of training oppor tun i t i es

— Active par t ic ipat ion, j o in t ventures (possible)

— Provision of f inancial assistance

o f f o r e i g n i n v o l v e m e n t a n d a s s i s t a n c e , n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n r e m a i n s f u n d a m e n t a l l y

a n a t i o n a l e f f o r t r e q u i r i n g n a t i o n a l m a n p o w e r .

T o e n s u r e t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n p o l i c y , t h e l e a d i n g

r o l e b e l o n g s t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t . I t i s t h e g o v e r n m e n t w h o w i l l h a v e t o d e v e l o p

a n d a p p l y a c o n s i s t e n t s e t o f p r o c e d u r e s a n d m e t h o d s e s t a b l i s h i n g a n a d e q u a t e

f r a m e w o r k o f c o n d i t i o n s a n d i n c e n t i v e s , i n w h i c h al l p a r t n e r s o f t h e n a t i o n a l e f f o r t

wi l l e f f e c t i v e l y c a r r y o u t t h e i r s h a r e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d f u n c t i o n s ( s e e a l s o

S e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 ) . G o v e r n m e n t a l a c t i v i t i e s s h o u l d b e s u p p o r t e d b y a d v i s o r y b o d i e s

w h i c h i n c l u d e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n v o l v e d .

204 SECTION 1.12

It is advisable that the owner/utility establishes a special team (three to five professionals) whose sole function is the detailed planning, promotion and implementation of national participation in its nuclear power projects. This team could be included in the planning or the procurement units, or a separate unit could be established. The activity is a continuing one within the nuclear power programme. This staff, besides having the necessary technical knowledge and background, must be thoroughly familiar with the characteristics, capabilities and limitations of the national industry and with governmental policies and procedures.

The production and supply of goods and services is the responsibility and function of industry. The overall manpower requirements will depend on the tasks to be performed. In general, to participate in the nuclear power programme, upgrading in quality assurance and quality control is needed. Research and development institutes as well as educational and training institutions would carry out their roles in national participation with their normal staff. Foreign suppliers would only have to assign special staff when extensive technology transfer, training activities or joint industrial ventures are undertaken.

2.2. N A T I O N A L I N F R A S T R U C T U R E S

2.2.1. Governmental infras t ructure

The overall planning, co-ordination and control of a nuclear power programme as well as of the national part icipat ion in this programme is fundamenta l ly a governmental responsibility. The government may delegate to specific organizations under its cont ro l many tasks, func t ions and partial responsibilities involved, bu t will always retain the overall responsibility as well as the func t ion of defining policies and strategies and of taking the final decisions. In order t o carry out its responsi-bilities, an adequate governmental inf ras t ruc ture is required consisting of three essential componen ts :

— Legal f ramework — Organizational s t ructures — Qualified manpower

The establishment of a legal f ramework is needed before the start of the implementa t ion phase of any nuclear power programme; governmental organi-zational s tructures, and the qualified manpower these require, are needed to start the planning activity of the programme.

While certain activities on a nuclear power programme could be done by impor t ing equipment , materials, and even manpower , a count ry must have the national inf ras t ruc ture to carry out the governmental responsibilities and func t ions involved in performing those activities which the count ry must do for itself.

In practically all countries, national nuclear energy commissions or authori t ies have cons t i tu ted the basic governmental infras t ructures for these purposes. In some cases (especially during the early stages of nuclear power development) they have had b o t h promot ional and regulatory activities and responsibilities, bu t most ly they tend to assume the regulatory func t ions and to leave the task of implement ing the nuclear power programme to o ther organizations (utilities and industry) . Nuclear energy commissions also usually retain their R&D and manpower development roles.

The staff of the governmental inf ras t ruc ture to carry out governmental responsibilities and func t ions should be composed most ly of high-level experienced professionals with b o t h general and specific knowledge of nuclear power. Such people are hard to find in a count ry that has no t ye t started on a nuclear power programme. Consequent ly , the building up of the min imum governmental infra-s t ructure is a diff icul t and t ime-consuming process which can last several years and for which foreign assistance in training is required. Once the country has started its nuclear power programme, the s taff ing requirements of its governmental inf ras t ruc ture will increase, in particular in the regulatory func t ion ; bu t at this

206 SECTION 1.12

stage the availability of experienced and qualified staff should also improve, if the manpower development e f for t s have been started early enough. If no t , the count ry may have to delay the implementat ion of its nuclear power programme, owing to a lack of qualified personnel.

2.2.2. Industrial inf ras t ructure

The size of the interconnected electric system limits the capacity of the largest generating unit . By the t ime the addit ion of a 600 MW(e) or larger nuclear power plant becomes feasible, the electric system should have at least 3000 to 4 0 0 0 MW(e) interconnected capacity. This implies that large power plants have been built and are already operating in the count ry and that there is a large concentra ted load, which in turn indicates a sizeable level of industrialization. However, this carries no implications regarding either the technological or the quality levels of the industry.

There are no f i rm rules regarding the industrial inf ras t ructure requirements of a count ry start ing on a nuclear power programme, but it is clear that the successful in t roduct ion of nuclear power cannot be accomplished in isolation.

As a min imum, the nuclear power plant has to be built , the equipment and components (which might be totally impor ted) have to be installed and tested and the plant has to be operated and maintained within the country . This means a basic requi rement of compe ten t construct ion and erection firms and of operat ions and maintenance capabilities within the uti l i ty. Such basic industrial inf ras t ructure should be available in any count ry with the above-mentioned electric system size. This infras t ructure will probably not have all the technology, the level of quali ty or the expertise necessary for nuclear power, bu t as experience has shown in the developing countr ies where nuclear power plants have been built , these can be acquired.

Adequate industrial infras t ructure is one of the principal limiting factors of nat ional part icipat ion in general and of the local product ion of any goods and services in particular.

Industrial inf ras t ructure means:

— A complex interrelated industrial system within the country , implying a certain level of technology, know-how and capability, technically trained manpower etc.

— The part icular organizations or manufac tur ing plants capable of producing certain materials, equipment and services.

F o r implement ing a meaningful national participation programme, b o t h the overall nat ional industrial system and the particular organizations as well as manufac tur ing plants are needed.

NATIONAL I N F R A S T R U C T U R E S 207

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e q u a l i f i e d m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s , n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a c e s

s p e c i a l d e m a n d s o n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e :

— A d v a n c e d t e c h n o l o g y i s i n v o l v e d w h i c h , i f n o t a v a i l a b l e i n e x i s t i n g

c o n v e n t i o n a l i n d u s t r y , h a s u s u a l l y t o b e a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h t e c h n o l o g y

t r a n s f e r f r o m f o r e i g n s u p p l i e r s

— V e r y s t r i c t q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s h a v e t o b e m e t , o w i n g t o n u c l e a r s a f e t y a n d

r e l i a b i l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s

— S c h e d u l e s m u s t b e c o m p l i e d w i t h , o w i n g t o t h e l a r g e e c o n o m i c p e n a l t y

o f d e l a y s

— M a n y s u p p l y i t e m s a r e o f u n i q u e d e s i g n a n d h a v e l i m i t e d o r n o o t h e r

a p p l i c a t i o n

— C o s t s s h o u l d b e a t r e a s o n a b l y c o m p e t i t i v e l e v e l s , w h i c h i s d i f f i c u l t t o

a c h i e v e i f h i g h d e v e l o p m e n t c o s t s a r e i n v o l v e d

— U n f a m i l i a r i n d u s t r i a l s t a n d a r d s m i g h t h a v e t o b e a p p l i e d

— M a n y s p e c i a l m a t e r i a l s n e w t o t h e i n d u s t r y a r e i n v o l v e d

— L a r g e e q u i p m e n t s i z e s a n d w e i g h t s i m p l y u n u s u a l f a b r i c a t i o n , h a n d l i n g a n d

t r a n s p o r t p r o b l e m s

T h e o v e r a l l r e s u l t o f t h e s p e c i a l d e m a n d s o f n u c l e a r p o w e r i s t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g

c o n v e n t i o n a l i n d u s t r y i s u s u a l l y u n a b l e t o s u p p l y t h e m a t e r i a l s , e q u i p m e n t ,

c o m p o n e n t s a n d s e r v i c e s f o r n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t s w i t h o u t first i m p r o v i n g i t s

c a p a b i l i t y . T h i s w o u l d i n v o l v e s u c h m e a s u r e s a s t h e u p g r a d i n g o f q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e

a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l , a c q u i s i t i o n o f n e w t e c h n o l o g y a n d k n o w - h o w , i n s t a l l a t i o n o f

a d d i t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t a n d c h a n g e s i n m e t h o d s a n d p r o c e d u r e s . T h e s e i m p r o v e m e n t s

r e q u i r e p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s , i n v e s t m e n t s , t i m e a n d , a b o v e a l l , q u a l i f i e d m a n p o w e r .

2.2.3. Science and technology infras t ructure

T h e r e i s a n i n c r e a s i n g r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y

i n n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n g e n e r a l . F o r n u c l e a r p o w e r i n p a r t i c u l a r , a s w e l l a s f o r

n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e , a s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y

i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s r e q u i r e d . S u c h a n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s m a i n l y c o n t a i n e d i n t h e

f o l l o w i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s :

— N a t i o n a l a n d p r i v a t e r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s

— H i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s

— S p e c i a l t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s

— S c i e n t i f i c a c a d e m i e s a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s

— N a t i o n a l i n d u s t r y

208 SECTION 1.12

The effectiveness of this infrast ructure depends mainly on the quality of the staff, bu t also on funding and available facilities.

In countr ies where the level of scientific and technological development is low, where research and development inst i tutes do not exist and where national industry is in general incapable of developing its own industrial technology, it is the government ' s role to take the lead in establishing a viable scientific and technological inf ras t ruc ture for national part icipation in nuclear power. This could be done by:

— Promot ing technology-oriented applied research and development activities in general

— Establishing national nuclear research and development insti tutes and nuclear technology development centres with adequate staffing, funding, facilities, programmes and a u t o n o m y

— Int roducing nuclear science- and technology-oriented curricula in national universities or insti tutes of advanced science

— Promot ing the establishment of nuclear training centres according to the expected manpower development requirements

— Concluding internat ional agreements and arrangements for the exchange of scientific and technical informat ion and transfer of technology

— Promot ing and financing the specialized training of professionals within the count ry and abroad

— Establishing a system of socio-economic incentives to provide motivat ion for professionals to choose scientific and technological careers in the coun t ry

The development of a viable science and technology infras t ructure is a long-term process which can take several years or even decades, depending on the level of the count ry ' s overall scientific and technological infras t ructure at the beginning of this process.

Research and development insti tutes have a valuable role t o play in a nuclear power programme, and this is discussed in Sections 1.10 and 3.2.2.6. A technology development cent re could provide impor t an t technological suppor t for the programme, and would have as one of its main activities the development and adapta t ion of nuclear technology, as well as the training of personnel for local industry. The staff would be industry-oriented and have mainly engineering backgrounds and experience. The centre could per form services, such as acting as consul tants to local industry for the in t roduct ion of new technology and of nuclear quali ty standards in their p roduc t ion , performing tests on materials and equipment , issuing certificates for compliance with approved standards, and licensing c ra f t smen in special areas (such as welders).

NATIONAL INFRASTRUCTURES 209

T a b l e 2 . 1 — 1 c o n t a i n s t h e m a i n r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d f u n c t i o n s o f r e s e a r c h a n d

d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s a n d S e c t i o n 1 . 1 0 p r o v i d e s a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e

r o l e a n d m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n n u c l e a r p o w e r .

2.2.4. Manpower and education/training infrastructures

N a t i o n a l m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e d e f i n e d b y t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r a n d

n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s . O n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s o f t h e

e x t e n t a n d e v e n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f

q u a l i f i e d m a n p o w e r .

F o r a c o u n t r y i n t h e p l a n n i n g s t a g e o f i t s n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e , t h e

n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s c o n s i s t o f a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l b u t h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d

g r o u p o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s ( s e e S e c t i o n 1 . 2 ) . B u t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s i n c r e a s e f a s t a s

t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e i s i m p l e m e n t e d a n d m a y r e a c h t e n s o f t h o u s a n d s

o f q u a l i f i e d p e o p l e o f a l l l e v e l s f o r a m b i t i o u s p r o g r a m m e s i n t h e f u l l i m p l e m e n -

t a t i o n s t a g e .

I n n u c l e a r p o w e r t h e n e e d f o r u n s k i l l e d l a b o u r i s n o t r e l e v a n t . T h e d e m a n d

f o r q u a l i f i e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s , t e c h n i c i a n s a n d c r a f t s m e n i s t h e d e c i s i v e f a c t o r . I t i s

p o s s i b l e a n d m a y b e n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n s o m e h i g h l y s p e c i a l i z e d e x p e r t s a n d

t r a i n i n g f r o m a b r o a d , i n p a r t i c u l a r d u r i n g t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f a n u c l e a r p o w e r

p r o g r a m m e . B u t t h i s c a n o n l y b e a p p l i e d i n a v e r y l i m i t e d w a y a n d i t c e r t a i n l y

d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e a l o n g - t e r m s o l u t i o n . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n a d e q u a t e n a t i o n a l

e d u c a t i o n a l a n d t r a i n i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s t h e o n l y r e a l s o l u t i o n .

A n y c o u n t r y f o r w h i c h n u c l e a r p o w e r i s a v i a b l e o p t i o n m u s t h a v e a n e l e c t r i c

s y s t e m o f r e a s o n a b l e s i z e a n d a b a s i c i n d u s t r i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , a n d w o u l d t h u s a l s o

h a v e c e r t a i n t e c h n i c a l m a n p o w e r a n d a n e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e o f

a r e a s o n a b l e l e v e l . T h i s s h o u l d b e a d e q u a t e t o s t a r t w i t h , b u t w i l l h a v e t o b e e x p a n d e d

a n d a d j u s t e d i n e v e r y c a s e t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

I n t h i s t a s k , f o r e i g n a s s i s t a n c e c a n o n l y o f f e r a d v i c e a n d a v e r y l i m i t e d h e l p .

T o d e v e l o p t h e m a n p o w e r a n d e d u c a t i o n / t r a i n i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s t o m e e t

t h e n a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e , a w e l l - p l a n n e d a n d

c o - o r d i n a t e d e f f o r t w i l l b e n e e d e d f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r t n e r s :

— G o v e r n m e n t

— N a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m , i n c l u d i n g s c h o o l s a n d t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g

i n s t i t u t i o n s a s w e l l a s u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s

— S p e c i a l t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s a n d i n s t i t u t e s

— R e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s

— U t i l i t i e s a n d i n d u s t r y

M a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t i n c l u d i n g e d u c a t i o n a l a n d t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s

i s t r e a t e d i n d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r 3 .

2.3. NATIONAL PARTICIPATION AREAS

2.3.1. Nuclear power programme activities

In Table 2.3—1 a list of the activities involved in nuclear power programmes is presented. In many cases several separate activities have been joined under a single heading. The technical diff icul ty (including specialized knowledge, technology and quali ty requirements) of the activities as well as the manpower e f for t involved have been assessed and are indicated by index numbers for low (1), medium (2), high (3) or very high (4) degree of diff icul ty and manpower effor ts , respectively. This should be interpreted as an approximate assessment, applying to most situations.

The activities are described and the corresponding manpower requirements are presented in Chapter 1. In Chapter 3, they are t reated f r o m the poin t of view of manpower development .

2 .3.2. Essential activities fo r nat ional part icipat ion

The responsibility for the fundamenta l decisions on all activities must always remain within the coun t ry itself.

There are certain activities for which full responsibility has t o be borne by nat ional organizations and which should be primarily executed by national man-power , whatever the contract ing arrangements. These are considered 'essential ' activities for nat ional part icipat ion. Expert help f rom abroad could be obtained and used up t o a point , b u t only for technical assistance and not as a complete replacement of the nat ional e f for t .

Table 2.3—1 includes an assessment as t o which activities in a nuclear power programme are in general considered as being 'essential ' fo r national participation. According to their nat ional part icipation policies and nat ional capabilities, some countr ies might include addit ional activities in this 'essential ' category. Other countr ies might reduce the list t o fewer items. There are cases where some of these 'essential ' activities, such as power system planning, feasibility studies, site evaluation, preparat ion of bid specifications, bid evaluation etc. have been executed by foreign consul tants under contract t o a nat ional organization or uti l i ty with little or no nat ional part icipation, except as far as overall responsibility is concerned which cannot be assigned to others. Such procedure, however, would be conduct ive t o an overall low level of national part icipation.

Should a count ry be able and willing to increase its involvement in the nuclear power projects, then its list of 'essential ' activities for nat ional part icipation could also include: detailed design engineering, QA/QC implementat ion, procurement , safety analysis report ing etc.

TABLE 2.3-1 . NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME ACTIVITIES

No. Activity

National participation considered essential1

Technical difficulty1 3

Manpower e f f o r t b

1 Nuclear power programme planning and co-ordination yes 3 1

2 Power system planning yes 2 1

3 Development of legal and organizational framework yes 1 - 2 1

4 International agreements and arrangements yes 1 - 2 1

5 National participation planning and co-ordination yes 2 1

6 Manpower development planning and implementation yes 2 - 3 2 - 3

7 Feasibility studies yes 3 2

8 Site evaluation yes 2 - 3 1 - 2

9 Preparation of bid specifications yes 2 - 3 1 - 2

10 Bid evaluation yes 3 2

11 Contracting yes 3 1

12 Project management (utility) yes 3 1 - 2

13 Project management (main contractor) no 3 2

14 Plant conceptual design no 3 - 4 2

15 Basic design engineering no 3 - 4 3

16 Detailed design engineering no 2 - 3 4

17 Preparation and review of equipment and plant specifications no 3 - 4 2

z > H O Z > r > 7> H O S3 > g o z > PO w > ce

No. Activity

National participation considered essential a

Technical difficulty b

Manpower ef for t b

18 Establishment of quality assurance policy yes 2 - 3 1

19 Quality control and quality assurance implementation no 2 - 3 2

20 Procurement no 1 - 2 1 - 2

21 Safety analysis reporting no 3 2

22 Emergency planning yes 2 1

23 Public information and public relations yes 1 - 2 1

24 Safeguards and physical protect ion yes 1 2

25 Equipment manufacturing (see Table 2.3—3 for details) no 1 - 4 1 - 4

26 Construction management no 2 - 3 2

27 Site preparation yes 1 2 - 3

28 Erection of plant buildings and structures yes 2 4

29 Plant equipment and systems installation yes 2 - 3 3

30 Plant systems and component testing no 2 - 3 2

31 Criticality and plant acceptance testing no 3 - 4 1 - 2

32 Plant operation and maintenance yes 3 - 4 3

33 Radiological protection and environmental surveillance yes 1—2 1

34 Fuel procurement yes 2 1

35 Uranium exploration, mining and milling no 1 - 2 3 - 4

Conversion

Enrichment

Fuel fabrication

Fuel management and storage at the power plant

Fuel transport and off-site storage within the country

Spent fue l reprocessing

Waste management

Nuclear licensing and regulation

Research and development in nuclear power

a For definition see Section 2.3.2. b Index number: 1 = low; 2 = medium; 3 = high; 4 = very high.

Z > g O Z > r "8 > 7» H

> H O Z • 9) M > m

214 SECTION 1.12

T A B L E 2 . 3 - 2 . M A T E R I A L S F O R N U C L E A R

P O W E R P R O J E C T S

Materials Complexi ty of s u p p l y 2

Cement 2 - 3

S t ruc tura l and s tandard steel 2 - 3

Special steel 3 - 4

Zircaloy 4

Heavy water ( fo r HWR) 3 - 4

Copper and a luminium 2

O the r special materials 2 - 4

a I n d e x number shows complexi ty of supply, combining technical d i f f icul ty , relative a m o u n t s needed and relative costs. 1 = low; 2 = med ium; 3 = high; 4 = very high.

T h e l i s t o f ' e s s e n t i a l ' a c t i v i t i e s a s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2 . 3 — 1 i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e

g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o a n y t y p e o f c o n t r a c t u a l a p p r o a c h . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d ,

h o w e v e r , t h a t w h i l e t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e u s u a l p r a c t i c e i n t u r n k e y a r r a n g e -

m e n t s , i t w o u l d m e a n a s o m e w h a t m o r e t h a n u s u a l d e l e g a t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

a n d w o r k t o f o r e i g n a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r i n g o r c o n s u l t a n t f i r m s i n a n o n - t u r n k e y

a p p r o a c h .

I n g e n e r a l , s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d b e g i v e n a s t o w h e t h e r o r n o t a

c o u n t r y i s p r e p a r e d a n d o u g h t t o e m b a r k o n a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e i f i t

l a c k s t h e r e s o u r c e s t o p e r f o r m a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e ' e s s e n t i a l ' a c t i v i t i e s .

2.3.3. Materials, equ ipment and componen t s

S o m e m a t e r i a l s n e e d e d f o r a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t d o n o t d i f f e r f r o m t h o s e

r e q u i r e d f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o j e c t s , b u t t h e r e a r e o t h e r s w h i c h i n v o l v e a c e r t a i n

a d d i t i o n a l d e g r e e o f c o m p l e x i t y f o r t h e i r p r o v i s i o n b y n a t i o n a l s o u r c e s .

T a b l e 2 . 3 — 2 l i s t s s o m e o f t h e s e m a t e r i a l s ( e x c e p t f u e l ) a n d i n d i c a t e s t h e

d e g r e e o f c o m p l e x i t y f o r t h e i r s u p p l y u s i n g a n i n d e x n u m b e r t h a t c o m b i n e s

t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t y , r e l a t i v e a m o u n t s n e e d e d a n d t h e r e l a t i v e c o s t s . T h e c o m p l e x i t y

r e l a t e d t o c e m e n t p r o d u c t i o n a n d s t r u c t u r a l a s w e l l a s s t a n d a r d s t e e l s i s m a i n l y d u e

NATIONAL PARTICIPATION AREAS 215

T A B L E 2 . 3 - 3 . N U C L E A R P O W E R P L A N T E Q U I P M E N T

A N D C O M P O N E N T S

C o m p o n e n t Technical d i f f i c u l t y 3

Relative c o s t 3

Nuclear steam supply system (NSSS) and Class I equipment

1. Reac tor con t a inmen t 2 - 3 3

2. Pressure vessel and internals of calandria and pressure tubes

3 . Steam generators 3 - 4 4

4. Pressurizer 3 - 4 2

5. Primary p u m p s 3 - 4 3

6. Pr imary piping and valves 3 3

7. Hangers and suppor t s 2 2

8. Spent f ue l racks 2 2

9. Spent fue l casks 3 2

10. Air locks and pene t ra t ions 2 2

11. Waste t r ea tmen t systems and c o m p o n e n t s 2 2

12. HEPA air f i l ters 3 1

13. F u e l loading machines ( fo r HWR) 4 3

14. Cont ro l rods and con t ro l rod drives

Turbine, generator and condenser

15. Steam turbine 4 4

16. Genera tor 3 3 - 4

17. Main condenser 2 - 3 2 - 3

18. Secondary piping and valves

Balance of plant (BOP)

19. Heat exchangers, piping, p u m p s and valves 2 - 3 2 - 3

20. Tanks 1 - 2 2

21. Heating, vent i la t ion and air condi t ioning 1 - 2 2

22. Demineralizer sys tem 2 2

23. Cranes 2 - 3 1 - 2

216 SECTION 2.4.

TABLE 2 . 4 - 2 (cont.)

C o m p o n e n t Technical Relat ive

C o m p o n e n t d i f f icu l ty a cost a

Electrical

24. Main t rans formers 2 - 3 3

25. Cables 1 - 2 1 - 2

26 . Switchgear 2 1 - 2

27. Miscellaneous m o t o r s 1 - 2 1 - 2

28 . Lighting and instal lat ion 1 1

29 . Auxil iary power supplies and diesel generators 2 - 3 2 - 3

Control and instrumentation

30. Con t ro l r o o m ins t rumenta t ion 3 3

31 . In-core ins t rumenta t ion 4 2

32 . On-line c o m p u t e r 3 - 4 2

33. Radia t ion moni tor ing e q u i p m e n t 2 2

34 . Other ins t rumenta t ion 1 - 2 1 - 2

a I ndex n u m b e r : 1 = low; 2 = med ium; 3 = high; 4 = very high.

to the large amounts required, while the complexity for special steels, Zircaloy or heavy-water production is mainly related to the technological difficulties involved.

Table 2.3—3 contains a representative list of items of equipment and compo-nents for nuclear power plants. The index numbers correspond to an assessment of the technical difficulty in fabrication (including achievement of quality require-ments) and the relative costs.

Table 2.3—4 presents a typical distribution of direct costs of a nuclear power plant and the percentages of national participation that could reasonably be expected for 40% and for 70% overall participation rates. The numbers should be interpreted as approximate values indicating orders of magnitude. On the basis of the cost breakdown of nuclear power plants, there is a strong economic incentive for national participation in equipment and component manufacture, which would amount to more than half of the direct cost of the plant.

The heavy components of the reactor (pressure vessel, steam generators, primary pumps etc.) and the turbo-generator represent nearly half of the total equipment cost of the plant, but are also among the most difficult items to

NATIONAL PARTICIPATION AREAS 217

T A B L E 2 . 3 - 4 . N U C L E A R P O W E R P R O J E C T C O S T B R E A K D O W N

A N D N A T I O N A L P A R T I C I P A T I O N D I S T R I B U T I O N

National par t ic ipat ion

Direct p lant dis t r ibut ion fo r

I t ems cost b reakdown

• ( % ) overall 40% overall 70%

cost b reakdown

• ( % ) par t ic ipat ion

par t ic ipa t ion

Project management 15 4 12 and engineering

Cons t ruc t ion , e rec t ion 20 15 18 and commissioning

Cons t ruc t ion mater ia ls 10 8 10

Equ ipmen t and c o m p o n e n t s 55 13 3 0

(NSSS) (25) (1) (10)

(TG) (18) (4 ) (10 )

(BOP) (12) (8) (10)

To ta l 100% 40% 70%

Note: All n u m b e r s indicate orders of magni tude .

m a n u f a c t u r e . T h u s , o n l y a s m a l l n a t i o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n c o u l d b e r e a s o n a b l y

e x p e c t e d i n a d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y f o r s u c h i t e m s .

T h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f e l e c t r i c a l e q u i p m e n t , s p e c i a l s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s , h e a t

e x c h a n g e r s , a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g a n d v e n t i l a t i o n e q u i p m e n t , c r a n e s a n d t a n k s i s l e s s

d i f f i c u l t a n d w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d t o a n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f 2 5 t o 3 5 % o f t h e

m e c h a n i c a l a n d e l e c t r i c a l e q u i p m e n t c o s t s . A n i n t e r m e d i a t e s i t u a t i o n w o u l d

c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e p a r t i a l m a n u f a c t u r e b y l o c a l i n d u s t r i e s o f i t e m s s u c h a s p i p i n g ,

i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t , p u m p s , s p e c i a l r e a c t o r c o m p o n e n t s a n d

v a l v e s , w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e a b o u t 1 0 t o 2 0 % t o t h e m e c h a n i c a l a n d e l e c t r i c a l e q u i p -

m e n t c o s t s .

I t e m s s u c h a s i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n h a v e h i g h t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s c o m b i n e d

w i t h r e l a t i v e l y l o w c o s t . T h e s e , h o w e v e r , i n v o l v e a h i g h t e c h n o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t

a n d m i g h t h a v e i m p o r t a n t s p i n - o f f e f f e c t s o n t h e o v e r a l l i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t

o f t h e c o u n t r y . T h e r e f o r e , s p e c i a l e f f o r t s f o r n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n m i g h t b e

j u s t i f i e d .

T h e i n d u s t r i a l m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f e q u i p m e n t

i s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 1 . 4 .

2.4. EXPERIENCE IN NATIONAL PARTICIPATION AND MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT

2.4.1. National experiences

T h e a m o u n t o f a c c u m u l a t e d w o r l d - w i d e e x p e r i e n c e i n n u c l e a r p o w e r i s

s u b s t a n t i a l . A s o f J u n e 1 9 8 0 , 2 8 M e m b e r S t a t e s o f t h e I A E A w e r e o p e r a t i n g

o r b u i l d i n g 4 7 1 n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s ( T a b l e 2 . 4 — 1 ) . E a c h o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s

h a s i n v e s t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s o u r c e s a n d e f f o r t i n n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d h a s

d e v e l o p e d a n d i s f u r t h e r d e v e l o p i n g i t s n a t i o n a l m a n p o w e r . N i n e o f t h e s e c o u n -

t r i e s a r e a b l e t o d e s i g n , b u i l d a n d o p e r a t e t h e i r n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s a n d s e v e n o f

t h e m h a v e e n t e r e d t h e e x p o r t m a r k e t . A l l o t h e r s t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r e x t e n t

d e p e n d o n f o r e i g n s u p p l y . I t s h o u l d a l s o b e n o t e d t h a t e v e n t h e n i n e ' s e l f -

s u f f i c i e n t ' c o u n t r i e s d o n o t p r o d u c e d o m e s t i c a l l y e v e r y i t e m n e e d e d f o r t h e i r

n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s . R e g a r d i n g t h e f u e l c y c l e , o n l y f i v e c o u n t r i e s c o u l d

c l a i m t o t a l ' s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y ' .

M o s t o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e i s c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l l y d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s ;

a b o u t 8 0 % o f a l l t h e u n i t s i n o p e r a t i o n o r u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n

C a n a d a , F r a n c e , t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f G e r m a n y , J a p a n , t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m ,

t h e U n i o n o f S o v i e t S o c i a l i s t R e p u b l i c s a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a .

T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , 1 2 d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s w i t h a t o t a l o f 4 0 n u c l e a r p o w e r

p l a n t s i n o p e r a t i o n o r u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n , a c c o u n t i n g f o r 8 % o f a l l t h e u n i t s . I n

a d d i t i o n , s o m e 1 5 d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a r e d o i n g p r e - p r o j e c t a c t i v i t i e s a n d a d o z e n

m o r e h a v e s t a r t e d s o m e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e p l a n n i n g .

I t i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t e a c h c o u n t r y h a s i t s u n i q u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d t h a t t h e r e

i s n o t y p i c a l o r a v e r a g e c o u n t r y . T h e r e i s a l s o w i d e v a r i a t i o n i n n u c l e a r p o w e r

p r o g r a m m e s . T h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a s p e c i f i c c o u n t r y c a n n o t b e d i r e c t l y a p p l i e d

t o s o l v i n g a n o t h e r c o u n t r y ' s p r o b l e m s , b u t i t d o e s o f f e r r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n

w h i c h , i f d u l y a n a l y s e d a n d e v a l u a t e d , m a y p r o v i d e u s e f u l g u i d a n c e . T o t h i s

p u r p o s e , t h e s u m m a r i z e d e x p e r i e n c e i n n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d m a n p o w e r

d e v e l o p m e n t o f s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s i s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2 . 4 — 2 . T h e i t e m s c o v e r e d

b y t h e s e n a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s a r e :

I . F i r s t n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t

I I . N u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s t a t u s ( J a n u a r y 1 9 8 0 )

I I I . P o l i c y a n d s t r a t e g y

I V . P r o c e d u r e f o l l o w e d t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e p o l i c y a n d s t r a t e g y l a i d d o w n

V . I n f r a s t r u c t u r e s t a t u s w h e n p r o g r a m m e c o n c e i v e d

V I . M e t h o d s a d o p t e d t o u p g r a d e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e

EXPERIENCE IN NATIONAL. 219

V I I . N a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s

V I I I . T r a i n i n g m e t h o d s a d o p t e d

I X . N a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t e r m s o f m a t e r i a l s a n d e q u i p m e n t

X . F u e l c y c l e

T h e c o u n t r i e s r e p r e s e n t e x a m p l e s o f :

— D i f f e r e n t s t a g e s a n d s i z e s o f n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s

— D i f f e r e n t p o l i c i e s a n d s t r a t e g i e s f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g n u c l e a r p o w e r

a n d n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s

— D i f f e r e n t s t a g e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l

i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s

— D i f f e r e n t g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d

T h e s e e x a m p l e s t a k e n a s a w h o l e s h o u l d p r o v i d e a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p i c t u r e o f

t h e p r e v a i l i n g s i t u a t i o n r e g a r d i n g n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t

f o r n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s u m m a r y o f n a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2 . 4 — 2 ,

t h e A p p e n d i x t o C h a p t e r 2 c o n t a i n s d e t a i l e d p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f s o m e M e m b e r S t a t e s '

e x p e r i e n c e i n n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s

i n t h i s A p p e n d i x a r e f r o m :

A - l . B r a z i l

A - 2 . F r a n c e

A - 3 . I n d i a

A - 4 . R e p u b l i c o f K o r e a

A - 5 . P h i l i p p i n e s

A - 6 . S p a i n

A - 7 . ! U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a

2.4.2. Summary remarks

A n a l y s i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l n a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e , t h e r e a r e s o m e c o m m o n e l e m e n t s ,

s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o f d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d s i m i l a r p r o c e d u r e s a n d m e t h o d s a p p l i e d t o t h e

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f n u c l e a r p o w e r , n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p -

m e n t p r o g r a m m e s .

I n e v e r y c a s e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s o n n u c l e a r

e n e r g y l a y i n i t i a l l y w i t h a n a t i o n a l n u c l e a r e n e r g y c o m m i s s i o n o r a n e q u i v a l e n t

n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , w h i c h h a d t h e r o l e s o f p r o m o t i o n , r e g u l a t i o n a n d l i c e n s i n g ,

a n d m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t f o r n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s . B e f o r e i n i t i a t i n g

220 SECTION 1.12

their nuclear power programmes, all countries had nuclear research centres and research reactors.

Regulation and licensing activities played an increasingly important role and, as the nuclear power programmes have progressed, the regulatory function has generally been separated from the promotional and research functions. This has been accomplished either by creating a separate regulatory body, or a separate unit within the nuclear energy commission.

The first nuclear power project has generally been a turnkey project and the national policies have been to attain optimum national participation in the nuclear power programme. This also required entering into international arrange-ments (governmental, commercial, IAEA) for international commitments and co-operation, technology transfer and manpower development, except for a few highly industrialized countries which developed nuclear power on their own.

The national participation policies were always supported by promotional actions of the governments.

All countries, when starting their nuclear power programme, had an existing electric power system which included fossil-fired thermal power plants of a size comparable with, though in many cases smaller than, the nuclear power plant to be installed.

Civil construction and most of the erection work could be undertaken in practically all cases with national resources.

Manpower for the first iiuclear power project was always trained through actual participation in project activities with the personnel of the supplier/main contractor.

In general, no special problems were encountered with operations and maintenance personnel, since it was possible to recruit and train sufficient numbers with the necessary qualifications. As on-the-job training opportunities were always limited and often not too effective for operation and maintenance, most countries with sizeable nuclear power programmes are acquiring their own simulators, because this kind of training is considered essential for safe and reliable operations.

Most countries found it important to develop or upgrade their architect-engineering capacity to the level where they could actively participate in the planning, design and construction of the nuclear power project at nuclear standards and to nuclear specifications and quality.

National participation and the required manpower development had the general effect of raising the level as well as of increasing the scope and quality standards of the industrial, technological, educational and manpower infrastructures. This was accomplished through: national manpower development programmes; creation or upgrading of institutes, universities and technical schools for local education and training; development of new manufacturing and construction industries and processes; upgrading qualifications and standards of processes

EXPERIENCE IN N A T I O N A L . 221

a n d p r o d u c t s t h r o u g h q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l s y s t e m s ; f a c i l i t i e s

f o r t e s t i n g a n d a d a p t a t i o n o f p r o c e s s e s , e q u i p m e n t a n d c o m p o n e n t s ; c r e a t i o n o r

u p g r a d i n g o f t e c h n o l o g y d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s .

T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o r u p g r a d i n g o f q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l

s y s t e m s w a s n e c e s s a r y i n e a c h c o u n t r y i n o r d e r t o b u i l d , m a n u f a c t u r e a n d w o r k

t o n u c l e a r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . O r g a n i z a t i o n s w e r e f o r m e d t o i n t r o d u c e a n d e n f o r c e

q u a l i t y i n a l l a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t , a s w e l l a s i n t h o s e i n d u s t r i e s

p r o d u c i n g c o m p o n e n t s , a n d i n a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r i n g firms p r o v i d i n g s e r v i c e s f o r

t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e . T e c h n o l o g y d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s w e r e f o u n d

t o b e a n e c e s s a r y c o m p l e m e n t f o r e f f e c t i v e t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f e r .

U r a n i u m e x p l o r a t i o n w a s a l w a y s u n d e r t a k e n , b u t o n l y a f e w c o u n t r i e s w i t h

n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s p r o d u c e e n o u g h u r a n i u m f o r t h e i r o w n f u e l r e q u i r e -

m e n t s . I n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f h i g h - q u a l i t y m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r i n g h i g h t e c h n o l o g y ,

s u c h a s s p e c i a l a l l o y s , s t e e l s , Z i r c a l o y a n d h e a v y w a t e r , m o s t c o u n t r i e s h a v e n o t

d e v e l o p e d a n a t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t y , a l t h o u g h s o m e h a v e t a k e n s t e p s o r h a v e p l a n s

t o d o s o .

T h e r e i s g e n e r a l l y a l o n g - t e r m c o m m i t m e n t t o n u c l e a r p o w e r w i t h l o n g - t e r m

p o l i c i e s a n d s t r a t e g i e s f o r n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t .

I n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a n p o w e r f o r n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s ,

d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s h a v e l o o k e d t o t h e I A E A f o r p r o v i d i n g t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i -

t i e s . I t i s g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e I A E A c a n f i l l o n l y a s m a l l p a r t

o f t h e t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a c o u n t r y . I n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r

c o u n t r i e s , t h r o u g h b i l a t e r a l a g r e e m e n t s , h a s b e e n u s e d t o p r o v i d e t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i -

t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e s u p p l y o f n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s . H o w e v e r ,

n a t i o n a l m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s a n d r e s o u r c e s h a v e a l w a y s b e e n t h e

m a i n b a s i s f o r m e e t i n g n a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r q u a l i f i e d m a n p o w e r .

The following tables complete the main text of Chapter 2. The Appendix to Chapter 2 begins on p.237.

222 SECTION 1.12

TABLE 2 . 4 - 1 . POWER REACTORS IN MEMBER STATES (Asofl June 1980)

In opera t ion Under cons t ruc t ion

C o u n t r y Number Tota l Number To ta l of un i t s MW(e) of un i t s MW(e)

Argentina 1 335 1 6 0 0 Belgium 3 1 665 4 3 807 Brazil - - 3 3 116 Bulgaria 2 816 2 828 Canada 11 5 495 14 9 751

Cuba - - 1 408

Czechoslovakia 2 801 6 2 520 Finland 3 1 7 4 0 1 420

France 18 9 9 8 3 31 30 950

German Democra t ic Republ ic 5 1 695 4 1 632

Germany , Federal Republ ic of 14 8 6 0 7 10 10 636

Hungary - - 2 816

India 3 6 0 2 5 1 087

Italy 4 1 3 8 2 3 1 966

J a p a n 23 14 466 9 7 274

Korea , Republ ic of 1 564 6 4 954

Mexico - - 2 1 308

Nether lands 2 4 9 9 - -

Pakistan 1 125 - -

Philippines - - 1 621

Sou th Afr ica - - 2 1 843

Spain 3 1 120 10 9 536

Sweden 6 3 7 0 0 5 4 686

Switzerland 4 1 9 4 0 1 942 Union of Soviet Socialist Republ ics 32 11 6 1 6 15 13 6 8 0 United Kingdom of Grea t Britain

and Nor the rn Ireland 33 6 982 6 3 714 United States of America 70 50 9 0 0 88 96 254 Yugoslavia - - 1 632

To ta l 241 124 986 230 210 704

Note: Reference: Power reactors in Member States, IAEA, 1980 Edi t ion . Reactors in t he power ascension phase are included unde r plants in opera t ion . Cons t ruc t ion in Austr ia and in Iran has been in te r rupted and the plants are n o t included.

EXPERIENCE IN N A T I O N A L . 223

T A B L E 2 . 4 - 2 . S U M M A R Y O F N A T I O N A L E X P E R I E N C E O N

M A N P O W E R D E V E L O P M E N T A N D N A T I O N A L P A R T I C I P A T I O N

I. F I R S T N U C L E A R POWER P L A N T Type; Net power output; Start of construction; Commercial operation; Contract type; % national participation.

Argentina PHWR (FRG) ; 345 MW(e); 1968; 1974; T u r n k e y ; 38%

Brazil PWR (USA); 626 MW(e); 1971; 1980 (expec ted) ; Tu rnkey

France GCR (France); 70 MW(e); 1956; 1963; Multi-package; 100%

Germany , BWR (USA); 16 MW(e); 1958; 1961; Tu rnkey ; 40% Fed. Rep. of

India BWR (USA); 2 X 200MW(e) ; 1964; 1969; Tu rnkey ; abou t 28%

Korea , PWR (USA); 595 MW(e); 1970; 1978; Turnkey Republic of

Phil ippines PWR (USA); 6 2 0 MW(e); 1976; 1982 (expec ted) ; Tu rnkey

Spain PWR (USA); 160 MW(e); 1965; 1969; T u r n k e y

II. N U C L E A R POWER P R O G R A M M E STATUS (January 1980)

Argentina First plant in opera t ion ; second plant ( 6 4 4 MW(e) unde r cons t ruc t ion , opera t ion expec ted 1982; th i rd plant ( 6 5 0 MW(e)) ordered, opera t ion expected 1987.

Brazil Firs t plant t o be commissioned in 1980. Three un i t s (3116 MW(e)) under cons t ruc t ion .

France 1 u n i t 70 MW(e) GCR decommissioned. Units in commercia l opera t ion : 5 X G C R ranging f r o m 210 t o 540 MW(e); 1X 70 MW(e) GCHWR; 1 X 2 3 3 MW(e); 6 X 900 MW(e)PWR. PWR unde r commissioning tests or cons t ruc t ion or licensing procedure = 42 uni ts wi th a to ta l of 47 000 MW(e). 1 X 1200 MW(e) LMFBR under cons t ruc t ion .

Germany , 16 un i t s in opera t ion wi th a to ta l of 9038 MW(e); 10 un i t s u n d e r cons t ruc t ion Fed. Rep . of wi th a to ta l of 10 6 3 8 MW(e). T h e nuclear power p rogramme is at t he m o m e n t

disrupted due t o publ ic opposi t ion. Final cour t ruling (Supreme Cour t ) , which will decide o n cont inuing nuclear power use, c anno t be expected be fo re 1980 /81

India 4 twin-unit s ta t ions (8 units) were authorized fo r cons t ruc t ion , of which the first th ree un i t s are in opera t ion ( 2 0 0 MW(e) ne t , BWR, 1969; 2 0 0 MW(e) net , BWR, 1969; 202 MW(e) net , PHWR, 1972); and 5 m o r e PHWR un i t s

224 SECTION 2.4.

TABLE 2 .4 -2 (cont.)

(1X 202 MW(e) ne t and 4X 220 MW(e) net ) are u n d e r commissioning/

cons t ruc t ion . These five un i t s are expected to be opera t ional be tween

1980 and 1984.

Korea , ! plant (595 MW(e)) in opera t ion since 1978.

Republ ic of 6 plants ( 6 7 8 MW(e), 650 MW(e) and 4 X 950 MW(e)) under const ruct ion and

expected t o be commissioned by 1 9 8 2 , 1 9 8 3 and 1 9 8 4 - 1 9 8 7 , respectively.

Philippines First plant u n d e r cons t ruc t ion .

Spain Three plants in opera t ion: 160 MW(e) PWR (1969) ; 4 4 0 MW(e) BWR (1971) ;

500 M W ( e ) G C R (1972) . Under cons t ruc t ion : 6 X 9 3 0 MW(e) PWR,

3 X 975 MW(e) BWR, and 1 X 1031 MW(e) PWR. Preliminary licences have

been granted t o 4 more units.

III. POLICY AND STRATEGY

Argentina

Brazil

France

Germany ,

Fed. Rep . of

1. T o a t ta in t he highest degree of self-sufficiency in the fue l cycle and capability

in the cons t ruc t ion of each power s tat ion.

2. T o adop t na tura l u ran ium/D 2 O reactor type .

3. T o improve t he nuclear local engineering par t ic ipat ion and the level and

reliability of local indust ry .

4. T o concen t ra te all nuclear activities in the CNEA.

1. Iden t i fy u ran ium reserves.

2. Establish comple te fue l cycle indus t ry .

3. Increase par t ic ipat ion of engineering f i rms t o a def ined t ime schedule.

4. Provide fo r t ransfer of technology th rough jo in t f i rms.

5. Aim at 86% nat ional par t ic ipa t ion by 1990.

1. Main aims: supplying the na t ion ' s energy needs a t m i n i m u m cost;

l imiting energy dependence on foreign supplies as m ù c h as possible.

2. Objectives: by 1985, 25% of t he coun t ry ' s energy needs wi th nuclear-

powered electr ici ty; 55% of electricity f r o m nuclear power .

3. Means: implementa t ion of a nuclear power p rogramme as par t of a

clear economic and polit ical strategy t o reduce oil impor t s and t o improve

t he pe r fo rmance of the e c o n o m y as a whole.

1. Government pol icy is directed towards ensuring con t inu i ty of energy supply.

2. Public R&D f u n d s are available t o government sponsored research insti tu-

t ions and t o pr ivate indus t ry t o develop those technologies no t available

on the world marke t .

1. Economic use of the modes t reserves of na tura l u ran ium in the first phase

of the p rog ramme wi th the u l t ima te goal of using t he vast resources of

t ho r ium th rough fast breeder reactors .

EXPERIENCE IN NATIONAL . 225

Korea, Republ ic of

Philippines

2. Maximizat ion of indigenous e f fo r t starting wi th opera t ions and main tenance th rough cons t ruc t ion and commissioning, u l t imate ly leading t o indigenous design and engineering capabil i ty.

3. Setting u p a self-sufficient nuclear power indust ry suppor ted by R&D. 4. ' Establish inf ras t ruc ture fo r indigenous fabr ica t ion of componen t s . 5. At ta in capaci ty f o r con t inuous growth and unde r t ake t he necessary

manpower development t o mee t manpower requi rements .

1. S t rengthen heavy industrial in f ras t ruc ture and capabilities. 2. Impor t advanced foreign technology and know-how. 3. In tens i fy R&D ef for t . 4. Enact regulat ions specifying the nat ional par t ic ipat ion rates.

1. Maximize na t ional par t ic ipat ion by encouraging ut i l izat ion of indigenous manpower , services and materials.

2. Encourage local engineering and cons t ruc t ion companies to par t ic ipate in providing services, materials and c o m p o n e n t s for t he nuclear power p ro jec t .

A t t a inmen t of a high degree of na t ional par t ic ipat ion t o reduce dependence and t o raise the qual i ty of Spanish indus t ry .

IV. P R O C E D U R E F O L L O W E D TO ACCOMPLISH THE POLICY AND S T R A T E G Y LAID DOWN

Argentina 1. Strong e f fo r t in training personnel f r o m the beginning. 2. Prospect ion of u ran ium ores. 3. Pilot-scale p roduc t ion of metall ic u ran ium and u ran ium concentra tes . 4. Local cons t ruc t ion of research reactors . 5. Local fabr ica t ion of f ue l elements . 6. Feasibili ty s tudy of the first power s ta t ion by CNEA personnel . 7. Maximum possible local par t ic ipa t ion in the cons t ruc t ion (even wi th

t u rnkey pro jec t ) . 8. Special training of main tenance and opera t ions personnel already during

the commissioning. 9. Use of the first power station fo r training personnel fo r f u t u r e projects .

10. Increasing na t iona l par t ic ipat ion by local engineering and by involvement of t he cons t ruc t ion f i rms as sub-contractors fo r the nuclear island, in the second p o w e r s tat ion.

11. Long-term fue l cycle planning fo r na tura l U D 2 0 reac tor t ype .

Brazil 1. A na t ional organizat ion (NUCLEBRAS) was established fo r fue l cycle activities and par t ic ipat ion in o ther activities t h rough its subsidiaries.

2. The subsidiary companies had t he responsibili ty f o r par t ic ipat ion in design, cons t ruc t ion , erect ion, t ransfer of t echnology , manufac tu re of heavy c o m p o n e n t s f o r NSSS, exploi ta t ion and opera t ion of jet-nozzle

TABLE 2 . 4 - 2 (cont.)

SECTION 2.4.

process for enr ichment of u ran ium, u ran ium prospect ing and fabr icat ion of f ue l e lements and independent consul tancy and QA control .

3. Fo r technology t ransfer , an in tergovernmental agreement was reached.

France 1. Commissariat à l 'Energie A tomique (CEA), established Oct. 1945, is an organization of scientific, technical and industrial na ture , in charge of: basic research; nuclear fue l cycle activities including explorat ion, mining, milling, enr ichment and spent fue l reprocessing; research and development of commercia l nuclear reactors; safety studies and safety evaluation repor ts fo r power plants ; basic nuclear training.

2. 1952—1960: const ruct ion of spent fue l reprocessing plants at Marcoule and La Hague and of the enr ichment plant at Pierrelatte.

3. F rom 1956, main nuclear power development e f f o r t with natural u ran ium graphite-gas reac tor type , unde r t aken by Electricité de France (EDF) .

4. Part icipation (l imited experience) with a GCHVR uni t and two PWR units . 5. 1970: launching by E D F of a p rogramme of PWR plants , strongly

accelerated in 1974. Selection of F R A M A T O M E and ALSTHOM ATLANTIQUE, as sole contractors .

6. April 1977: placing of tu rnkey order by N E R S A (EDF, Enel, RWE) for the 1200 MW(e) fast breeder reac tor project , called Super-Phénix.

Germany, 1. Founda t i on of an Atomic Commission (later dissolved) to fo rmula t e a tomic Fed. Rep. of regulations and advise the Government on R&D policies.

2. Establ ishment of various research centres to train manpower , carry out basic and applied research, operate p r o t o t y p e nuclear facilities and suppor t industry in solving technological problems.

3. Governmenta l p romot ion of industrial ventures in design, cons t ruc t ion and erect ion of NPP through publ ic funding.

4. Suppor t of industrial jo in t ventures and agreements on technology transfer through umbre l la governmental agreements on co-operat ion.

India 1. Multi-disciplinary Atomic Research Centre established. F o u r research reactors built , and a f i f t h is under cons t ruct ion . The first was total ly indigenous excep t for fuel ; the second was obta ined through an o f f e r of assistance f r o m a foreign coun t ry and the o the rs are totally indigenous. Exper ience wi th research reactors helped in developing the capabil i ty and conf idence in the fields opera t ions and main tenance , cons t ruc t ion , com-missioning, p ro jec t management and nuclear regulat ion.

2. Research Centre impor t an t in developing capabilities for p roduc t ion of fuel , heavy water , Zircaloy, nuclear ins t rumenta t ion and cont ro l equ ipment , fue l reprocessing, engineering development , and manufac tu re of some critical c o m p o n e n t s fo r power reactors.

3. Training school established at Research Centre fo r providing specialized training.

4. First nuclear power project (BWR) built on tu rnkey basis t o prove the economic and technical viability of nuclear power in Indian grids and t o gain experience in operat ing nuclear power stat ions. The second buil t

Korea, Republic of

Philippines

through a technical co-operat ion agreement wi th a foreign coun t ry . The thi rd and f o u r t h s tat ions were total ly indigenous ef for ts .

5. Design and engineering capabil i ty developed gradually start ing wi th e f fo r t s at research centre , design reviews, engineering of design modi f ica t ions u l t imate ly at taining design and engineering capabil i ty.

1. Emphasis was placed on architect-engineering, since it reduces the capital o u t f l o w and is a prerequisi te fo r na t ional self-sufficiency in reactor selection, const ruct ion, opera t ion and main tenance , and in local p roduc t ion of components .

2. F o r the manufac tu re of NSSS componen t s , turbo-genera tor and BOP par t s two groups of local manufac tu re r s have been given exclusive rights.

1. Emphasis of nat ional par t ic ipat ion was placed on civil cons t ruc t ion and on mechanical and electrical installations, since there are a number of local companies with expertise and experience in the cons t ruc t ion of convent ional p o w e r p lants and large industr ial projects .

2. A n u m b e r of local civil cons t ruc t ion companies were urged to fo rm a con-sor t ium in order t o qual i fy f o r working on the nuclear power project .

3. A local cemen t manufac tu re r and a steel manufac tu r ing f i rm were asked to improve their quali ty cont ro l p rocedures to qual i fy as suppliers fo r the projec t .

1. The key fac to r was the establ ishment of a research body (agency) to organize scientific research and technological deve lopment . This body advises the Government and indust ry , col laborates with o the r governments , carried ou t regulating and licensing func t ions .

2. An Inst i tu te f o r personnel training was created within this agency. 3. Regulatory and licensing activities will n o w be t ransferred t o a new body .

V. I N F R A S T R U C T U R E STATUS WHEN P R O G R A M M E CONCEIVED

Argentina F i f t een years of development of CNEA and the steps described in I tem IV up to feasibility s tudy.

Brazil 1. F o u r research inst i tutes dealing with a tomic energy, isotopes, etc. existed and one of them was later conver ted to a technology cent re for in-depth t ransfer of technology, including bo th know-how and know-why.

2. Industr ial inf ras t ruc ture was fairly well advanced. 3. Universities and technical schools provided higher level and technician

educat ion , respectively.

France 1. Diversified nuclear indus t ry involving the mos t impor t an t F rench industrial groups in the areas of mechanical and electrical equ ipment , metal lurgy and mining, developed f r o m 1956 in connec t ion wi th the manufac tu r ing and cons t ruc t ion of GCR uni ts .

228 SECTION 2.4.

2. F R A M A T O M E set u p in 1958 as a subsidiary of the heavy manufac tu r ing and engineering C o m p a n y Creusot Loire (Empain Schneider Group) t o develop PWRs unde r Westinghouse licence.

3. Relat ionship wi th Westinghouse, as one of F R A M A T O M E ' s shareholders and licensor.

4 . Inves tments in all sectors of the fue l cycle.

Germany , 1. Established and high-level scientific and industrial inf ras t ruc ture . Fed. Rep. of 2. Various regional utilities wi th broad experience in convent ional thermal

power p lant opera t ion and main tenance .

India 1. Abou t 13 reac tor years experience on research reactor opera t ion and maintenance .

2. A n u m b e r of fossil-fuelled thermal p o w e r s ta t ions were in opera t ion . Industr ia l inf ras t ruc ture f o r meet ing demands of convent ional power stat ions was being set up . Capaci ty fo r heavy electrical equ ipment exis ted.

3. Pet rochemical and fertilizer complexes , cemen t plants and sugar p lants were under manufac tu re / cons t ruc t ion /ope ra t ion with indigenous par t ic ipat ion.

4 . Heavy engineering industries and steel p lants were being set u p as par t of the overall na t ional e f for t in industrial ization.

5. Universities, po ly technic inst i tutes and industr ial t raining ins t i tu tes existed which o f fe red science and engineering educat ion , and courses fo r technicians and craf t smen.

6. Exper ienced const ruct ion agencies and consult ing engineering organizat ions for convent ional power s tat ions were available.

Korea , 1. An a tomic energy research inst i tute was established to plan energy policy, Republ ic of research, technology transfer and develop indigenous capaci ty.

2. A science and technology development plan was under implementa t ion , t o improve the scientific and technological inf ras t ruc ture .

3. The coun t ry had light-industry capaci ty , and also steel and ship-building industries.

Phil ippines 1. A b u n d a n t qualified m a n p o w e r and well-established educa t ion system in the engineering fields at hand .

2. Research reactor labora tory facilities. 3. Manufactur ing, steel, cement , electrical p roduc t s industries existed.

Spain 1. A research centre capable of helping indust ry to absorb new technologies was available.

2. A na t ional power plan existed. 3. Exper ienced architect-engineers fo r the convent ional power sector were at

hand. 4. High-level p roduc t i on capacities were available. 5. Indus t ry was interested in nuclear technology and aided by the governmenta l

adminis t ra t ion.

VI. METHODS ADOPTED TO U P G R A D E I N F R A S T R U C T U R E

Argentina Assistance by CÑEA of nat ional industry t o improve its par t ic ipat ion, its

reliability and knowledge of industrial engineering in nuclear technology.

Brazil 1. Survey carried ou t of industr ies capable of manufac tu r ing c o m p o n e n t s fo r

nuclear industry.

2. A plan was drawn u p t o increase the nat ional par t ic ipat ion in a systematic

manner .

3. Training programmes were in t roduced in the universities, in addi t ion t o

those carried ou t by the research centre.

4. Specialization courses fo r technicians and on-the-job training were intro-

duced.

France

Germany,

Fed. Rep. of

Considerable e f fo r t made to res t ructure , reorganize and invest, to increase the

manufac tu r ing capacity of F rench indust ry , part icularly f o r heavy componen t s .

1. Selection of F R A M A T O M E by E D F and t he Government as the single supplier

of the nuclear steam supply systems fo r the PWRs.

2. CEA's en t ry in to F R A M A T O M E as a shareholder.

3. F o r m a t i o n of COGEMA, as a subsidiary of CEA, to look a f te r its fuel-

cycle activities.

4. Supply of turbo-generators by the industr ial group, ALSTHOM-ATLANTIQUE.

5. Implementa t ion of a jo in t PWR research and deve lopment p rogramme by

Westinghouse, E D F , CEA and F R A M A T O M E .

1. Nuclear educat ion and training p rogrammes in t roduced in universities,

technical universities and technicians schools (no new curricula were

in t roduced) . Even t oday , a degree in e.g. nuclear physics or nuclear

engineering is no t available in the Federal Republ ic of Ge rmany ; ra ther

physics or mechanical engineering facul t ies o f fe r special courses on nuclear

topics.

2. Nat ional policy measures t o upgrade industrial in f ras t ruc ture or nat ional

par t ic ipat ion were n o t established.

1. Industr ia l inf ras t ruc ture : local manufac tu re r s were encouraged wherever

capabil i ty existed. Special measures for quali ty improvement were under-

taken by qual ifying key personnel like welders, and adding necessary special

inspect ion and testing equ ipment . Close in teract ion with indust ry was

resor ted t o fo r solving problems and achieve quali ty assurance. In respect

of complicated equ ipmen t , technical know-how was obta ined under suitable

agreements and the equ ipmen t was adap ted t o suit local condi t ions . An

increasingly large n u m b e r of c o m p o n e n t s were ma nu fac tu r ed locally.

2. Educat ional in f ras t ruc ture : a Training School at the A t o m i c Research Centre

was established t o t ra in professionals and a Training Cent re was established

at a nuclear power p lan t site to train professionals, opera tors , maintenance

staff and technicians.

230 SECTION 2.4.

Korea, 1. As nuclear manpower is an integral par t of the nat ion 's technical m a n p o w e r Republic of reservoir, the me thod involves upgrading the whole educat ional system.

2. Technical qual if icat ion system wi th t he objective to improve qual i ty by a c o m m o n evaluation system and to give preferent ia l t r ea tment t o those w h o have fulfil led the qualif icat ion criteria.

Philippines See commen t s under i tem IV.

Spain 1. All technology t ransfer was channelled through one minis try. This ministry gave preferent ia l t r ea tment to industries interested in the manufac tu re of specialized i tems (NSSS, turbine) and laid down condi t ions for foreign col laborat ion so tha t Spanish industries could part icipate in their manufac tu re .

2. An inst i tute was established with training responsibilities; it gave courses for professionals and specialized courses fo r o ther categories of personnel .

VII. N A T I O N A L PARTICIPATION IN R E L A T E D ACTIVITIES

Argent ina 1. All pre-project activities (feasibility, environmental and site studies) for the first two projects pe r fo rmed exclusively by CNEA's personnel .

2. Civil work fo r bo th s tat ions done by local f i rms. 3. Fo r the second power stat ion detailed engineering of the reactor ,

auxiliary and switchboard buildings done by local f irms. 4. Erect ion of the BOP is being carried o u t by local f i rms under the supervision

of the suppliers. Erect ion of the nuclear island is being carried ou t by local f i rms and partially ( fue l channels, mechanisms, etc.) by CNEA personnel acting as sub-contractors .

5. Ful l licensing responsibili ty. 6. Manpower training. 7. Opera t ion and maintenance of the first s tat ion pe r fo rmed by local man-

power f rom the start of commercial opera t ion.

Brazil 1. Civil work for ANGRA-1 was done locally. 2. Envi ronmenta l and site studies for the first three projects were done by

local f i rms. 3. Fo r the second project : specification; bidding; plant design; architect-

engineering responsibil i ty; full responsibil i ty for BOP, all civil work and erect ion; and 30% componen t s would be made locally.

France 1. The coun t ry supplies almost all the nuclear power projects ' requi rements f r o m local resources and carries ou t the fol lowing activities: management and adminis t ra t ion, power system planning, feasibility studies, site evalua-t ion, pro jec t implementa t ion including pro jec t engineering, p rocuremen t of equ ipmen t and materials, quali ty assurance and qual i ty cont ro l , plant safe ty and licensing procedures , publ ic i n fo rma t ion and public relations,

manufac tur ing , plant cons t ruc t ion , commissioning, opera t ion and main-tenance , nuclear regulat ion and research and development .

2. Except ions : specific studies on geology, seismology, etc . somet imes sub-cont rac ted to foreign consult ing engineers.

Owing t o the economic si tuat ion of the Federa l Republ ic of Germany , na t ional par t ic ipat ion was never a nat ional issue. 1. Design capabilities have been developed indigenously or by licensing

agreements. 2. All o t h e r related activities are possible by nat ional par t ic ipat ion. 3. However , 100% nat ional par t ic ipat ion was never aimed a t , as it is the

ph i losophy of a f r ee marke t e conomy t o buy all p roduc t s and services on t he world marke t wherever they are o f fe red cheapest .

India 1. First s ta t ion consisting of two un i t s was built on a t u rnkey basis. Major nat ional par t ic ipat ion was in site selection, prepara t ion of tender speci-f icat ions , design reviews, opera t ion and main tenance , and safety review.

2. The second s ta t ion, consisting of two uni t s , was built u n d e r a technical co-operat ion agreement wi th a foreign coun t ry . The main na t ional parti-c ipat ion was in pro jec t management , cons t ruc t ion , fabr ica t ion of nuclear and convent ional equ ipmen t (progressively increased f r o m unit-1 t o uni t -2) to t h e ex ten t possible, commissioning, opera t ion and main tenance and safety review.

3. In the third and subsequent stat ions, consisting of 2 un i t s each (under cons t ruc t ion) , to ta l responsibil i ty including design was t a k e n over by India .

1. Firs t three projec ts were built o n a t u r n k e y basis. 2. The nex t ones are n o t on a tu rnkey basis and nat ional par t ic ipa t ion is

being increased. 3. Architect-engineering activities f o r these pro jec ts will be carried o u t locally.

For f u t u r e projec ts a local architect-engineering company has now been ent rus ted to co-ordinate nat ional par t ic ipa t ion wi th foreign agencies.

4. Cons t ruc t ion is done b y local m a n p o w e r under foreign supervision. 5. Regula tory and licensing activities are based o n local codes and supplier 's

codes. 6. Opera t ion and ma in tenance is p e r f o r m e d by local manpower .

Phil ippines The activities carried o u t nat ional ly were: 1. Co-ordinat ion wi th supplier 's and cons t ruc t ion groups. 2. Ful l licensing responsibil i ty. 3. Review of architect-engineering activities. 4. All civil cons t ruc t ion d o n e locally. 5. QA done locally and con t rac to r i n fo rmed . 6. Pre-operat ional tests and s tar tup testing will be a jo in t responsibil i ty. 7. A ful l - t ime regulatory body . 8. Opera t ions and main tenance , safety and emergency procedures pe r fo rmed

w i t h local manpower .

Germany , Fed. Rep. of

Korea , Republ ic of

232 SECTION 2.4.

TABLE 2 . 4 - 2 (cont.)

Spain Spain has full capacity to perform the following services: 1. Management and administration. 2. Planning and construction. 3. Inspection and testing. 4. Quality assurance. 5. Regulatory and licensing activities. 6. Operations and maintenance. 7. Environmental and siting activities. 8. Safety and emergency procedures. 9. Architect-engineering capacity is 80% and 95% for the plants under

construction and design, respectively.

VIII. TRAINING METHODS ADOPTED

Argentina 1. Existing training programmes of CNEA were augmented by undergraduate courses in nuclear engineering at the Balseiro Physics Institute and post-graduate courses on operation and maintenance of nuclear power stations.

2. A special centre near the first nuclear power station was created. 3. First nuclear power project and construction of the second were utilized

for the 'on-the-job' training. 4. All possibilities of local and international training utilized.

Brazil 1. Personnel were sent abroad for training whenever such facilities did not exist in Brazil.

2. Training courses were prepared for professionals and were supplemented by courses organized in Brazil and conducted by foreign professors.

3. General courses were given to the professionals at the university and research centre and on-the-job training was also given wherever necessary.

4. Special courses were given for QA, welding, etc. 5. A simulator is being built for operator training.

France 1. Professionals: basic nuclear training by the INSTN (CEA) at Saclay and at Grenoble; courses run by EDF, manufacturers and miscellaneous organiza-tions in various training centres; specific training programmes at Saclay and at Grenoble on light-water reactors, vessels under high pressure, reactor, technology, fast breeder reactors, nuclear safety, health physics, nuclear physics, quality assurance, etc.

2. Technicians and craftsmen: specific and specialized training courses in five EDF schools, in ten EDF training centres and in non-EDF training centres; on-site plant systems training; simulator training for power plant operators (a) on a simulator for a 900 MW(e) PWR, in operation at Bugey plant, used in tandem with an additional one in 1980; (b) on other simulators, under construction at present, for 9 0 0 MW(e) and 1300 MW(e) PWR plants. All these simulators, including those for exported nuclear plants, are built by a local manufacturer.

Germany, Fed. Rep. of

Korea, Republic of

Philippines

1. Professionals: industry personnel were sent abroad (mainly to the USA) for specialized training, usually within licensing agreements. Special courses on nuclear topics within physics or mechanical engineering curricula were introduced.

2. Technicians: in addition to conventional training, special courses on e.g. dosimetry, handling of radioactive materials, reactor operation, etc. were introduced.

3. Craftsmen: special training given where special nuclear-grade performance is essential, e.g. welders.

1. Personnel were sent abroad for training in various aspects of nuclear technology in the initial stages of the programme. On return, these pro-fessionals formed the core of professional strength.

2. Training school in the Atomic Research Centre provided engineers and scientists with a broad nuclear background and an interdisciplinary approach.

3. For operation and maintenance requirements a Nuclear Training Centre at one of the power plant sites provides the necessary training for professionals, technicians and craftsmen by classroom instruction, shopwork, and in-plant training.

4. A simulator was built for the training of operators.

1. Major sources of training nuclear management are the local institutes. 2. IAEA training was utilized to a very large extent — 2000 Korean scientists,

engineers and technicians have been trained with IAEA assistance. 3. Bilateral training with foreign countries has also been utilized. 4. A simulator was built for operator training.

1. Local training facilities exist for headquarters group and operations and maintenance personnel.

2. Foreign training is resorted to only after a person has been trained with all the facilities available locally.

1. Training of operations personnel was done abroad, initially. 2. With these as the core, a training institute was established to train

professionals, operators, health physics and environmental surveillance personnel, chemists, etc.

3 . Scholarships were instituted for post-graduate training in special fields and special non-regular courses organized on request.

4. IAEA courses are also run in this institute. 5. Universities have now included nuclear subjects in their curricula. 6. Two simulators have been built for operator training.

234 SECTION 2.4 .

IX. NATIONAL PARTICIPATION IN TERMS OF MATERIALS A N D EQUIPMENT

Argentina

Brazil

France

Germany, Fed. Rep. of

Korea, Republic of

Philippines

1. Construction materials (cement, steel, etc.) were available in the required quantities and quality.

2. For the first station 12% of the conventional electro-mechanical equipment was available locally.

3. For the second one this increased to 30—35% and included local fabrication of equipment for the nuclear island with the required nuclear specifications and quality control.

1. Construction materials (cement, steel, etc.) were available in the required quantities and quality.

2. Heavy components in Brazil as well as conventional electro-mechanical equipment will be made in Brazil.

3. The percentage of national participation is expected to be 56% for the ANGRA-2 station and to increase significantly with successive units.

1. Local construction materials (aggregate, cement, steel, etc.) are exclusively used for civil works.

2. Local industry produces all the components except: some strategic gauges or electronic components; certain NSSS components; heavy rough forgings for one-piece solid rotors of 1100 MVA-1500 rev/min generators.

3. Exceptions due to: cheaper prices on the world market, or reciprocity agreements with European clients, or technical choices of local manufacturers.

See comments under item VII.

1. Cement, steel, etc. were available locally in required quantities and qualities.

2. Normal steel and some of the alloy steel requirements are produced locally. 3. Special materials like Zircaloy are also produced locally. 4. Most of the equipment and components required for PHWR type power

station are made indigenously. 5. Plants for production of heavy water are under operation/construction. 6. The percentage of national participation in respect of the most recent

station under construction is about 90%.

1. Cement, steel, etc. were available locally. 2. 20% of the components were supplied locally for the first power station. 3. This is likely to increase to 35—43% in the stations where construction

starts in 1979 /1980 , respectively.

1. Cement, steel, etc. of the required quality are now available since improve-ments have been incorporated in their manufacturing quality.

2. Electric power cables, water treatment plant, etc. would also be supplied locally.

Spain 1. The first three plants were built on a turnkey basis. In these, the participa-tion of Spanish industry ranged from 4 0 to 44% and is likely to increase to 67 and 81% for plants under construction and design, respectively.

2. By 1980, Spanish industry would be able to manufacture 3—4 pressure vessels a year.

3. The percentage of participation in all the equipment required for NSSS, BOP, TG, electrical components, instrumentation and control is likely to increase substantially in the coming projects.

X. FUEL CYCLE

Argentina Goal: self-sufficiency in the fuel cycle: 1. Local production of the uranium to meet requirements. 2. Installation of fuel fabrication plants. 3. Installation of a D 2 0 production plant.

Brazil I. Large uranium deposits have been located. 2. A uranium concentration plant, an enrichment plant and a fuel fabrication

plant are under construction. 3. For ANGRA-1, the first charge was imported but subsequent charges are to

be manufactured in Brazil.

France National capabilities exist in the essential operations of natural uranium production, uranium enrichment, fuel fabrication, irradiated fuel reprocessing and waste management. 1. Natural uranium: half the supplies come from local resources. 2. Enrichment: EURODIF multinational gaseous diffusion enrichment plant at

Tricastin started production in April 1979. When the plant is in full operation by 1982, it will provide an assured supply of fuel for more than eighty 1000 MW(e) reactors.

3. Fuel fabrication: EDF's needs are matched by the capacity of local industry.

4. Reprocessing: the capacity of the reprocessing plant at La Hague exceeds national requirements.

5. Waste management: development of high-level waste vitrification techniques is going on at the demonstration plant at Marcoule.

Germany, 1. Uranium prospection carried out both locally and abroad (in joint ventures). Fed. Rep. of 2. Fuel fabrication done locally.

3. Enrichment technology developed in international co-operation (centrifuge with the United Kingdom and the Netherlands; separation nozzle with Brazil).

4 . Reprocessing developed internationally (EUROCHEMIC) and nationally (WAK; 'Gorleben').

SECTION 2 . 4 .

Korea, Republic of

Philippines

1. A uranium mill has been in operation for the last several years to produce the required natural uranium concentrates.

2. Indigenous capability has been developed for fabrication of fuel required for PHWR and BWR plants, except for enrichment of uranium in the case of the BWR.

3. Also facilities for reprocessing of spent fuel have been developed. 4. Facilities exist for all activities connected with fuel cycle in the case of

PHWR plants.

1. Low-grade uranium is available but this may not now be economical for exploitation. ,

2. A pilot plant for fuel fabrication is under construction.

1. A comprehensive, nation-wide uranium exploration programme has been undertaken. Several potential areas with uranium-bearing ores hâve been identified.

2. Semi-detailed exploration work is now being conducted in one of the identified areas.

A separate company looks after all aspects of the fuel cycle. 1. A vast plan for uranium prospecting has been drawn up and deposits have

been located. 2. Technology for uranium concentration has been developed. 3. Fuel elements will be fabricated under licence by this company. 4. At present part of the uranium concentrates and all the enrichment

services are imported.

Appendix to Chapter 2

EXPERIENCE OF VARIOUS MEMBER STATES IN NATIONAL PARTICIPATION

AND MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT

The papers contained in this Appendix were prepared for this Guidebook by representatives of the Member States concerned and

approved by their respective Authorities.

A-l . BRAZIL

A-2. F R A N C E

A-3. INDIA

A-4. REPUBLIC O F K O R E A

A-5. PHILIPPINES

A-6. SPAIN

A-7. UNITED STATES O F AMERICA

A p p e n d i x A - l

BRAZIL

A - l . 1 . N U C L E A R P O W E R P R O G R A M M E

T h e B r a z i l i a n n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e w a s e s t a b l i s h e d o n t h e b a s i s o f a

s p e c i f i c s t r a t e g y s e t b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t , r a t h e r t h a n o n d e c i s i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l

e l e c t r i c u t i l i t i e s . T h e B r a z i l i a n G o v e r n m e n t d e c i d e d t o f o l l o w t h e s t r a t e g y o f

i n t r o d u c i n g a c o m p l e t e n u c l e a r p o w e r i n d u s t r y i n o r d e r t o m e e t , o n a n i n d e p e n d e n t

b a s i s , t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e p r o g r a m m e . O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d e c i s i o n s o f

t h e s t r a t e g y a d o p t e d w a s t h a t a c o m p r e h e n s i v e t r a n s f e r o f t e c h n o l o g y s h o u l d

t a k e p l a c e i n t h e n u c l e a r s e c t o r , i n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e i n d u s t r i a l p r o g r a m m e .

T h e N u c l e a r P o w e r P r o g r a m m e w i l l , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , c o m p l e m e n t t h e

h y d r o e l e c t r i c s y s t e m a n d a f t e r w a r d s p r o v i d e b a s e p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n . T h e n u c l e a r

c a p a c i t y t o b e i n s t a l l e d w i l l g r o w f r o m t h e 6 2 6 M W ( e ) o f U n i t 1 o f C e n t r a l

N u c l e a r A l m i r a n t e A l v a r o A l b e r t o ( A N G R A - 1 ) t o b e c o m m i s s i o n e d i n 1 9 8 0 a n d

r e p r e s e n t i n g a b o u t 2 % o f t h e t o t a l i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y , t o a b o u t 1 0 6 0 0 M W ( e )

i n t h e 1 9 9 0 s ( a b o u t 1 4 % o f t h e t o t a l i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y ) .

F o r m u l a t i o n o f n u c l e a r p o l i c y i n B r a z i l s t a r t e d i n 1 9 5 1 w i t h t h e c r e a t i o n

o f t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l — C o n s e l h o N a c i o n a l d e P e s q u i s a s ( C N P q ) .

I n 1 9 5 6 , a N a t i o n a l N u c l e a r E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n ( C N E N ) w a s e s t a b l i s h e d o u t o f

a g r o u p o f C N P q . I n 1 9 7 2 a n i n d u s t r i a l l y o r i e n t e d c o m p a n y , C o m p a n h i a

B r a s i l e i r a d e T e c n o l o g í a N u c l e a r ( C B T N ) , w a s s e t u p u n d e r C N E N . I n 1 9 7 4 a n

a g r e e m e n t w a s s i g n e d w i t h t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f G e r m a n y ( F R G ) u n d e r

w h i c h t h e e q u i p m e n t a n d i n f o r m a t i o n n e e d e d b y t h e B r a z i l i a n n u c l e a r p o w e r

p r o g r a m m e w o u l d b e m a d e a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h c o m p a n i e s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e

F R G . A t t h e e n d o f 1 9 7 4 , N U C L E B R A S w a s c r e a t e d , i n p l a c e o f C B T N , t o

i m p l e m e n t t h e p r o g r a m m e . T o d a y , t h e n u c l e a r s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o u n t r y i s

o r g a n i z e d a s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . A - 1 . 1 .

A - 1 . 2 . O V E R A L L S T R A T E G Y

T h e s t r a t e g y a d o p t e d t o e s t a b l i s h a n i n d e p e n d e n t n u c l e a r p r o g r a m m e w i t h i n

t h e s h o r t e s t p r a c t i c a l t i m e w a s b a s e d o n t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a :

— I d e n t i f y , i n t h e s h o r t r u n , u r a n i u m r e s e r v e s i n s u c h a n a m o u n t t h a t c o u l d

a s s u r e t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e p r o g r a m m e .

— E s t a b l i s h a c o m p l e t e f u e l c y c l e i n d u s t r y .

240 A P P E N D I X A - l

PRESIDENCY OF THE REPUBLIC | NATIONAL

ENERGY COMMISSION

Def in i t i on of the national nuclear energy pol icy NATIONAL

ENERGY COMMISSION

NATIONAL ENERGY

COMMISSION

NATIONAL ENERGY

COMMISSION MINISTRY OF MINES AND ENERGY

NATIONAL ENERGY

COMMISSION

Planning, execution and control of the nuclear energy programme

National energy programmes

co-ordinat ion 1

National energy programmes

co-ordinat ion

CNEN - Comissäo Nacional de

Energia Nuclear

1. Regulations and author izat ion for l icensing of nuclear f a c i l i t i e s

2. Safety and protect ion standards for the construction and operation of nuclear f a c i l i t i e s and fo r the use of nuclear materials

3. Supervision and inspection of nuclear a c t i v i t i e s i n Braz i l

4. Nuclear s c i e n t i f i c research 5. Training of sc i en t i s t s ,

engineers and researchers i n the f i e l d of nuclear energy

ELETROBRÄS - Centrais E lë t r icas Brasi l ei ras S/A.

Advice i n the granting of permits f o r the construct ion and operation of nuclear power plants Financing the construct ion of nuclear power plants

NUCLEBRÄS - Empresas Nucleares Bras i le i ras S/A.

1. Monopoly of prospecting, development and mining of nuclear ores

2. Monopoly of the production of uranium concentrates

3. Monopoly of the construct ion and operation of f a c i l i t i e s f o r : - uranium hexafluoride production - enrichment of uranium - manufacturing of fuel elements - reprocessing of uranium and

plutoni um 4. Monopoly in the commercial i za t ion

of nuclear materials

5. Manufacture of nuclear reactors 6. Assistance to pr ivate industry

i n the manufacturing of compo-nents f o r nuclear f a c i l i t i e s

7. Architect-engineering of nuclear plants fo r e l e c t r i c u t i l i t i e s

8. Assistance to e l ec t r i c u t i l i t i e s in the operation of nuclear power plants

9. Operation of i ns t i t u tes and cen-tres fo r nuclear technology research

ELECTRIC UTILITIES

1. Contract the construct ion of nuclear power plants

2. Operation of nuclear power plants

FIG.A-1.1. National organizational structure for the nuclear power programme.

BRAZIL 241

— Increase and ensure the part icipat ion of the Brazilian industries and architect-engineering firms.

- Provide the means fo r comple te transfer of nuclear technology, including nuclear power plant engineering and construct ion, heavy componen t design and fabrication, and fuel cycle technology through the establish-ment of jo int ventures be tween Brazilian companies and companies in the FRG.

It became evident that establishing such a comprehensive programme would not be feasible wi thout a substantial part icipation of domest ic engineering and industrial companies. In addi t ion, such an extensive programme would be operat ionally vulnerable by the lack of considerable numbers of technical manpower at all levels.

The programme goals are t o achieve a national part icipat ion of the order of 85% by t h e t ime the last two uni ts of the series of eight 1245 MW(e) nuclear power plants are installed. By tha t t ime, the Brazilian part ic ipat ion in the main componen t s of costs will be: civil works (100%), equipment (70%), engineering (100%) and erect ion (95%).

In addi t ion, the nuclear fuel cycle activities including jet-nozzle enr ichment and reprocessing will be developed in the country .

The manpower required to meet the needs of this programme has been est imated at abou t 10 000 people in the professional (45%) and technician (55%) levels, over t he first t en years.

A-1.3. STRUCTURE F O R NUCLEAR POWER

A-l .3 .1 . Industrial and technological structure

NUCLEBRÁS, in addit ion t o being the holding company of the jo in t ventures described below, has the responsibility for all fue l cycle activities in Brazil.

The following companies were set up by the association of NUCLEBRÁS with f i rms in the F R G and o ther European countries fo r the major activities demanding intensive technology t ransfer (see Fig.A-1.2).

(a) NUCLEN - (Nuclebrás Engenharia S.A.) — joint venture between NUCLEBRÁS (75%) and KWU (25%) (FRG) for nuclear power plant design, organizing const ruct ion and erection and general site co-ordination. NUCLEN will p roduce t h e nuclear power plant basic design and will contrac t with o ther Brazilian firms for detailed design and plant

242 A P P E N D I X A - l

ACTIVITY RESPONSIBLE AGENCY

90% NUCLEBRÄS

U-PROSPECTING / A ü % - NUCLÁM (NUCLEBRÄS t / T V / / > URANGESELLSCHAFT) / / / / / ,

ENRICHMENT

YELLOW-CAKE PRODUCTION

NUCLEBRÄS (TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER FROM

PE CHINEY-UGINE-KUH LMANN)

YELLOW-CAKE PRODUCTION

NUCLEBRÄS (TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER FROM

PE CHINEY-UGINE-KUH LMANN)

NUCLEBRÄS CONVERSION NUCLEBRÄS CONVERSION NUCLEBRÄS

//NÚCLEÍ "(NUCLEBRÄS VSÍEAG

2 M i s s m í / / / 1 f >•77VVV r r / f f ' /• f /

'/NUSTEP (NUCLEBRÄS + STEAGKX A / / / / i / / " / / / / / s ' / /

NUCLEBRÄS (TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER FROM RBUAWU)

FUEL ELEMENT FABRICATION

NUCLEBRÄS REPROCESSING

(TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER FROM KEWA - UHDE)

REACTOR DESIGN . UCLEN (NUCLEBRÄS + KWU Y / y A / / / s s \ / / /> / / / x / / X

HEAVY COMPONENTS X^NUCLEP (NUCLEBRÄS+KWU+GHH+VAL), / / / / / S S S / / / / / / / S / / S S / / Y HEAVY COMPONENTS X^NUCLEP (NUCLEBRÄS+KWU+GHH+VAL), / / / / / S S S / / / / / / / S / / S S / / Y

* [ ! • NUCLEBRÄS

JOINT VENTURE

FIG.A-1.2. Industrial organization for the Brazilian nuclear power programme.

BRAZIL 243

c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d e r e c t i o n . I t i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r o m o t i n g t h e

d o m e s t i c i n d u s t r y b y p l a c i n g o r d e r s , c o - o r d i n a t i n g t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f e r

t o l o c a l f i r m s a n d r e n d e r i n g t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e m .

N U C L E N h a s s i g n e d w i t h K W U a c o n t r a c t f o r l i c e n s i n g , t e c h n i c a l

a s s i s t a n c e a n d t r a i n i n g . A s N U C L E N b e c o m e s q u a l i f i e d , K W U ' s

p a r t i c i p a t i o n p h a s e s d o w n a c c o r d i n g l y a n d B r a z i l i a n e n g i n e e r s w i l l

g r a d u a l l y a s c e n d t o m a n a g e m e n t p o s i t i o n s .

( b ) N U C L E P — ( N u c l e b r á s E q u i p a m e n t o s P e s a d o s S . A . ) - j o i n t v e n t u r e

b e t w e e n N U C L E B R Á S ( 7 5 % ) a n d a E u r o p e a n c o n s o r t i u m ( 2 5 % )

f o r m e d b y K W U , G H H ( F R G ) a n d V Ö E S T - A l p i n e ( A u s t r i a ) e s t a b l i s h e d

t o m a n u f a c t u r e h e a v y c o m p o n e n t s f o r t h e n u c l e a r s t e a m s u p p l y s y s t e m .

N U C L E P h a s s i g n e d l i c e n s i n g a n d t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e c o n t r a c t s w i t h

G H H a n d V Ö E S T . N U C L E P ' s f a b r i c a t i o n p l a n t w i l l h a v e i n i t i a l l y a

c a p a c i t y o f 1 s e t / y e a r , b u t w i l l s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r b e e x p a n d e d t o

2 o r 3 a n d l a t e r t o 5 s e t s / y e a r . E a c h s e t c o m p r i s e s : p r e s s u r e v e s s e l ,

r e a c t o r i n t e r n a l s , p r e s s u r i z e r , 4 s t e a m g e n e r a t o r s a n d 8 a c c u m u l a t o r s .

( c ) N U S T E P — ( N u c l e b r á s S T E A G T r e n n d ü s e n E n t w i c k l u n g s - u n d

P a t e n t v e r w e r t u n g s - G e s e l l s c h a f t m b H & C o . K G ) - a c o m p a n y

c r e a t e d i n t h e F R G t o c o v e r t h e c o m m e r c i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e j e t -

n o z z l e p r o c e s s o n a w o r l d - w i d e b a s i s w i t h t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f

N U C L E B R Á S ( 5 0 % ) a n d S T E A G ( 5 0 % ) ( F R G ) .

( d ) N U C L E I - ( N u c l e b r á s E n r i q u e c i m e n t o I s o t ó p i c o S . A . ) - j o i n t v e n t u r e

b e t w e e n N U C L E B R Á S ( 7 5 % ) , S T E A G ( 1 5 % ) a n d I N T E R A T O M ( 1 0 % )

( F R G ) s e t u p i n B r a z i l f o r b u i l d i n g a n d o p e r a t i n g a j e t - n o z z l e e n r i c h m e n t

d e m o n s t r a t i o n p l a n t . F o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s p l a n t , t e c h n i c a l

a s s i s t a n c e c o n t r a c t s h a v e b e e n s i g n e d b e t w e e n N U C L E I , S T E A G a n d

I N T E R A T O M . A p r o g r a m m e w i t h t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e s a m e

p a r t n e r s a n d i n c l u d i n g t h e K e r n f o r s c h u n g s z e n t r u m K a r l s r u h e ( K F K )

( F R G ) h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d f o r d e v e l o p i n g t h e j e t - n o z z l e p r o c e s s .

A p r o g r a m m e t o d e v e l o p t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f a c o m m e r c i a l p l a n t h a s

b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d b y N U C L E B R Á S a n d S T E A G .

( e ) N U C L A M - ( N u c l e b r á s A u x i l i a r M i n e r a ç a o S . A . ) — j o i n t v e n t u r e

b e t w e e n N U C L E B R Á S ( 5 1 % ) a n d U r a n g e s e l l s c h a f t ( 4 9 % ) ( F R G ) f o r

p r o s p e c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s i n a r e a s p r e v i o u s l y a g r e e d b y N U C L E B R Á S .

T h i s c o m p a n y c a n c a r r y o n l y 1 0 % o f t h e t o t a l p r o s p e c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s

o f N U C L E B R Á S . ( T h e r e m a i n i n g 9 0 % i s e n t i r e l y N U C L E B R Á S '

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . )

I n a d d i t i o n , N U C L E B R Á S i s i n s t a l l i n g f u l l y o w n e d p l a n t s f o r o r e p r o c e s s i n g ,

u r a n i u m c o n v e r s i o n , f u e l f a b r i c a t i o n , r e p r o c e s s i n g a n d w a s t e t r e a t m e n t . I t h a s

c o n t r a c t s f o r t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f e r a n d f o r t r a i n i n g o f B r a z i l i a n p e r s o n n e l .

244 APPENDIX A-l

A-l.3.2. Industrial and technological infrastructure

I B Q N ( I n s t i t u t o B r a s i l e i r o d e Q u a l i d a d e N u c l e a r ) h a s b e e n c r e a t e d t o a c t

a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t c o n s u l t a n t a n d i n s p e c t o r f o r q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e a n d c o n t r o l

i n t h e n u c l e a r p r o g r a m m e . T h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n i s r u n b y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f

p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y , N U C L E B R Á S , E L E T R O B R Á S , M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r y a n d

T r a d e , a n d B r a z i l i a n R & D o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d a l o n g t h e

l i n e s o f t h e F e d e r a l G e r m a n T Ü V . A N u c l e a r T e c h n o l o g y D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t r e

— C e n t r o D e s e n v o l v i m e n t o T e c n o l o g i a s N u c l e a r e s ( C D T N ) ( f o r m e r l y I n s t i t u t o

d e P e s q u i s a s R a d i o a t i v a s ( I P R ) ) w a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y N U C L E B R Á S t o s u p p o r t

t h e i n d u s t r i a l u n i t s b y u n d e r t a k i n g t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t .

T h i s T e c h n o l o g y C e n t r e i s e s s e n t i a l f o r a n i n - d e p t h t r a n s f e r o f t e c h n o l o g y ,

i n c l u d i n g b o t h ' k n o w - h o w ' a n d ' k n o - w h y ' . T h e C e n t r e w i l l p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t

r o l e i n a d a p t i n g t h e t e c h n o l o g y b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d t o l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s a n d , i n

t h e l o n g r u n , a s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s w i l l

n a t u r a l l y e v o l v e .

T h e B r a z i l i a n p r i v a t e i n d u s t r i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s f a i r l y a d v a n c e d , r a n g i n g

f r o m s t e e l , h e a v y m a c h i n e r y a n d s h i p - b u i l d i n g , t o a e r o n a u t i c a l a n d e l e c t r o n i c

i n d u s t r i e s . I n s t i t u t e s f o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t e x i s t i n s e v e r a l p a r t s

o f t h e c o u n t r y .

A-l .3 .3 . National participation survey

I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e ( 1 9 7 3 ) a s u r v e y o f

B r a z i l i a n i n d u s t r i e s w a s m a d e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d e g r e e o f p o s s i b l e n a t i o n a l

p a r t i c i p a t i o n . T h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s o f a l l f i r m s i n s p e c t e d w e r e e v a l u a t e d

i n t e r m s o f c o m p o n e n t s f o r w h o s e m a n u f a c t u r e t h e y m i g h t q u a l i f y , d e f i c i e n c i e s

t o b e c o r r e c t e d , a n d e s t i m a t e d v a l u e s o f t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s . T h e e v a l u a t i o n

a l s o c o n s i d e r e d s t a g e s o f i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t a c h i e v a b l e t h r o u g h t h e

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a p r o g r a m m e o f f a c i l i t i e s i m p r o v e m e n t : t h e f i r s t s t a g e

c o u l d b e i m m e d i a t e l y a c h i e v e d w i t h e x i s t i n g e q u i p m e n t a n d w o u l d a l l o w f o r a

l o c a l m a n u f a c t u r e o f 5 7 % o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f a n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t . A

s e c o n d s t a g e , t o b e r e a c h e d a f t e r a p e r i o d o f o n e t o t h r e e y e a r s , c o u l d b e

a c h i e v e d w i t h r e l a t i v e l y m i n o r c o r r e c t i o n s w h i c h w o u l d a l l o w f o r a t o t a l l o c a l

p r o d u c t i o n o f 7 4 % o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s . A t h i r d s t a g e c o u l d b e r e a c h e d o v e r a n

a d d i t i o n a l t h r e e t o f i v e y e a r s b y m e a n s o f c e r t a i n m a j o r f a c i l i t y c o r r e c t i o n s t o

p r o d u c e 8 6 % o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s . I t i s o f i n t e r e s t t o n o t e t h e l a r g e j u m p i n

m a n u f a c t u r i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s t h a t w a s s e e n t o b e f e a s i b l e t h r o u g h c o r r e c t i o n o f

m i n o r e q u i p m e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e p o t e n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n c a p a b i l i t y

b y d e v e l o p i n g f r o m t h e s e c o n d s t a g e t o t h e t h i r d s t a g e w a s m u c h l e s s s p e c t a c u l a r .

BRAZIL 245

A-l .3 .4 . Research and development

I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e o f t h e B r a z i l i a n n u c l e a r a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o n u c l e a r p o w e r ,

s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s w e r e c r e a t e d u n d e r C N E N s p o n s o r s h i p :

- I N S T I T U T O D E P E S Q U I S A S E N E R G É T I C A S E N U C L E A R E S ( I P E N ) ,

i n S a o P a u l o , f o r m e r l y t h e I E A - I n s t i t u t o d e E n e r g í a A t ó m i c a . I t w a s

c r e a t e d i n 1 9 5 6 a s a p a r t o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S a o P a u l o . I t i s a t p r e s e n t

s u p p o r t e d b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f t h e S t a t e o f S a o P a u l o . I P E N ' s s t a f f ,

c o n s i s t i n g o f a b o u t 4 5 0 s c i e n t i s t s , i s d e v e l o p i n g a c t i v i t i e s m a i n l y i n t h e

a r e a s o f : f u e l c y c l e , r a d i o i s o t o p e p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e a c t o r p h y s i c s .

- I N S T I T U T O D E P E S Q U I S A S R A D I O A T I V A S ( I P R ) , i n B e l o H o r i z o n t e ,

c r e a t e d i n 1 9 5 3 b y t h e F e d e r a l U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n a s G é r a i s . I t b e c a m e

a n i m p o r t a n t R & D c e n t r e a n d , a s i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , w a s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o

a N u c l e a r T e c h n o l o g y D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t r e u n d e r t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f

N U C L E B R Á S . 2 5 0 e n g i n e e r s a n d s c i e n t i s t s a r e w o r k i n g i n t h i s I n s t i t u t e .

- I N S T I T U T O D E E N G E N H A R I A N U C L E A R ( I E N ) , i n R i o d e J a n e i r o , i n

o p e r a t i o n s i n c e 1 9 6 3 a n d u n d e r C B T N / N U C L E B R A S r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f r o m

1 9 7 2 u n t i l J u l y 1 9 7 9 . A t p r e s e n t t h i s I n s t i t u t e b e l o n g s t o C N E N . I t s

a c t i v i t i e s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s : f a s t b r e e d e r r e s e a r c h ,

c o m p u t e r c o d e s a n d n u c l e a r c h e m i s t r y . I E N ' s m a i n f a c i l i t i e s c o n s i s t o f a

r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r ( A r g o n a u t ) a n d a c y c l o t r o n . I t h a s a b o u t 1 2 0 s c i e n t i s t s .

- I N S T I T U T E O F R A D I O P R O T E C T I O N A N D D O S I M E T R Y ( I R D ) , i n

R i o d e J a n e i r o , f o r m e r l y L a b o r a t o r i o d e D o s i m e t r í a ( L D ) , c r e a t e d i n 1 9 6 0

a s p a r t o f C N E N . I t b e l o n g e d t o C B T N / N U C L E B R Á S f r o m 1 9 7 2 u n t i l

J u l y 1 9 7 9 , h a v i n g r e t u r n e d t o C N E N a f t e r t h i s d a t e . I t h a s 6 0 s c i e n t i s t s

w h o d e v e l o p t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s e a r c h l i n e s : r a d i o l o g i c a l p r o t e c t i o n ,

d o s i m e t r y a n d r a d i o i s o t o p e a p p l i c a t i o n s i n n u c l e a r m e d i c i n e .

A l l t h e s e I n s t i t u t e s p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t r a i n i n g , c o m p l e m e n t i n g t h e

u n i v e r s i t y - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n . E x c l u d i n g t h e I R D , a l l i n s t i t u t e s a r e l o c a t e d i n o r

n e a r a u n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s .

A-l .3 .5 . Education

A t p r e s e n t t h e r e a r e 9 3 u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n s c h o o l s d e a l i n g

w i t h t e c h n i c a l d i s c i p l i n e s r e l e v a n t t o t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e , a t t e n d e d

b y 1 7 0 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s . T h e a n n u a l o u t p u t f r o m t h e s e s c h o o l s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s

i s 1 8 0 0 0 . M a s t e r ' s d e g r e e p r o g r a m m e s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r a l l t e c h n i c a l s u b j e c t s

r e l a t e d t o n u c l e a r a c t i v i t i e s . G o o d i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s b e t w e e n u n i v e r s i t i e s

a n d r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s , m a i n l y w i t h t h o s e l o c a t e d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s .

246 APPENDIX A-l

A s y s t e m o f e d u c a t i o n a t t h e t e c h n o l o g i s t l e v e l h a s b e e n s e t u p t h r e e y e a r s a g o .

A t p r e s e n t 5 0 s c h o o l s a r e p r o v i d i n g c o u r s e s f o r t e c h n o l o g i s t s i n d i s c i p l i n e s

r e l e v a n t t o t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e . T h e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e a t t e n d i n g

t h e s e c o u r s e s i s 6 6 0 0 a n d t h e a n n u a l o u t p u t 6 0 0 . F o r t y t e c h n i c a l s c h o o l s

p r o v i d e e d u c a t i o n a t t h e t e c h n i c i a n l e v e l .

A-l .3 .6 . Regulatory activities

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s p e c i f i c f e d e r a l l a w , a c t i v i t i e s c o n c e r n i n g r e g u l a t o r y

p r o c e d u r e a r e u n d e r C N E N r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . T h e s e a c t i v i t i e s i n c l u d e :

— I s s u a n c e o f r e g u l a t i o n s , r u l e s a n d a u t h o r i z a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o :

• R e a c t o r s a n d o t h e r n u c l e a r i n s t a l l a t i o n s

• U s e , s t o r a g e a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f n u c l e a r m a t e r i a l s

• T r a d e o f n u c l e a r m a t e r i a l s a n d n u c l e a r o r e s

— I s s u a n c e o f r e g u l a t i o n s a n d s a f e t y p r o t e c t i o n g u i d e s f o r :

• U s e o f n u c l e a r m a t e r i a l s i n a n y k i n d o f i n s t a l l a t i o n

• P r o c e s s i n g a n d d i s p o s a l o f r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e

• C o n s t r u c t i o n a n d o p e r a t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s d e s i g n e d f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n

o f n u c l e a r m a t e r i a l s a n d n u c l e a r e n e r g y

— L i c e n s i n g o f n u c l e a r i n s t a l l a t i o n s

A - l . 4 . E X P E R I E N C E A N D C U R R E N T S T A T U S

A-l .4 .1 . Planning

N a t i o n a l e n e r g y p l a n n i n g i s a c o n t i n u o u s u n d e r t a k i n g p e r f o r m e d a t t h e

M i n i s t r y o f M i n e s a n d E n e r g y b y a C o m m i t t e e c a l l e d C O B E N ( C o m i t é C o o r d e n a d o r

d o B a l a n ç o E n e r g é t i c o N a c i o n a l ) . T h i s C o m m i t t e e , i n v o l v i n g a l l i n t e r e s t e d

p a r t i e s f o r e n e r g y s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d ( E L E T R O B R Á S , N U C L E B R Á S , C N E N ,

P E T R O B R Á S , e t c . ) , u p d a t e s c o n s t a n t l y t h e c o u n t r y ' s e n e r g y p l a n n i n g m o d e l

a n d p r o d u c e s a n n u a l l y a r e p o r t c a l l e d ' B a l a n ç o E n e r g é t i c o N a c i o n a l ' . R e c e n t l y ,

a N a t i o n a l E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n w a s c r e a t e d , u n d e r t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c ,

t o c o - o r d i n a t e t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l p r o g r a m m e s f o r

e n e r g y s u p p l y .

A-1.4.2. Nuclear power management

E L E T R O B R Á S h a s d e l e g a t e d t o F U R N A S , o n e o f t h e m a j o r f e d e r a l u t i l i t i e s ,

t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s o f

A N G R A - 1 , - 2 a n d - 3 . F U R N A S w i l l b e t h e o w n e r o f t h e s e p l a n t s .

BRAZIL 247

A s f o r t h e f u e l c y c l e a c t i v i t i e s , N U C L E B R Á S h a s f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r

t h e s u p p l y o f f u e l f o r A N G R A - 1 , - 2 a n d - 3 , e x c e p t f o r t h e f i r s t l o a d o f A N G R A - 1 ,

w h i c h w i l l b e p r o v i d e d b y W e s t i n g h o u s e .

A - l . 4 . 3 . A r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n

N U C L E N i s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t w o i n i t i a l

K W U - t y p e 1 2 4 5 M W ( e ) n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s o f t h e p r o g r a m m e , a s f o l l o w s :

— A N G R A - 2 i s n o w i n t h e p h a s e o f s p e c i f i c a t i o n , b i d d i n g f o r c o m p o n e n t s ,

p l a n t d e s i g n a n d s i t e p r e p a r a t i o n . N U C L E N i s t h e a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r

a n d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e b a l a n c e o f p l a n t ( B O P ) ; K W U w i l l s u p p l y t h e

n u c l e a r s t e a m s u p p l y s y s t e m ( N S S S ) a n d t h e t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r ( T G ) .

A l l c i v i l w o r k w i l l b e d o n e b y B r a z i l i a n f i r m s a n d 3 0 % o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s

w i l l b e s u p p l i e d b y B r a z i l i a n i n d u s t r y . E r e c t i o n w i l l b e p e r f o r m e d b y

B r a z i l i a n firms u n d e r N U C L E N s u p e r v i s i o n . T h e p l a n t i s s c h e d u l e d t o

s t a r t o p e r a t i o n i n 1 9 8 7 .

— A N G R A - 3 i s i n t h e p l a n n i n g p h a s e a n d i s s c h e d u l e d t o s t a r t o p e r a t i o n

i n 1 9 8 8 .

A s f o r A N G R A - 1 , a t u r n k e y c o n t r a c t e x i s t s w i t h W e s t i n g h o u s e f o r i t s

c o n s t r u c t i o n . C i v i l w o r k s a r e m a n a g e d b y F U R N A S t h r o u g h c o n t r a c t s w i t h

B r a z i l i a n f i r m s . A N G R A - 1 c o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t i o n i s e x p e c t e d t o s t a r t i n 1 9 8 0 .

A - l . 4 . 4 . F u e l c y c l e

— Uranium prospecting. T h e p r o s p e c t i n g p r o g r a m m e o f N U C L E B R Á S

h a s b e e n v e r y s u c c e s s f u l d u r i n g t h e l a s t t w o y e a r s . S o m e 2 1 5 3 0 0 t o n n e s

o f u r a n i u m r e s e r v e s ( U 3 0 8 ) h a v e b e e n f o u n d u p t o n o w i n t h e s t a t e s o f

B a h i a , C e a r á , G o i á s , M i n a s G é r a i s , P a r a í b a a n d P a r a n á .

— U-concentration plant. A n o r e - p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t o f 5 0 0 t o n n e s U 3 O g

p e r y e a r i s n o w u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n b e s i d e t h e P o c o s d e C a l d a s m i n e .

— U-conversion plant. A u r a n i u m h e x a f l u o r i d e p r o d u c t i o n p l a n t w i l l b e

b u i l t a t R e s e n d e ( S t a t e o f R i o d e J a n e i r o ) w i t h a n i n i t i a l o u t p u t o f

5 0 0 t o n n e s U 3 O g p e r y e a r .

— Enrichment plant. T h e s i t e , i n R e s e n d e , h a s b e e n p r e p a r e d f o r t h e

2 0 0 t o n n e s S W U p e r y e a r d e m o n s t r a t i o n p l a n t f o r j e t - n o z z l e e n r i c h m e n t .

T h e f i r s t s t a g e o f t h i s p l a n t i s s c h e d u l e d t o g o i n t o o p e r a t i o n i n 1 9 8 2 .

— Fuel fabrication. A p l a n t f o r a n i n i t i a l 1 0 0 t o n n e s p e r y e a r t h r o u g h p u t

i s n o w u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n i n R e s e n d e .

248 APPENDIX A-l

A-l .4 .5 . Heavy components and industrial participation

N U C L E P ' s m a n u f a c t u r i n g f a c i l i t i e s a r e a t t h e final s t a g e s o f i n s t a l l a t i o n .

L a r g e p r i v a t e i n d u s t r i e s h a v e b e e n e n c o u r a g e d t h r o u g h p r e f e r e n t i a l

a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d i m p o r t t a x i n c e n t i v e s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n s u p p l y i n g c o m p o n e n t s

f o r t h e p o w e r p l a n t s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e A N G R A - 1 r e a c t o r c o n t a i n m e n t h a s

b e e n m a d e b y a B r a z i l i a n f i r m a n d s e v e r a l c o n s o r t i a h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d f o r t h e

s u p p l y o f e q u i p m e n t f o r A N G R A - 2 a n d - 3 .

A-l .4 .6 . Environmental and siting activities

F o r A N G R A , C N E N w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f o t h e r G o v e r n m e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s

( N U C L E B R Á S , F U R N A S , F u n d a ç a o E s p e c i a l d o M e i o A m b i e n t e ) c o n d u c t e d

t h e s i t i n g s t u d i e s .

A - l . 5 . M A N P O W E R D E V E L O P M E N T

M a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t f o r t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e i s b e i n g c a r r i e d

o u t a l o n g t h e f o l l o w i n g l i n e s :

— University level: S p e c i a l i z a t i o n c o u r s e s a t t h e M . S . l e v e l , p o s t - g r a d u a t e

c o u r s e s a n d o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g .

— Technician level: S p e c i a l i z a t i o n c o u r s e s a t t h e t e c h n i c a l - s c h o o l l e v e l a n d

o n - t h e - j o b - t r a i n i n g .

I n 1 9 7 6 , b a s e d o n a s t u d y m a d e b y a n i n t e r - m i n i s t e r i a l g r o u p , t h e B r a z i l i a n

G o v e r n m e n t c r e a t e d a n a t i o n a l p r o g r a m m e f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f p e r s o n n e l f o r

t h e n u c l e a r s e c t o r c a l l e d P R O N U C L E A R ( H u m a n R e s o u r c e s P r o g r a m m e f o r

t h e N u c l e a r S e c t o r ) . P a r t i c i p a n t s o f P R O N U C L E A R a r e : C N E N , N U C L E B R Á S ,

t h e M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n a n d C u l t u r e a n d t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l . T h e

m a i n p u r p o s e s o f P R O N U C L E A R a r e :

( a ) T o g u a r a n t e e t h e e x e c u t i o n o f t h e B r a z i l i a n n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e

i n t e r m s o f a v a i l a b i l i t y o f h u m a n r e s o u r c e s .

( b ) T o p r o m o t e t h e p r e p a r a t i o n a n d d e v e l o p a s u i t a b l e n u m b e r o f p e r s o n n e l

a t b o t h t e c h n i c i a n a n d u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l s , s p e c i a l i z e d i n n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y

a n d r e l a t e d s u b j e c t s .

( c ) T o p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t n u m b e r s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s t o g u a r a n t e e a p p r o p r i a t e

a b s o r p t i o n o f t r a n s f e r r e d n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y a n d t o e n a b l e p r o v i s i o n

o f i n c r e a s i n g k n o w l e d g e i n t h e a r e a s o f n u c l e a r s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y .

BRAZIL 249

A - l . 5 . 1 . M a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s

T h e p l a n n i n g a n d e x e c u t i o n o f a n i n t e g r a t e d m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t

p r o g r a m m e h a s b e e n b a s e d o n a n i n i t i a l s t u d y m a d e i n 1 9 7 5 t o d e f i n e t h e

m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t s e c t o r s o f a c t i v i t y , a s c a n b e s e e n i n

T a b l e A - 1 . 1 f o r u n i v e r s i t y - a n d t e c h n i c i a n - l e v e l p e r s o n n e l .

P r o f i l e s o f p r o f e s s i o n s w e r e d r a w n u p f o r e a c h s e c t o r o f a c t i v i t y a n d

i t s q u a l i f i c a t i o n s .

A - l . 5 . 2 . T r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s

A-l.5.2.1. General purpose

G e n e r a l p u r p o s e q u a l i f i c a t i o n c o u r s e s a r e i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e a b a c k g r o u n d

t o o r i e n t p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t a c t i v i t y s e c t o r s w i t h i n t h e p r o g r a m m e .

T h e s e c o u r s e s , i n g e n e r a l , h a v e b e e n o r g a n i z e d a t u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d a t s o m e

r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s , a n d a c c e s s t o t h e m h a s b e e n p r a c t i c a l l y u n r e s t r i c t e d .

H o w e v e r , m e a s u r e s h a v e b e e n t a k e n t o e n s u r e t h a t e n r o l m e n t s k e e p a s u i t a b l e

c o r r e l a t i o n , b o t h i n q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i f i c a t i o n , w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e

n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

T w o t y p e s o f c o u r s e s h a v e b e e n m a i n l y u t i l i z e d . T h e f i r s t c o n c e r n s m a s t e r ' s

d e g r e e c o u r s e s a d m i n i s t e r e d a t u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d a t s o m e r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s .

T h e s e c o u r s e s h a v e b e e n p r o m o t e d b y C N E N s i n c e i t s i n c e p t i o n , i n a r e a s m a i n l y

r e l a t e d t o n u c l e a r e n e r g y u t i l i z a t i o n . A t p r e s e n t t h e s e c o u r s e s h a v e h a d t h e i r

c u r r i c u l a r e f o r m u l a t e d t o m a t c h b e t t e r t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r

p r o g r a m m e . T h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l a t t h e P h . D . l e v e l

h a s b e e n p r o m o t e d b y P R O N U C L E A R t h r o u g h f e l l o w s h i p s a t f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t i e s .

T h e s e c o n d t y p e o f c o u r s e t a k e s t h e f o r m o f s e m i n a r s a n d w o r k s h o p s i n

s p e c i f i c t o p i c s o f n u c l e a r p o w e r t e c h n o l o g y . W h e n u n a v a i l a b l e f r o m B r a z i l i a n

u n i v e r s i t i e s , t h e y a r e c o n d u c t e d b y f o r e i g n s p e c i a l i s t s , m a i n l y f r o m t h e F R G .

T h e s e a r e o f a s h o r t d u r a t i o n a n d b e n e f i t a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f s p e c i a l i s t s ,

b o t h t h o s e a l r e a d y w o r k i n g i n t h e n u c l e a r a r e a a n d r e c e n t l y g r a d u a t e d e n g i n e e r s ,

p h y s i c i s t s a n d c h e m i s t s w h o r e c e i v e p r e l i m i n a r y i n f o r m a t i o n t o o r i e n t t h e i r

c a r e e r s t o w a r d s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e p r o g r a m m e .

S o f a r , P R O N U C L E A R h a s b e e n p r e p a r i n g m a n p o w e r a t t h e M . S . a n d

P h . D . l e v e l s t h r o u g h s p e c i a l c o n t r a c t s w i t h s e l e c t e d u n i v e r s i t i e s i n a w i d e

s p e c t r u m o f a r e a s . P h . D . p e r s o n n e l h a v e b e e n p r e p a r e d t h r o u g h p r o g r a m m e s a t

f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t i e s , m a i n l y i n t h e U S A , F R G , t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m a n d F r a n c e .

P R O N U C L E A R p r o v i d e s s c h o l a r s h i p s a n d , f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f b o t h s p e c i a l

c u r r i c u l a a n d b a s i c r e s e a r c h i n B r a z i l , s u b s t a n t i a l f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t .

T A B L E A - l . 1 . A N N U A L I N C R E M E N T O F M A N P O W E R B Y S E C T O R A N D Y E A R , F O R T H E U N I V E R S I T Y ( U )

A N D T E C H N I C I A N ( T ) L E V E L S , I N C L U D I N G E S T I M A T E D L O S S E S

NJ d O

Year Sector ^ — 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 Total

Nuclear engineering company U 120 45 75 60 65 125 105 120 120 125 960

Nuclear engineering company T 95 100 90 5 5 30 155 150 180 115 925 U 15 10 5 10 5 20 15 20 100

Nuclear plant operation T - - 30 20 - 90 115 - 30 285

U 40 20 5 15 5 15 10 10 125 u M Heavy components fabrication T> - 90 135 110 75 15 20 145 20 70 680

T3 C U 30 20 25 20 20 _ 115 u C3

U concentration production T - - - 55 45 45 45 40 - 230

O U 15 5 5 5 _ 5 35 Z Fuel element fabrication T - - 15 25 - 5 20 30 20 25 140

U _ _ 15 10 5 5 5 _ 5 45 Reprocessing plant T - - - 20 20 20 25 15 15 10 125

U _ 15 10 5 5 5 __ 40 Conversion and enrichment T - - 40 25 30 30 25 - 5 155

U 45 S 25 40 65 35 20 5 15 30 285 Reactor engineering T 5 5 5 5 20 - 30 25 - - 95

U 75 35 15 25 5 155 S Mineral prospecting T 90 150 185 10 - - - - - - 435

U 15 10 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 25 w Fuel elements T 5 5 - - - - - - • - - 10 >> U> U 10 5 15 _ _ _ _ 30 O o Reprocessing R & D T 10 10 25 - - - - - - - 45 1 U 20 10 25 _ 55 u H Conversion and enrichment T 5 15 35 - - - - 55

U 30 10 10 10 1 u 10 10 10 15 10 125 Planning and support T 20 5 5 — 10 — 5 10 10 10 75

Planning, co-ord. and U 30 _ _ _ _ _ _ 30 information T - - - 10 - - - - - - 10

Licensing activities U T

45 20 5

35 — 15 10

15 20 — 200 30

Training and research U T

15 10 20 _ _

10 5 — 60

Research institutes U T

145 70

175 80

145 70

875 360

Nuclear facilities U T

20 4 0

60 115

6 0 115

60 115

65 130

495 965

Fuel cycle

Components fabrication

85 145

. G a o « S S 2 u « 5 - « 2 ttt k> C c D 4) i = e 8.2 «

Nuclear facilities U T

20 8 0

225 475

. G a o « S S 2 u « 5 - « 2 ttt k> C c D 4) i = e 8.2 «

Fuel cycle U T

- : - - 65 160

,5S 6 ï? 2 -a C e W 5 a

Components fabrication U T

15 35 5

- - 5 5

- - — 25 50

Teaching at universities U 115 35 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 150 and technical schools T 30 30 10 10 - - - - - - 80

TOTAL U 730 295 360 420 415 495 435 455 370 360 4335 T 4 7 0 555 720 525 465 355 695 820 485 4 9 0 5 5 8 0

t o tyl

252 APPENDIX A-l

A-l.5.2.2. Specialization courses

When the industrial programme was approved, a change of emphasis was made towards a more technologically oriented training which led to the in t roduct ion, in 1975, of o ther types of courses. In this category are the specialization courses tha t were organized by NUCLEBRÁS on a 'crash' programme basis, in co-operation with the Federal University of Minas Gérais and with the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. These courses, intended mainly for newly graduated engineers, chemists and physicists interested in joining NUCLEBRÁS and its subsidiaries, have been running successfully for five years. The courses last one year and are organized in two phases. In phase one, applicants are granted a NUCLEBRÁS scholarship and under take university graduate studies in disciplines specifically selected by NUCLEBRÁS for the purpose of meeting its requirements. Af ter concluding phase one, approved candidates are hired by NUCLEBRÁS or its subsidiaries and proceed with phase two, n o w guided by the employer organization. Academic training continues in this second phase but , at the same time, a practical programme is started at inst i tutes and subsidiaries of NUCLEBRÁS.

One of the largest Brazilian UNDP projects — on Nuclear Manpower Development and Training - executed by NUCLEBRÁS and the IAEA has been under way since 1977. The assistance of experts f r o m this project has helped to improve the execut ion of the nuclear specialization courses. The courses emphasize the engineering subjects and the engineering practice which const i tu te the basic technology of the nuclear industry. The training of nuclear power stat ion operators is a particular requirement of a nuclear power programme; the contr ibut ion of the UNDP project in this area is described in Section A- l .5 .2 .6 .

A-l.5.2.3. Special courses

Another example of specialized training are the courses organized to meet essential specific needs in well-determined areas, such as quali ty assurance and quali ty control , welding and radiation protect ion.

A-1.5.2.4. Missions by foreign specialists

One type of mission relates to specialists f r o m research insti tutes and technical organizations f r o m the F R G assigned to Brazil under the bilateral Co-operation Agreement . In general, the procedure is fo r each country t o indicate a co-ordinator for a given area (fuel e lement , fast breeders etc.). The co-ordinators establish a programme to be implemented.

BRAZIL 253

The second type relates to technical missions of specialists f r o m industrial

companies who are assigned to Brazil to solve specific problems. These are

arranged under commercial contracts on technical assistance and technology

transfer.

A-l. 5.2.5. On-the-job-training

This is considered as the most impor tan t means of specific training.

On-the-job-training is carried out b o t h in Brazil and abroad. In Brazil, it is

done at t he Nuclear Technology Development Centre, at NUCLEBRÁS and

its subsidiaries, at some nuclear research insti tutes or in private industry. When

it is impossible to provide a part icular type of on-the-job-training in Brazil,

the trainee must be sent abroad. On-the-job-training for R&D may be given

at foreign research and development institutes, or at companies engaged in

jo in t ventures with NUCLEBRÁS. Alternatively, on-the-job-training for

product ion activities will be obtained by participating in real work per formance

in these foreign companies. Training abroad is preceded by careful planning.

Trainees receive a plan to be followed down to the smallest possible detail.

Training is closely moni tored and periodic reports are required.

On-the-job-training in the NUCLEBRÁS par tner companies has possibly the

highest relevance for achieving the objectives. PRONUCLEAR has associate

programmes fo r on-the-job-training in F R G R&D organizations, mainly for

personnel belonging to CNEN, Brazilian universities and research institutes.

Once the posi t ions to be filled in the organizations engaged in the nuclear

power programme have been identif ied, e f for ts are made to select the candidate

to be trained for each position. The candidate is sent t o the foreign company

with a reasonably defined work programme. Abroad, his work is developed

jo int ly with engineers and specialists who are engaged in the activity that he

will pe r fo rm when he goes back to Brazil.

A-l. 5.2.6. Nuclear power plant operation

In addi t ion to the training for the operating personnel of ANGRA-1, which

F U R N A S is conduct ing under contract with the vendor, a training centre is being

set up for nuclear power plant operators for ANGRA-2 and subsequent plants.

NUCLEBRÁS is providing a simulator of AÑGRA-2-type plants t o be used in

the centre. A group of NUCLEBRÁS engineers is participating in the design

of the simulator, and instructors t o conduct the simulator training are being

prepared. F U R N A S is also participating by complementing the instructors '

group with its own personnel. A major part of the resources of the UNDP

Nuclear Manpower Development and Training project , ment ioned in Section A- l .5.2.2

is being devoted to the simulator project . Expert missions on simulator design,

254 APPENDIX A-l

use of the simulator for training and simulator instructors preparat ions have been included in the project over the five-year period f r o m 1977 to 1982. It is planned to build the training centre near the ANGRA-2 power plant to have an integrated training programme. Other Brazilian utilities will be able to make full use of the centre facilities, when their needs become apparent .

A- l .5 .3 . Results

The results of manpower development programmes carried out in the period f r o m 1975 to 1978 are summarized below:

(a) General training No. of participants

Graduate level:

— Master's degree (in Brazil) trained 60 in training 500

— Doctor ' s degree (in training) 60

Participants at special courses 1000

Foreign lecturers for special courses in Brazil 70

(b) Specific training No. of participants

Specialization courses 320

Quality assurance courses in Brazil 290

Foreign experts missions in Brazil 80

On-the-job-training abroad 340

Prospect ion and mineral research 100

Training in Brazilian industries 120

As for t he quali ty of the specific training, the results show that the trainees who have gone through the programme belong to a group that works at a higher level of pe r formance than o ther personnel recruited in the labour market . Also, that type of trainee obtains leadership posit ions more easily, not only because of the training conten t bu t also because of the careful screening process that is applied (intelligence and knowledge tests, personality and psychological tests), than those entering the nuclear manpower programme.

Appendix A-2

FRANCE

A-2.1. NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME (Fig. A-2.1 )

The need for electricity generat ion f rom nuclear energy is more acute in France, which has f ew natural energy resources, than in most other industrialized countries. The development of nuclear energy in France can be summarized as follows:

— The Commissariat à l 'Energie Atomique (CEA) (French Atomic Energy Author i ty ) was created in 1945. Its first research reactor, ZOE, became critical in February 1948. Its programme was then directed to graphite-modera ted gas-cooled reactors (GCR). The air-cooled reactor Gl came in to opera t ion early in 1956, and Electricité de France (EDF) equipped it wi th a hea t recovery system which generated the first nuclear kW-h in France in 1957.

— A programme based on GCR power plants was launched in 1956 and extended in 1963.

— In order to diversify its know-how, E D F also part icipated with the CEA in a 70 MW(e) heavy-water gas-cooled reactor at Brennillis, and with a Belgian ut i l i ty in a 266 MW(e) PWR power plant at Chooz in France.

— In 1968, E D F part icipated in the Tihange Franco-Belgian plant, the first European 870 MW(e) PWR, in Belgium. For bo th Chooz and Tihange, the order was awarded to a consor t ium including a group of Belgian firms, FRAMATOME and Westinghouse.

— Research and development on breeder reactors led t o the construct ion of Rapsodie, an experimental fast reactor (40 MW(th)) at Cadarache, in 1962, and of Phénix, a demonst ra t ion fast reactor plant (233 MW(e)) at Marcoule, in 1968.

In 1969, the to ta l power of nuclear power plants operating in France amounted to 2650 MW(e).

The const ruct ion of spent fuel reprocessing plants started at Marcoule in 1952 and at La Hague in 1961. The Pierrelatte enr ichment project was started in 1960.

Owing to their less competi t ive economic characteristics, the graphite-gas line was given u p in favour of t h e PWR line. A limited programme of 9 0 0 MW(e)

BELLEVILLE 2 NOGENT 2 SITE INDETERMINE 1 .2

CHINON 64 NOGENT 1

CHINON B3 BELLEVILLE 1 CATTENOM 2 St ALBAN 2

GRAVELINES C l . C2 PALUEL 4 CATTENOM 1 FLAMANVILLE 1 , 2

St ALBAN 1 PALUEL 3 CRUAS 3 . 4

1988 4 x 1300 MW(e).

CRUAS 1 .2 LE BLAYAIS 4 PALUEL 1. 2

t o <-n C\

LE BLAYAIS 1 Si LAURENT 1, 2 TRICASTIN 4 DAMPIERRE 3 , 4 GRAVELINES 4

19 66 73 74 76 76 77 78 7B 80 81 82 83 84 86

FIG.A-2.1. Expected aggregate commercial operation of French PWR units.

a. o YEAR

> "O M z Ö *

FRANCE 257

PWR units was launched in 1970, increased in 1971 u p to 8000 MW(e) and to 13 000 MW(e) in 1973. In 1974, as a consequence of the oil price rise, the decision was taken to devote EDF 's power plant investments mainly to nuclear energy. This programme involves 5000 MW(e) a year, which is well within the capacities of the French nuclear industry.

As of 12 December 1979, the nuclear power programme included 1 :

— 13 units in opera t ion (7723 MW(e))

— 25 uni ts under construct ion, including the Super Phénix fast breeder, totalling 25 000 MW(e)

— 6 units (5400 MW(e)) which should be commissioned during the year

This programme is now quanti tat ively the largest one launched by a util i ty in the world.

In 1985, the French nuclear power system will include, in addi t ion to the gas-cooled natural uranium plants, th i r ty 900 MW(e) PWR units and eight 1300 MW(e) PWR units, ensuring, with a nuclear o u t p u t of 195 T W ' h , 50% of the electricity consumpt ion and nearly 20% of the pr imary energy consumpt ion in France.

The const ruct ion e f fo r t will be pursued between 1986 and 1990 by starting over 25 GW(e) of additional nuclear power plants with about 325 T W ' h . In 1990, the nuclear power o u t p u t will account for over 70% of the electricity consumpt ion , while t he fossil fuel consumpt ion should reach only 12 million tonnes equivalent oil.

F r o m 1974 to 1985, French investments will a m o u n t to:

— 100 X 109 F rench Francs ( F F ) for E D F — 20 X 109 F F on fuel cycle activities (CEA) — 10 X 109 F F mainly on fast breeder reactors

As to fast breeders, the Phenix p r o t o t y p e plant went in to commercial operat ion in 1973. Based on this successful experience, Super Phénix, a 1200 MW(e) project , was launched in co-operat ion with the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy, and is expected to go on-line in 1983.

A second enr ichment plant , E U R O D I F , has been built at Tricastin with the part icipat ion of foreign partners.

1 Between 12 December 1979 and 1 July 1980, three other units have been put into operation.

258 APPENDIX A-l

A-2.2. POLICY, STRATEGY AND PROCEDURES

A-2.2.1. Policy and strategies

The goals of the successsive nuclear power programmes have been:

— Supplying energy at min imum cost — Limiting energy dependence on foreign supplies as much as possible — Improving the t rade balance of payments

As an applicat ion of these principles, the reasons for changing f r o m GCR to LWR were:

— The k W ' h cost came ou t higher with GCRs than with LWRs

— The a m o u n t of experience accumulated with LWRs led to considering t hem as proven reactors

— The per formance of the Pierrelatte enr ichment plant enabled fu r the r studies of a larger u ran ium enr ichment plant

In 1975, t o avoid dispersion of e f for t on several types of reactors, the French government decided to base electricity p roduc t ion on PWRs.

E D F policy as t o plant power level has been based on standardizat ion. Conventional plants of 125, 250 and 700 MW(e) were already standardized. PWR nuclear power plants in operat ion or under construct ion were also standard-

1 ized, the benef i t s being investment cost reduct ion , quali ty improvement , lead-time reduct ion and be t te r operat ion.

A-2.2.2. Power system planning

The Adminis t ra t ion determines and directs French energy policy. It sets u p the energy t rends with the f ramework of a planned policy as laid down in the successive five-year French economic plans.

The Advisory Commit tee fo r Nuclear Power Electricity Generat ion (PEON Commit tee) presents its recommendat ions t o the government every year. T h e Commit tee consists of 4 0 top-level experts f r o m government depar tments , CEA, E D F and companies involved in the nuclear power programme.

The decisions on the nuclear power programme are t aken by a Ministerial Commit tee on the basis of these recommendat ions . The nuclear power programme, when approved by the Parliament, is implemented by EDF.

A-2.3. I N F R A S T R U C T U R E S

The change-over t o the PWR line init iated the first nuclear power programme based on standardizat ion and industrial organization. The acceleration of nuclear

FRANCE 259

commi tmen t s and the relevant orders t o French industry, in particular FRAMATOME

and ALSTHOM-ATLANTIQUE, had impor t an t e f fec ts on their organization.

Consequent ly , the government set u p a plan wi th the aim of:

— Meeting E D F requirements with the best condit ions of prices, per formance

and safety

— Assuring French industry of technological capabilities to ensure the

development of its activities on the world marke t

Taking in to account the min imum prof i table marke t for an industrial group,

the huge means which needed to be devoted to the large French nuclear power

plant development in order to build u p know-how involved:

— On a domest ic basis, the concentra t ion of industrial resources and the

co-ordination of e f for t s be tween the various industrial groups concerned

— On an internat ional basis, the development of co-ordination with foreign

par tners

A-2.3.1. Industrial inf ras t ruc ture

The stages of the industrial restructuring were as follows:

— Supply of nuclear steam supply systems by FRAMATOME as sole

contrac tor

— Participation of the CEA as shareholder 2 in FRAMATOME

— In April 1976, creation of NOVATOME, gathering all developments and

design activities of fast breeder reactor NSSS

— In July 1976, fo rmat ion of COGEMA, a wholly owned subsidiary of the

CEA, taking over all fue l cycle activities

— Supply of conventional island equipment by ALSTHOM-ATLANTIQUE,

where the French manufac tur ing capabilities including those for turbo-

generators are concent ra ted

F o r expor t projects , the French nuclear industry has set u p an organization

merging public authori t ies and private indust ry , led by FRAMATOME. The

purposes of this organization are:

— To be highly flexible, in order t o satisfy specific client requirements

In fact, FRAMATOME supplies EDF with 'chaudières' which include: NSSS, piping and cables relevant to nuclear systems inside the containment building, erection, testing and startup.

260 APPENDIX A-l

— To o f f e r par t of or ent i re power plants , fuel , training and technology

transfer

Project management is carried out by FRAMATEG, a common subsidiary

of FRAMATOME and ALSTHOM-ATLANTIQUE.

Technical assistance, particularly as regards engineering co-ordination and

operating experience, is brought to the organization by SOFINEL, a c o m m o n

subsidiary of E D F and FRAMATEG.

Concerning the fuel cycle, COGEMA may of fe r its clients services or

part icipation in one or several fuel cycle operat ions.

General surveys and pre-project activities are available f r o m SOFRATOME,

a consult ing company which is a common subsidiary of E D F and CEA.

A-2.3.2. Nuclear activities in France

In France, the produc t ion of nuclear electricity is essentially based on:

— Electricité de France (EDF), plant owner, architect-engineer and opera tor

— The Commissariat à l 'Energie Atomique (CEA) and its subsidiaries

covering the whole fuel cycle (COGEMA), reactor research and develop-

men t (TECHNICATOME), safety technical operat ions (Inst i tut de

Protect ion et de Sûreté Nucléaire)

— Private industry, with two groups:

• The Creusot-Loire group, to which FRAMATOME belongs, for nuclear

islands

• ALSTHOM-ATLANTIQUE for conventional islands

For safety and pro tec t ion against ionizing radiat ion, the ministries in

charge are the Ministry of Industry, to whom E D F and CEA report , and the

Ministry of Health.

A-2.4. EXPERIENCE

A-2.4.1. Services

A-2.4.1.1. Structure and general organization

Electricité de France (EDF) , the French public uti l i ty, is in charge of

generation, t ranspor t and distr ibution of electricity over the whole of France.

FRANCE 261

A-2.4.1.2. Environmen t and siting

P r e l i m i n a r y s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a l l o w a first r e v i e w o f p o t e n t i a l l o c a t i o n s .

I f t h e c o n c l u s i o n i s f a v o u r a b l e , t h e d e s i g n s t u d i e s c a n b e i n i t i a t e d i n o r d e r t o

d e m o n s t r a t e t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f t h e s i t e .

W h e n t h e j u d g e m e n t e x p r e s s e d b y t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s f a v o u r a b l e , E D F i s

a u t h o r i z e d t o u n d e r t a k e c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d i e s i n g e o l o g y , s o i l m e c h a n i c s a n d

s e i s m o l o g y n e e d e d f o r t h e c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n o f t h e p l a n t .

T h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s t u d i e s d e a l i n g w i t h a q u a t i c a n d t e r r e s t r i a l e c o l o g y ,

r a d i o e c o l o g y , m e t e o r o l o g y , h y d r o d y n a m i c s , h y d r o l o g y , b i o l o g i c a l , p h y s i c a l a n d

c h e m i c a l e f f e c t s o f h e a t a n d e f f l u e n t r e l e a s e s a r e c a r r i e d o u t b y E D F ' s o w n s t a f f

a n d b y c o n t r a c t o r s .

T h e f i n a l c h o i c e o f t h e s i t e i s m a d e b y t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

A-2.4.1.3. Studies and engineering

P l a n t e n g i n e e r i n g , p r o c u r e m e n t a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n s u p e r v i s i o n a r e c a r r i e d o u t

b y E D F ' s D i r e c t i o n d e l ' E q u i p e m e n t ( p r o j e c t d i r e c t o r a t e ) , i n c l o s e c o - o p e r a t i o n

w i t h c o n t r a c t o r s w h o a r e i n c h a r g e o f s y s t e m s a n d e q u i p m e n t d e s i g n , m a n u f a c t u r i n g

a n d e r e c t i o n .

9 0 0 a n d 1 3 0 0 M W ( e ) s t a n d a r d d e s i g n s a r e u s e d f o r t h i s p r o g r a m m e . S t a n -

d a r d i z a t i o n m a k e s p o s s i b l e l o w e r c o s t s a n d l e a d t i m e , i n s p i t e o f t h e n e c e s s a r y

a d a p t a t i o n s t o e a c h s i t e . S a f e t y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y a r e i m p r o v e d b e c a u s e o f t h e

o p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e f e e d b a c k t o e n g i n e e r i n g t e a m s .

T e c h n i c a l i m p r o v e m e n t s a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o s t a n d a r d d e s i g n s i n s t e p s :

e a c h s t e p i n c o r p o r a t e s s e v e r a l u n i t s i n o r d e r n o t t o j e o p a r d i z e t h e a d v a n t a g e o f

s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n .

P l a n t d e s i g n c o n f o r m s w i t h t h e r u l e s a n d p r a c t i c e s o f F r e n c h n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y

f o r m a t e r i a l s s e l e c t i o n a n d t e s t i n g a n d f o r f a b r i c a t i o n o f n u c l e a r p l a n t c o m p o n e n t s ,

a s c o d i f i e d i n t h e ' R e c u e i l d e s R è g l e s d e C o n c e p t i o n e t d e C o n s t r u c t i o n d e s C e n t r a l e s

P W R ' ( R C C ) .

A-2.4.1.4. Construction

O n e a c h s i t e , E D F d e l e g a t e s a field m a n a g e m e n t t e a m w h i c h e n s u r e s :

- T h e c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t e s t s , a c c o r d i n g t o a p r e d e t e r m i n e d

o v e r a l l t i m e s c h e d u l e , e a c h c o n t r a c t o r b e i n g f u l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s o w n

p a r t .

- Q u a n t i t y s u r v e y i n g o f c e r t a i n c i v i l w o r k s ( c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g , e x c a v a t i o n s e t c . ) .

- Q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e o f w o r k s a n d t e s t s i m p l e m e n t e d b y c o n t r a c t o r s a n d

m a n u f a c t u r e r s .

262 APPENDIX A-l

T e s t i n g a n d c o m m i s s i o n i n g a r e c a r r i e d o u t i n c l o s e c o - o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n

E D F a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s , u n d e r E D F m a n a g e m e n t . T h i s c o - o p e r a t i o n b y m e a n s

o f a t e s t c o - o r d i n a t i o n c o m m i t t e e e n s u r e s f u l l f e e d b a c k o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

t e s t i n g a n d c o m m i s s i o n i n g e x p e r i e n c e t o t h e E D F a n d c o n t r a c t o r d e s i g n t e a m s .

A-2.4.1.5. Quality assurance and quality control

W i t h i n E D F , t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n i s w i t h :

— T h e D i r e c t i o n d e l ' E q u i p e m e n t f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s

— T h e D i r e c t i o n d e l a P r o d u c t i o n e t d u T r a n s p o r t f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s e

p l a n t s

A l l c o n t r a c t o r s ( e n g i n e e r i n g d e p a r t m e n t , m a n u f a c t u r e r , fitter e t c . ) w o r k i n g

f o r E D F i n t h e n u c l e a r field m u s t p o s s e s s a q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n t o

e n s u r e t h e q u a l i t y o f i t s p r o d u c t s a n d s e r v i c e s . A n E D F c o n t r o l s e r v i c e o r c o n t r o l

o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h i c h r e p r e s e n t i t h a v e c h a r g e o f t h e q u a l i t y c o n t r o l o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g

r e l a t e d t o n u c l e a r s a f e t y . T h e q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e s y s t e m a p p l i e s t o a l l t h e a c t i v i t i e s

o f a n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t : o p e r a t i o n ; m a i n t e n a n c e ; r e c r u i t i n g ; t r a i n i n g a n d

p r o f e s s i o n a l a u t h o r i z a t i o n o f p e r s o n n e l ; f u e l s u p p l y a n d m a n a g e m e n t ; p l a c e m e n t

o f o r d e r s ; s u p p l y o f w a r e h o u s e s ; a n d s e c u r i t y .

A-2.4.1.6. Regulation and licensing

I n F r a n c e , t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s i n c h a r g e o f :

— T h e d r a w i n g u p a n d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f g e n e r a l r u l e s r e l a t e d t o d e s i g n

c r i t e r i a a n d n u c l e a r s a f e t y

— T h e l i c e n s i n g o f n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s

T h e m a i n r e g u l a t o r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e :

SCSIN (Central Safety Bureau for Nuclear Facilities)

T h e S C S I N i s t h e r e g u l a t o r y b o d y w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s a n d e n f o r c e s g e n e r a l s a f e t y

c r i t e r i a . T o e n f o r c e t h e s e c r i t e r i a , t h e S C S I N d i s p a t c h e s t e a m s o f o f f i c e r s t o

i n s p e c t n u c l e a r i n s t a l l a t i o n s ( n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s a n d o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s ) .

A l s o , t w o o t h e r i m p o r t a n t t a s k s o f t h e S C S I N a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f :

— T h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s i t e s o n t h e p l a n t s

— T h e e f f e c t s o f t h e p l a n t s o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ( e . g . r e l e a s e s d u r i n g n o r m a l

o p e r a t i o n a n d i n t h e e v e n t o f a n a c c i d e n t )

FRANCE 263

T o e s t a b l i s h s a f e t y c r i t e r i a , c a r r y o u t s a f e t y a n a l y s e s a n d e x a m i n e p r o b l e m s

c a u s e d b y i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n , g o v e r n m e n t a l a u t h o r i t i e s u s e t h e s u p p o r t o f

t e c h n i c a l a g e n c i e s :

IPSN (Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety Institute)

T h e I P S N , u n d e r t h e C o m m i s s a r i a t à l ' E n e r g i e A t o m i q u e , e m p l o y s a s t a f f o f

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 5 0 p e r s o n s w o r k i n g i n t h e t w o m a i n d e p a r t m e n t s : t h e D é p a r t e m e n t

d e S û r e t é N u c l é a i r e , o r N u c l e a r S a f e t y D e p a r t m e n t ( D S N ) a n d t h e D é p a r t e m e n t d e

P r o t e c t i o n , o r R a d i o l o g i c a l P r o t e c t i o n D e p a r t m e n t ( R P D ) . T h e D S N e v a l u a t e s

s a f e t y a n a l y s i s r e p o r t s , c o n d u c t s s a f e t y d e s i g n s t u d i e s a n d r e s e a r c h a n d e n s u r e s

p u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n .

T h e R P D i s i n c h a r g e o f s t u d y i n g b i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s o f i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n a n d

d e t e r m i n i n g n e c e s s a r y p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s . T h i s D e p a r t m e n t i s a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r c o n d u c t i n g r a d i o e c o l o g i c a l s u r v e y s o f c a n d i d a t e s i t e s .

BCCN (Office for Control of Nuclear Construction)

T h e h i g h d e g r e e o f s a f e t y r e q u i r e d f o r t h e p r i m a r y c o o l a n t s y s t e m h a s

n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e d r a w i n g u p o f a s p e c i a l r e g u l a t i o n ( t h e ' a r r ê t é ' d a t e d 2 6 F e b r u a r y

1 9 7 4 ) a p p l y i n g p r e s s u r e v e s s e l s r e g u l a t i o n s t o t h e P W R p r i m a r y c i r c u i t . A p p l i c a t i o n

o f t h i s r e g u l a t i o n i s s u p e r v i s e d b y t h e B C C N .

N u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s a r e s u b j e c t t o i n d i v i d u a l l i c e n c e s d e l i v e r e d b y d e c r e e

w h e n t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s b e e n s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e p l a n t s a f e t y a s s e s s m e n t .

A-2.4.1.7. Plant operation and maintenance

M a n a g e m e n t , o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e a r e p e r f o r m e d b y t h e D i r e c t i o n

d e l a P r o d u c t i o n e t d u T r a n s p o r t ( D P T ) o f E D F f o r t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s .

T h i s D i r e c t i o n a l s o p e r f o r m s t h e :

— F u e l s u p p l y

— D r a w i n g u p o f t h e E D F d o c t r i n e a b o u t o p e r a t i o n s a f e t y

— S t u d y o f t h e d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f p e r s o n n e l a n d p u b l i c h e a l t h p h y s i c s

— A n a l y s i s o f s p e c i m e n s f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l s u r v e i l l a n c e

— D r a w i n g u p o f t r a i n i n g a n d p e r f e c t i n g p r o g r a m m e s f o r i t s p e r s o n n e l

I n e a c h p l a n t , t h e p l a n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r :

— A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e l a w s a n d d r a w i n g u p o f l o c a l i n s t r u c t i o n s w h i c h

c o m p l e m e n t t h e m o r m a k e p r e c i s e t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n .

— P l a n t p e r s o n n e l s e c u r i t y a n d h e a l t h p h y s i c s .

264 APPENDIX A-l

- E f f l u e n t r e l e a s e s i n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t .

- P l a n t s a f e t y .

- I s s u e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l a u t h o r i z a t i o n s t o h i s p e r s o n n e l , i . e . d e l e g a t i o n o f

p a r t i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r f u n c t i o n ; t h e s e d e l e g a t i o n s

c o n c e r n m a i n l y s e c u r i t y , n u c l e a r s a f e t y a n d h e a l t h p h y s i c s .

B e s i d e s h i s o w n l o c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s , t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t m a y c a l l f o r a s s i s t a n c e

f r o m E D F o r e x t e r n a l m e a n s i n v a r i o u s s p e c i a l i z e d fields. W i t h i n E D F , f o r

e x a m p l e , t h e s u p p o r t o f o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t s o f t h e D P T ( P h y s i c s , C h e m i s t r y a n d

M e t a l l u r g y L a b o r a t o r y , I r r a d i a t e d M a t e r i a l F a c i l i t y o r H e a l t h P h y s i c s D e p a r t m e n t )

o r o f t h e D i r e c t i o n d e s E t u d e s e t R e c h e r c h e s i s a v a i l a b l e .

T h e M a i n t e n a n c e D e p a r t m e n t o f e a c h p o w e r p l a n t i s i n c h a r g e o f t h e d e t a i l e d

p r e p a r a t i o n o f c u r r e n t m a i n t e n a n c e t a s k s d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n a n d o f t h e i n s p e c t i o n

w o r k s d u r i n g a n n u a l s h u t d o w n f o r r e f u e l l i n g . T h e s e i n s p e c t i o n w o r k s a r e p e r f o r m e d

b y s p e c i a l i s t s o f t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r , h e l p e d a n d m a n a g e d b y p l a n t s t a f f .

A-2.4.2. Building materials

A-2.4.2.1. Concrete

C e m e n t , a g g r e g a t e s a n d r e b a r s u s e d f o r c o n c r e t e f a b r i c a t i o n a r e a c q u i r e d a s

n e a r t o t h e s i t e a s p o s s i b l e . F o r a f o u r 9 0 0 M W ( e ) u n i t s i t e , 5 5 0 0 0 0 m 3 o f

c o n c r e t e , 2 0 0 0 0 0 m 3 o f c e m e n t a n d 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 m 2 o f f o r m w o r k s a r e n e e d e d .

A-2.4.2.2. Steel materials

T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a 9 0 0 M W ( e ) P W R u n i t r e q u i r e s 4 0 0 0 0 t o f a l l k i n d s

o f m e t a l s a m o n g w h i c h 1 2 0 0 0 t a r e fine o r s p e c i a l s t e e l s . T h e s e m a t e r i a l s c a n b e

d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r t e c h n o l o g i c a l l e v e l :

( 1 ) M a t e r i a l s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y , u s e d f o r t h e N S S S

a n d a u x i l i a r y s y s t e m s .

( 2 ) M a t e r i a l s f o r n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t e q u i p m e n t , e q u i v a l e n t t o t h o s e o f

c o n v e n t i o n a l p o w e r s t a t i o n s o f t h e s a m e p o w e r l e v e l .

( 3 ) M a t e r i a l s w h i c h a r e s t a n d a r d p r o d u c t s w i t h a g o o d q u a l i t y l e v e l ,

p r o d u c e d a s m u c h a s p o s s i b l e b y c o n v e n t i o n a l i n d u s t r y .

A-2.4.3. Fuel cycle

I n t h i s f i e l d , F r a n c e h a s a s t r o n g p o s i t i o n , h a v i n g t h e m a s t e r s h i p o f t h e

w h o l e c y c l e , f r o m m i n i n g t o s p e n t f u e l r e p r o c e s s i n g a n d w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t .

FRANCE 265

A-2.4.3.1. Natural uranium

O n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n t e r r i t o r y , t h e r e s o u r c e s a n d p r o s p e c t s a r e e s t i m a t e d

t o d a y a t a b o u t 1 0 0 0 0 0 t w i t h a m i n i n g c o s t u p t o 5 5 0 F F / k g U ( a m o n g w h i c h

a r e 5 2 0 0 0 t o f r e a s o n a b l y a s s u r e d r e s o u r c e s ) . E x p l o r a t i o n , m i n e e x p l o i t a t i o n

a n d o r e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e , s i n c e J a n u a r y 1 9 7 8 , t h e field o f C O G E M A , a s u b s i d i a r y

o f t h e C o m m i s s a r i a t à l ' E n e r g i e A t o m i q u e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n

p r o d u c t i o n , C O G I N T E R h a s f o r e i g n p a r t i c i p a t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r i n N i g e r a n d

G a b o n .

A-2.4.3.2. Conversion

T h e c o m p a n y C O M U R H E X , s e t u p i n 1 9 7 6 , p e r f o r m s t h e c h e m i c a l c o n v e r s i o n

o f t h e u r a n i u m c o n c e n t r a t e ( y e l l o w c a k e ) i n t o m e t a l ( f o r g r a p h i t e g a s r e a c t o r s ) o r

i n t o t e t r a f l u o r i d e a t t h e M a l v e s i f a c i l i t y a n d i n t o h e x a f l u o r i d e a t t h e P i e r r e l a t t e

f a c i l i t y . T h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e c o n v e r s i o n s e r v i c e s i s 1 0 0 0 0 t p e r y e a r o f u r a n i u m

c o n t e n t .

A-2.4.3.3. Enrichment

T h e g r a d u a l c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f t h e e n r i c h m e n t f a c i l i t y o f T r i c a s t i n b e g a n i n

1 9 7 9 . T h i s f a c i l i t y , w h i c h u s e s t h e g a s e o u s d i f f u s i o n p r o c e s s , i s o w n e d b y t h e

c o m p a n y E U R O D I F , w h i c h g r o u p s F r a n c e , I t a l y , S p a i n , B e l g i u m a n d I r a n . T h e

p l a n t w a s o p e r a t i n g a t a q u a r t e r o f t h e n o m i n a l c a p a c i t y a t t h e e n d o f 1 9 7 9 . I t s

f u l l c a p a c i t y ( 1 0 . 8 X 1 0 6 S W U s / a ) w i l l b e r e a c h e d i n 1 9 8 2 a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

s c h e d u l e .

A-2.4.3.4. PWR fuel assembly fabrication

F a b r i c a t i o n c o v e r s a l l o p e r a t i o n s f r o m t h e e n r i c h e d U F 6 t o t h e d e l i v e r y o f

f u e l a s s e m b l i e s r e a d y f o r l o a d i n g o n t h e p l a n t s i t e . T h i s f a b r i c a t i o n i s p e r f o r m e d

b y t h e c o m p a g n i e F r a n c o - B e l g e d e F a b r i c a t i o n d e C o m b u s t i b l e ( F B F C ) , a n a f f i l i a t e

o f E U R O F U E L ( h o l d i n g c o m p a n y ) , W e s t i n g h o u s e a n d t h e B e l g i a n c o m p a n y

M M N , u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f F R A M A T O M E .

A-2.4.3.5. Spent fuel reprocessing

T h e U P 2 f a c i l i t y o f C O G E M A , a t L a H a g u e , h a s b e e n i n o p e r a t i o n s i n c e 1 9 6 7

f o r t h e r e p r o c e s s i n g o f t h e g r a p h i t e g a s r e a c t o r f u e l . A s p e c i a l i z e d u n i t , H i g h

A c t i v i t y O x i d e ( H A O ) , w a s a d d e d i n 1 9 7 6 i n o r d e r t o r e p r o c e s s o x i d e f u e l f r o m

l i g h t - w a t e r r e a c t o r s . T h e s e u n i t s h a v e a l r e a d y r e p r o c e s s e d , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e

F r e n c h f u e l , a b o u t 2 0 0 t o f s p e n t f u e l f r o m f o r e i g n P W R a n d B W R n u c l e a r p o w e r

266 APPENDIX A-l

p l a n t s . B e f o r e r e p r o c e s s i n g , t h e s p e n t f u e l a s s e m b l i e s a r e s t o r e d i n c o o l i n g p o o l s ,

t h e p r e s e n t c a p a c i t y o f w h i c h i s 2 5 0 t . T w o a d d i t i o n a l 1 0 0 0 t p o o l s w i l l b e

a v a i l a b l e i n 1 9 8 1 .

A-2.4.3.6. Waste management

A n i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t , w h i c h w e n t i n t o o p e r a t i o n a t M a r c o u l e i n J u l y 1 9 7 8 ,

i m p l e m e n t s h i g h - l e v e l w a s t e v i t r i f i c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s . T h e C E A p l a n s t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a m o r e i m p o r t a n t f a c i l i t y a t i t s L a H a g u e s i t e , f o r t h e v i t r i f i c a t i o n

o f h i g h - l e v e l f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s f r o m t h e P W R p l a n t s .

A-2.4.3.7. Fast breeder reactor fuel

S i n c e i t s c o m m i s s i o n i n g i n 1 9 6 2 , t h e C E A p l u t o n i u m f a c i l i t y a t C a d a r a c h e

e n s u r e s t h e f a b r i c a t i o n o f t h e f u e l a s s e m b l i e s f o r R a p s o d i e a n d P h e n i x . D u r i n g

t h i s p e r i o d , m o r e t h a n 5 t o f p l u t o n i u m o x i d e ( P u 0 2 ) w e r e f a b r i c a t e d . T h e m i x e d

o x i d e ( U 0 2 - P u 0 2 ) p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y o f t h i s f a c i l i t y h a s b e e n r e c e n t l y i n c r e a s e d

a n d t h e C r e y s M a l v i l l e f u e l a s s e m b l i e s a r e a t p r e s e n t f a b r i c a t e d t h e r e . F o r t h e

r e p r o c e s s i n g o f t h i s t y p e o f f u e l a s s e m b l y , a p i l o t f a c i l i t y , w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f

1 k g / d , h a s b e e n i n o p e r a t i o n a t L a H a g u e s i n c e 1 9 6 9 . A n e x p e r i m e n t a l r e p r o -

c e s s i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n a t M a r c o u l e a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e F B R f u e l r e p r o c e s s i n g .

A-2.4.4. Components manufacturing

T h e p r o c u r e m e n t o f e q u i p m e n t f o r t h e 9 0 0 M W ( e ) a n d 1 3 0 0 M W ( e ) P W R

p o w e r p l a n t s i s t h e s u b j e c t o f g r o u p e d c o n t r a c t s b e t w e e n E D F a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s ,

c o v e r i n g s e v e r a l u n i t s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e n u c l e a r i s l a n d e q u i p m e n t f o r t h e

2 4 X 9 0 0 M W ( e ) p l a n t s a r e c o v e r e d b y a s e r i e s o f c o n t r a c t s , i n c l u d i n g e q u i p m e n t

m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d e r e c t i o n . T h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e h a s b e e n u s e d f o r t u r b i n e h a l l s .

T h e g r o u p i n g o f c o n t r a c t s h a s f a v o u r a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s o n p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a n d

a l l o w s l o n g - t e r m p l a n n i n g . T h i s e n a b l e d t h e F r e n c h m a n u f a c t u r e r s t o a d a p t o r

t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r m e a n s o f p r o d u c t i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y .

A-2.4.4.1. Extension of industrial facilities

T h e a d j u s t m e n t o f s e r i e s p r o d u c t i o n a n d s t r i c t q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r

c o m p o n e n t s b r o u g h t F r e n c h i n d u s t r y t o d e c i d e o n t h e f o l l o w i n g i n v e s t m e n t s :

FRANCE 267

— FRAMATOME built:

• A t L e C r e u s o t , a m e c h a n i c a l s h o p s p e c i a l i z i n g i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f

p r e s s u r e v e s s e l e l e m e n t s f o r P W R ( u p t o 2 0 0 0 M W ( e ) )

• A t C h â l o n - s u r - S a ô n e , a h e a v y m e c h a n i c a l p l a n t f o r t h e :

— F i n a l a s s e m b l i n g , finishing a n d s h i p m e n t o f r e a c t o r v e s s e l s

— F i n a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f s t e a m g e n e r a t o r s a n d p r e s s u r i z e r s a n d a l s o

a n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g c e n t r e

T h e s e f a c i l i t i e s c a n m a n u f a c t u r e u p t o 8 p r e s s u r e v e s s e l s a n d f r o m 1 8 t o

2 4 s t e a m g e n e r a t o r s p e r y e a r .

— ALSTHOM-ATLANTIQUE:

• A t B e l f o r t a n d L e B o u r g e t :

— B u i l t m e c h a n i c a l s h o p s w i t h h i g h - c a p a c i t y t r a v e l l i n g c r a n e s a n d

s p e c i a l i z e d h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e m a c h i n e - t o o l s f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e

o f t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r s ( u p t o 2 0 0 0 M W ( e ) )

— B u i l t o v e r s p e e d t e s t - s t a t i o n s a b l e t o a c c o m m o d a t e r o t a t i n g m a s s e s

u p t o 5 0 0 t o n n e s

• A t t h e w o r k s o f S t e i n I n d u s t r i e a t L a n n o y :

— F a b r i c a t e d s p e c i a l i z e d m a c h i n e - t o o l s f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g p i p e s ,

s e p a r a t o r - r e h e a t e r s a n d e x c h a n g e r s

— B u i l t a ' n u c l e a r c l e a n w o r k s h o p ' f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h e a t

e x c h a n g e r s , e v a p o r a t o r s a n d p i p e s

• A t S t . J e a n d e V a l e r i s l e b u i l t a t e s t - s t a t i o n f o r l a r g e p u m p s .

— Vallourec b u i l t a t M o n t b a r d a s p e c i a l i z e d f a c i l i t y f o r t h e f a b r i c a t i o n o f

I n c o n e l U - t u b e s f o r s t e a m g e n e r a t o r s a n d a n o t h e r f a c i l i t y f o r t h e

f a b r i c a t i o n o f t i t a n i u m t u b e s .

— Jeumont-Schneider i s n o w e q u i p p e d w i t h s p e c i a l i z e d m a c h i n e - t o o l s f o r

t h e f a b r i c a t i o n o f p r i m a r y p u m p s a n d c o n t r o l r o d d r i v e m e c h a n i s m s .

F a c i l i t i e s i n c l u d e a n a s s e m b l y h a l l i n n u c l e a r c l e a n c o n d i t i o n s a n d a t e s t

t o w e r .

— Zircotube, a s u b s i d i a r y o f P e c h i n e y - U g i n e K u h l m a n ( P U K ) a n d

F R A M A T O M E , h a s b e e n s e t u p f o r t h e f a b r i c a t i o n o f Z i r c a l o y t u b e s

f o r f u e l e l e m e n t c l a d d i n g .

T h e i n v e s t m e n t s d i r e c t l y i n d u c e d i n i n d u s t r y b y t h e E D F n u c l e a r p o w e r

p r o g r a m m e c a n b e e s t i m a t e d a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 8 0 0 X 1 0 6 F F ( 1 9 7 4 ) .

268 APPENDIX A-l

A-2.4.4.2. Na tional participation

A l l c o m p o n e n t s a r e f a b r i c a t e d i n F r a n c e , e x c e p t :

— E l e c t r o n i c c o m p o n e n t s e a s i l y f o u n d o n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t

— A l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f N S S S c o m p o n e n t s p u r c h a s e d a b r o a d

C o n c e r n i n g f o r e i g n p r o j e c t s , t h e flexibility o f t h e F r e n c h o r g a n i z a t i o n

e n a b l e s a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m l o c a l c o n t r a c t o r s a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m a i n a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d c o n t r a c t o r s , m a n y o t h e r F r e n c h

c o m p a n i e s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e e i t h e r d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h

E D F o r d e r s ( a b o u t 2 0 0 c o m p a n i e s ) o r i n d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h s u b - c o n t r a c t s ( a b o u t

2 0 0 0 c o m p a n i e s ) .

A-2.4.4.3. Quality organization

E a c h e q u i p m e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r d e s c r i b e s h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n i n a d o c u m e n t

c a l l e d ' M a n u e l d ' O r g a n i s a t i o n d e l a Q u a l i t é ' . T h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n i s s u b j e c t t o E D F

a g r e e m e n t . F o r t h e c h o i c e o f t h e i r s u b - c o n t r a c t o r s , c o n t r a c t o r s a r e o n l y a l l o w e d

t o w o r k w i t h c o m p a n i e s w h i c h h a v e a q u a l i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n m e e t i n g t h e s a m e

p r o v i s i o n s .

A s f a r a s q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l a r e c o n c e r n e d , E D F s t a f f

c h e c k s t h a t i t s s p e c i f i c q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d c o n t r a c t o r ' s t e c h n i c a l s p e c i -

fications a r e f o l l o w e d b y p e r i o d i c a u d i t s o f c o n t r a c t o r s a n d s u b - c o n t r a c t o r s .

E q u i p m e n t c o n t r a c t o r s h a v e t h e i r o w n q u a l i t y c o n t r o l f a c i l i t i e s , e q u i p p e d

w i t h a d e q u a t e i n s t r u m e n t s .

A - 2 . 5 . M A N P O W E R D E V E L O P M E N T

T h e F r e n c h n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e h a s i n v o l v e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e m a n p o w e r

e f f o r t , d e s c r i b e d b e l o w .

A-2.5.1. Jobs in nuclear research and development

T h e m a i n F r e n c h n u c l e a r R & D o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e C o m m i s s a r i a t à l ' E n e r g i e

A t o m i q u e ( C E A ) a n d i t s s u b s i d i a r i e s , h a s 2 8 0 0 0 e m p l o y e e s .

F o r P W R r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t , a s t a f f o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 0 0 p e o p l e

i s a s s i g n e d b y C E A , F R A M A T O M E a n d A L S T H O M - A T L A N T I Q U E , e s s e n t i a l l y

f o r n u c l e a r s a f e t y a n d e q u i p m e n t b e h a v i o u r . M o r e o v e r , E D F a s s i g n s o v e r

1 0 0 0 p e o p l e t o n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t d e v e l o p m e n t .

FRANCE 269

A-2.5.2. Jobs connected with plant design and construction

T h i s i s t h e l a r g e s t c a t e g o r y . I t c o m p r i s e s t h e s t a f f o f E D F p r o p e r , m a n u -

f a c t u r e r s , c o n t r a c t o r s , l i c e n s i n g a n d r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t i e s . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d

f r o m 1 9 7 0 t o 1 9 8 5 , t h e e f f e c t o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e o n e m p l o y m e n t

w o u l d h a v e b e e n a t i t s p e a k i n 1 9 7 9 , w h e n 9 0 0 0 0 p e o p l e w e r e e m p l o y e d ,

r e p r e s e n t i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 . 4 5 % o f t h e F r e n c h n a t i o n a l m a n p o w e r . O f t h e s e ,

5 2 % a r e r e q u i r e d f o r c i v i l w o r k s .

T h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e p e o p l e a r e :

— M a n a g e m e n t a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l e n g i n e e r s 5 %

— T e c h n i c i a n s 2 5 %

— C r a f t s m e n 6 0 %

— U n s k i l l e d w o r k m e n 1 0 %

C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h i s i m p o r t a n t d e m a n d f o r q u a l i f i e d p e o p l e r e q u i r e d a l a r g e

t r a i n i n g e f f o r t .

A t p r e s e n t , n e a r l y a l l F r e n c h e d u c a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e i n t r o d u c e d a l l

a s p e c t s o f n u c l e a r s c i e n c e s a n d e n g i n e e r i n g i n t o t h e i r p r o g r a m m e s .

S o m e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , s u c h a s t h e I n s t i t u t N a t i o n a l d e s S c i e n c e s e t T e c h n i q u e s

N u c l é a i r e s ( I N S T N ) , a t S a c l a y , a r e h i g h l y s p e c i a l i z e d i n b a s i c n u c l e a r t r a i n i n g f o r

e n g i n e e r s , e i t h e r n a t i o n a l o r f o r e i g n . O t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e

d e v e l o p e d n u c l e a r c o u r s e s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l o n e s ; t h e s e a r e i n

p a r t i c u l a r t h e e n g i n e e r i n g h i g h s c h o o l s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s , t e c h n i c a l i n s t i t u t e s a n d

t e c h n i c a l h i g h s c h o o l s .

C o n s e q u e n t l y , m o s t s p e c i a l i s t s a r e a v a i l a b l e o n t h e n a t i o n a l m a n p o w e r

m a r k e t . H o w e v e r , m a n u f a c t u r e r s a n d c o n t r a c t o r s f e l t t h e n e c e s s i t y t o o r g a n i z e

i n - h o u s e t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n s , p o s s i b l y a c c e s s i b l e t o f o r e i g n t r a i n e e s .

I t i s w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g t h e e x a m p l e o f F R A M A T O M E , t h e s t a f f o f w h i c h

h a s i n c r e a s e d f r o m 1 5 0 0 i n 1 9 7 5 t o 4 5 0 0 i n 1 9 8 0 . R e c r u i t m e n t o f n u c l e a r

e n g i n e e r i n g g r a d u a t e s i s c o m p u l s o r y f o r i t s s p e c i a l i z e d d e p a r t m e n t s . H i g h - l e v e l

n o n - n u c l e a r s p e c i a l i s t s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r s u c h d i s c i p l i n e s a s t h e r m o h y d r a u l i c s ,

m e t a l l u r g y , w e l d i n g , c o r r o s i o n , d a t a h a n d l i n g e t c . I n - h o u s e c o u r s e s l a s t f r o m

o n e t o t w e l v e w e e k s , a n d a r e r e l a t e d t o s u b j e c t s s u c h a s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o P W R

t e c h n o l o g y , r e a c t o r p h y s i c s a n d o p e r a t i o n , p l a n t o p e r a t i o n , h e a l t h p h y s i c s ,

i n t r o d u c t i o n t o n u c l e a r q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e a n d q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e i n s p e c t i o n .

A L S T H O M - A T L A N T I Q U E a l s o o r g a n i z e s e d u c a t i o n c o u r s e s a n d t r a i n i n g

s e s s i o n s o n a l l t y p e s o f e q u i p m e n t , a n d o n d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c o n v e n t i o n a l

i s l a n d s . T h e y i n c l u d e t y p i c a l l y o n e s h o r t l e c t u r e s e s s i o n ( d e v e l o p i n g m a i n l y

d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i o n a s p e c t s ) a n d s e v e r a l s t a y s a t t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d q u a l i t y

c o n t r o l s h o p s , a n d a t t h e t e s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s . S u b j e c t s c o n c e r n e d c o v e r t u r b i n e s ,

g e n e r a t o r s , w a t e r t r e a t m e n t , c o n t r o l a n d i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , p u m p s , c o m p r e s s o r s ,

v a l v e s , e l e c t r i c a l e q u i p m e n t a n d d i e s e l g e n e r a t o r s .

270 APPENDIX A-l

C e r t a i n c a t e g o r i e s a r e c r i t i c a l a s f a r a s q u a l i f i e d m a n p o w e r a v a i l a b i l i t y i s

c o n c e r n e d , s u c h a s w e l d e r s , p i p e f i t t e r s a n d r a d i o g r a p h y i n s p e c t o r s . T h e y r e q u i r e

a l a r g e t r a i n i n g e f f o r t .

A-2.5.3. Jobs in power plant operation

A-2.5.3.1. General

F o r p l a n t o p e r a t i o n o n l y , t h e P W R p r o g r a m m e h a s l e d E D F t o r e c r u i t a n d

t r a i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 0 0 0 p e o p l e b e t w e e n 1 9 7 6 a n d 1 9 8 5 . T h i s f i g u r e c o r r e s p o n d s

t o a n o p e r a t i n g s t a f f o f 3 0 0 p e o p l e p e r 2 X 9 0 0 M W ( e ) a n d 5 5 0 p e o p l e p e r

4 X 9 0 0 M W ( e ) u n i t p l a n t s . A l a r g e p a r t o f t h e s e p e o p l e c o m e f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l

p o w e r p l a n t s .

Y e a r l y s h u t d o w n a n d r e l o a d i n g r e q u i r e a g r e a t a m o u n t o f q u a l i f i e d w o r k e r s

i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g s t a f f .

C o n s e q u e n t l y , a v e r y l a r g e t r a i n i n g e f f o r t h a s b e e n u n d e r t a k e n b y E D F .

P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n g i v e n t o :

— R e c e p t i o n o f t h e n e w c o m e r s i n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e i r i n t e g r a t i o n

— A d a p t a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e t o n e w t e c h n i q u e s

— H u m a n a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f t h e j o b

— P r o f e s s i o n a l r e t r a i n i n g a n d g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n .

A-2.5.3.2. Training of EDF technicians and workers

T h e E D F S e r v i c e d e l a P r o d u c t i o n T h e r m i q u e ( S P T ) o r g a n i z e s s e v e r a l t y p e s

o f t r a i n i n g :

— S p e c i f i c a n d s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s ( 5 0 % o f a l l c o u r s e s ) a r e c a r r i e d

o u t e i t h e r i n t h e 1 2 E D F s c h o o l s a n d t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s o r i n n o n - E D F

t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s ; a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 0 0 E D F p e o p l e p e r y e a r t a k e t h i s

t r a i n i n g , w h i c h i n c l u d e s a b o u t 1 5 0 c o u r s e s .

— O n - s i t e t r a i n i n g ( 2 0 % o f a l l c o u r s e s ) a p p l i e s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f m a n a g e r

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e t r a i n i n g ( a f t e r p r e v i o u s p e d a g o g i c a l t r a i n i n g ) . T h e

t r a i n i n g f o r p l a n t o p e r a t i o n i s d o n e l o c a l l y , w h i c h i s o f p a r t i c u l a r

i m p o r t a n c e f o r p l a n t s b e i n g c o m m i s s i o n e d . T h i s t r a i n i n g i s c e n t r e d o n

t h e k n o w l e d g e o f e q u i p m e n t a n d o p e r a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s .

T h e S P T h a s d e v e l o p e d a l a r g e n u m b e r o f p e d a g o g i c a l a i d s f o r o n - s i t e

t r a i n i n g ( s u c h a s f i l m s , s l i d e s , v i d e o r e c o r d i n g e t c . )

— T r a i n i n g c o u r s e s b y m a n u f a c t u r e r s ( 1 0 % o f a l l c o u r s e s ) d e a l m a i n l y w i t h

t h e k n o w l e d g e , o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f p l a n t e q u i p m e n t a n d

s y s t e m s . A b o u t 5 0 c o u r s e s a r e a v a i l a b l e .

FRANCE 271

— O t h e r t r a i n i n g ( 2 0 % o f a l l c o u r s e s ) i s r e l e v a n t t o t h e r e c e p t i o n o f n e w

e m p l o y e e s o r t o t r a i n u n s k i l l e d w o r k m e n i n e l e v e n o p e r a t i n g p o w e r p l a n t s .

A-2.5.3.3. Nuclear training of EDF professional engineers

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e j o b a s s i g n e d a n d t o t h e i r p r e v i o u s b a c k g r o u n d , p r o f e s s i o n a l

e n g i n e e r s m a y a t t e n d t h e b a s i c n u c l e a r t r a i n i n g ( 1 y e a r ) p r o v i d e d b y t h e I N S T N

a t S a c l a y ; a b o u t t e n e n g i n e e r s p e r y e a r t a k e t h i s c o u r s e . A s h o r t e n e d t r a i n i n g

c o u r s e i s p r o v i d e d a t G r e n o b l e ; a b o u t 3 0 e n g i n e e r s p e r y e a r t a k e t h i s c o u r s e .

H e a l t h p h y s i c s i n c l u d e s b a s i c c o u r s e s a n d r a d i o c h e m i s t r y t r a i n i n g . F u r t h e r t r a i n i n g

i n c l u d e s s e v e r a l s p e c i a l i z e d s u b j e c t s ( p r e s s u r e v e s s e l s , s a f e t y e t c . ) .

A-2.5.3.4. Specific facilities for nuclear training

T h e s e f a c i l i t i e s a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e ' E c o l e E a u L é g è r e ' o n t h e B u g e y s i t e .

T h i s c e n t r e p r o v i d e s :

— B a s i c n u c l e a r t r a i n i n g f o r P W R t e c h n o l o g y

— S i m u l a t o r t r a i n i n g w i t h t w o L M T s i m u l a t o r s

I N S T N ' s o w n r e a c t o r s a t S a c l a y a n d G r e n o b l e a l l o w n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r s t o

i m p r o v e t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e .

A-2.5.4. Jobs in the fuel cycle

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s t h e n u m b e r o f j o b s i n t h e f u e l c y c l e d u e t o t h e P W R

n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e , s i n c e t h e f u e l c y c l e i n d u s t r y d o e s n o t w o r k o n l y f o r

t h e s e r e a c t o r s . H o w e v e r , t h i s n u m b e r c a n b e a s s e s s e d a s 7 0 0 0 i n 1 9 7 8 , 8 0 0 0 i n

1 9 8 0 a n d 9 0 0 0 i n 1 9 8 5 i n F r a n c e f o r t h e c i v i l f u e l c y c l e , m o s t o f t h e m b e i n g

r e q u i r e d b y t h e 9 0 0 M W ( e ) P W R p r o g r a m m e .

A-2.5.5. Jobs connected with licensing and inspection

T h e s e j o b s h a v e g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e b u t a r e f e w i n n u m b e r . T h e y c o n c e r n

d i f f e r e n t m i n i s t r i e s a n d a u t h o r i t i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i s s u i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

p e r m i t a n d t h e o p e r a t i o n p e r m i t o f n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s .

A-2.5.6. Conclusion

T h e i m p a c t o f n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y o n e m p l o y m e n t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t

d u r i n g t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n p e r i o d . T h i s e f f e c t c a n b e a s s e s s e d a s a m o u n t i n g t o

b e t w e e n 0 . 5 7 % a n d 0 . 6 2 % o f a l l w a g e e a r n e r s i n 1 9 8 0 . C o n s t r u c t i o n a l o n e

a c c o u n t s f o r 0 . 5 4 % .

272 APPENDIX A-l

A s f a r a s t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a r e c o n c e r n e d , n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y d e v e l o p m e n t

r e q u i r e s a l a r g e n u m b e r o f h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d e n g i n e e r s a n d t e c h n i c i a n s . A t o t a l

n u m b e r o f 6 4 0 0 e n g i n e e r s a n d t e c h n i c i a n s i s e x p e c t e d t o b e w o r k i n g i n t h i s

i n d u s t r y i n 1 9 8 0 . T h i s n u m b e r i n c l u d e s v e r y v a r i e d s p e c i a l i s t s ; n u c l e a r s p e c i a l i s t s

o n l y r e p r e s e n t 1 5 % o f t h i s n u m b e r .

A - 2 . 6 . P R O B L E M S E N C O U N T E R E D

A-2.6.1. Difficulties due to the nuclear power programme acceleration

T h e s i z e o f t h e F r e n c h n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e h a s l e d t o d e v e l o p i n g a n d

t o o r g a n i z i n g , o n n e w b a s e s , c o m p l e t e s e c t o r s o f i n d u s t r y t o i n t r o d u c e n e w w o r k i n g

a n d t e s t i n g m e t h o d s a n d t o c r e a t e s p e c i a l i z e d f a c i l i t i e s . T h e s e i n d u s t r i a l m e a n s

w e r e b r o u g h t i n t o o p e r a t i o n i n s p i t e o f s o m e d i f f i c u l t i e s , w h i c h h a v e b e e n o v e r c o m e ,

E D F a s a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r m a d e a l a r g e e f f o r t t o p r e d i c t t h e a m o u n t o f e q u i p m e n t

t o b e o r d e r e d a n d a s s e s s m a n u f a c t u r i n g c a p a b i l i t y f o r d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f e q u i p m e n t .

A-2.6.2. Difficulties due to sub-contracting

T h e i n i t i a l s c h e d u l i n g a l l o w e d l i t t l e m a r g i n f o r p o s s i b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s . M a n u -

f a c t u r e r s c a m e u p a g a i n s t d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h s u b - c o n t r a c t i n g , a s s o m e s u b - c o n t r a c t o r s

d i d n o t i n v e s t f a s t e n o u g h t o a t t a i n i n d u e t i m e t h e q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s .

S u b - c o n t r a c t i n g w a s n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n a b e t t e r u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e e x i s t i n g

p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y . A s a n e x a m p l e o f s u b - c o n t r a c t i n g a b r o a d , A L S T H O M -

A T L A N T I Q U E f o u n d p a r t n e r s i n P o r t u g a l , B e l g i u m a n d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s f o r

s e v e r a l p a r t s o f t h e t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r , i n t e g r a t i o n a n d f i n i s h i n g w o r k b e i n g

p e r f o r m e d i n A L S T H O M - A T L A N T I Q U E w o r k s h o p s .

I t h a s t o b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t s u b - c o n t r a c t i n g a b r o a d r e q u i r e s s e t t i n g u p

q u a l i f i e d t e c h n o l o g i c a l t r a i n i n g t o o v e r c o m e d i f f i c u l t i e s s u c h a s t h e u s e o f d i f f e r e n t

s t a n d a r d s , c o d e s o r q u a l i t y c o n t r o l s .

A-2.6.3. Manpower problems

M a n u f a c t u r e r s f a c e t h e p r o b l e m o f m a n p o w e r q u a l i t y a n d q u a n t i t y . I n o r d e r

t o e n s u r e e q u i p m e n t q u a l i t y , w o r k e r s a r e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y o v e r - q u a l i f i e d . E m p l o y i n g

s u c h m a n p o w e r f o r c o m m o n a n d r e p e t i t i v e w o r k l e d t o d i f f i c u l t i e s i n m o t i v a t i n g

t h e m .

A-2.6.4. Quality assurance

T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e p r o c e d u r e s a n d t h e c h e c k i n g o f t h e i r

e n f o r c e m e n t a s s u m e a n a d a p t a t i o n o f m e n t a l h a b i t s . I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f s u c h a

q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s o m e w h a t l i m i t e d t h e s u b - c o n t r a c t i n g m a r k e t .

FRANCE 273

H e a v y - e q u i p m e n t s u b - c o n t r a c t o r s i n v e s t e d i n q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e , a s t h e w o r k

l o a d w a s s u f f i c i e n t .

I n a c o m p a n y , t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n

r e q u i r e s p s y c h o l o g i c a l a c t i o n d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s a l l l e v e l s o f m a n a g e m e n t , m a k i n g

e v e r y b o d y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e q u a l i t y a s p e c t o f t h e i r p a r t o f t h e w o r k .

A - 2 . 6 . 5 . E x e c u t i o n d e l a y s

S o m e o f t h e d e l a y s t h a t o c c u r r e d f o r t h e f i r s t u n i t s o f t h e P W R n u c l e a r

p o w e r p r o g r a m m e c a n b e e x p l a i n e d m a i n l y b y s o m e p r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d b y

t h e r u n n i n g - i n o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d b y t h e i n c r e a s i n g s a f e t y a n d

q u a l i t y c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s .

T h e s c h e d u l e s h o u l d n o r m a l l y b e k e p t f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g u n i t s o f t h e

p r o g r a m m e .

A - 2 . 6 . 6 . T r a i n i n g

A s f a r a s t h e m a n p o w e r e m p l o y e d i n t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n

i s c o n c e r n e d , a l a r g e e f f o r t w a s n e c e s s a r y m a i n l y f o r r e c r u i t i n g a n d t r a i n i n g

w e l d e r s , p i p e fitters a n d r a d i o g r a p h y i n s p e c t o r s .

C l o s e c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n i n d u s t r y a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s , i n s t i t u t e s a n d

t e c h n i c a l s c h o o l s ( f o r t h e b a s i c t r a i n i n g ) h a s b e e n n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o m e e t

t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s .

A p p e n d i x A - 3

A-3.1. INTRODUCTION

D e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s w a n t i n g t o e m b a r k o n a p r o g r a m m e o f n u c l e a r p o w e r

g e n e r a t i o n a r e o f t e n f a c e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e c r e a t i o n o f a c a d r e o f s c i e n t i f i c

a n d t e c h n i c a l p e r s o n n e l w h o c o u l d p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a r y g u i d a n c e . T h e I n d i a n

n u c l e a r e n e r g y p r o g r a m m e s t a r t e d w i t h a n a w a r e n e s s t h a t e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d f r o m

o t h e r c o u n t r i e s w i l l h a v e t o b e a u g m e n t e d b y e x p e r t i s e d e v e l o p e d w i t h i n t h e

c o u n t r y t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e I n d i a n

e m p h a s i s h a s b e e n o n d e v e l o p m e n t o f k n o w - h o w i n d i g e n o u s l y . O n e s h o u l d

a p p r e c i a t e t h a t t h e i n d i g e n o u s i n d u s t r i a l b a s e a n d i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t i e s i n t h e

n a t i o n a l / r e g i o n a l g r i d s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s w h i c h i n f l u e n c e t h e s t r a t e g y a n d

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

F o r t u n a t e l y f o r I n d i a , o w i n g t o t h e b o l d e d u c a t i o n a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y

a d o p t e d b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t , d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e d c a d r e o f t e c h n i c a l

p e r s o n n e l f o r p u r s u i n g t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e w a s a c h i e v e d w i t h o u t m u c h

d i f f i c u l t y . T h i s p a p e r d e s c r i b e s t h e I n d i a n e x p e r i e n c e i n t h i s r e s p e c t . A t p r e s e n t

a b o u t 2 . 5 % o f t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y i s f r o m

n u c l e a r s o u r c e s , a n d t h i s f i g u r e i s e x p e c t e d t o g o u p t o a b o u t 5 % b y t h e e n d o f

t h e d e c a d e . T h e c u r r e n t I n d i a n n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e i s s h o w n i n T a b l e A - 3 . 1 ,

i n w h i c h t h e i n c r e a s i n g d o m e s t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n i n s u c c e s s i v e p r o j e c t s i s a l s o

i l l u s t r a t e d . M o r e 2 3 5 M W ( e ) u n i t s a r e c o n t e m p l a t e d s u b s e q u e n t t o t h e N a r o r a

p o w e r s t a t i o n . F u r t h e r o n , t h e u n i t s i z e w o u l d b e 5 0 0 M W ( e ) . I m p r o v e d d e s i g n

f e a t u r e s h a v e b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e N a r o r a p o w e r s t a t i o n w i t h a v i e w t o

a d o p t i n g t h e s a m e f o r t h e s u b s e q u e n t 5 0 0 M W ( e ) u n i t s .

A - 3 . 2 . P O L I C Y A N D S T R A T E G Y

I n d i a ' s f i r s t n u c l e a r p o w e r s t a t i o n , c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o u n i t s o f b o i l i n g w a t e r

r e a c t o r s , n a m e l y T a r a p u r A t o m i c P o w e r S t a t i o n U n i t 1 a n d T a r a p u r A t o m i c

P o w e r S t a t i o n U n i t 2 ( T A P S 1 a n d 2 ) , w a s b u i l t o n a t u r n k e y b a s i s , t o p r o v e

t h e e c o n o m i c v i a b i l i t y o f n u c l e a r p o w e r a n d t e s t i t o n t h e I n d i a n g r i d s . A f t e r

T A P S i t w a s c o n s i d e r e d d e s i r a b l e t o o p t f o r a r e a c t o r t y p e w h i c h w o u l d n o t

o n l y a u g m e n t p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n b u t w o u l d a l s o u t i l i z e t h e a v a i l a b l e l o c a l

r e s o u r c e s t o t h e m a x i m u m e x t e n t . W i t h t h i s a i m i n v i e w , i n 1 9 6 4 I n d i a d e c i d e d

t o b u i l d a P H W R - t y p e s t a t i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o u n i t s e a c h o f 2 2 0 M W ( e )

c a p a c i t y , R a j a s t h a n A t o m i c P o w e r S t a t i o n N o . 1 a n d R a j a s t h a n A t o m i c P o w e r

INDIA 275

S t a t i o n N o . 2 ( R A P S 1 a n d 2 ) . S e l e c t i o n o f P H W R s w a s f o r m a x i m i z a t i o n o f

n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n l e a d i n g u l t i m a t e l y t o i n d i g e n o u s d e s i g n a n d e n g i n e e r i n g

c a p a b i l i t y . T h e f r a m e w o r k o f t h e p o l i c y , n a m e l y , s e t t i n g u p a s e l f - r e l i a n t

n u c l e a r p o w e r i n d u s t r y , w a s n o t o n l y m o t i v a t e d b y a r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e

i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e i n d u s t r y b u t a l s o f o r e c o n o m i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . F o r a l m o s t

t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s a f t e r t h e c o u n t r y b e c a m e i n d e p e n d e n t , I n d i a h a d a d i f f i c u l t

b a l a n c e o f p a y m e n t s p r o b l e m , a n d h e n c e i t b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t n u c l e a r p o w e r

w o u l d b e r e l e v a n t o n l y i f t h e c a p a b i l i t y w e r e a c q u i r e d t o b u i l d t h e p o w e r s t a t i o n s

a n d m a n a g e t h e f u e l c y c l e i n d i g e n o u s l y . T h e e m p h a s i s , t h e r e f o r e , w a s o n

e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r d e s i g n e n g i n e e r i n g ( A — E ) , f a b r i c a t i o n o f

c o m p o n e n t s , c r e a t i o n o f a n R & D b a s e a n d u n d e r t a k i n g o f c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

c o m m i s s i o n i n g a n d o p e r a t i o n o f p o w e r s t a t i o n s i n a p l a n n e d m a n n e r .

I n d i a ' s p o l i c y o f s e l e c t i n g P H W R s w a s , t h e r e f o r e , o n a l o n g - t e r m b a s i s

d u e t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e f u e l c y c l e , i n d i g e n o u s m a n u f a c t u r i n g c a p a b i l i t y a n d

f l e x i b i l i t y o f s c a l i n g u p t o l a r g e r s i z e u n i t s . P o l i c i e s w e r e a d o p t e d s u c h a s t h e

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f s p e c i a l m e a s u r e s f o r q u a l i t y i m p r o v e m e n t , e n c o u r a g i n g l o c a l

i n d u s t r i e s w i t h p o t e n t i a l b y h e l p i n g t h e m i n t h e t e c h n o l o g y o r a d d i t i o n o f

b a l a n c i n g e q u i p m e n t , o b t a i n i n g t e c h n i c a l k n o w - h o w u n d e r s u i t a b l e a g r e e m e n t s i n

s p e c i a l i z e d a r e a s , a w e l l c o - o r d i n a t e d t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e f o r p e r s o n n e l , a n d

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r s p e c i a l m a t e r i a l s l i k e

f u e l , h e a v y w a t e r , n u c l e a r i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t e t c . w i t h i n

t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A t o m i c E n e r g y b y d e v e l o p m e n t w o r k . W i t h t h i s p o l i c y ,

w h i l e t h e p r o g r a m m e m a y h a v e s e e m e d m u c h s l o w e r a n d h a r d e r a t t h e b e g i n n i n g ,

i t h a s t h e c a p a c i t y f o r c o n t i n u o u s g r o w t h a n d f o r d e v e l o p i n g t h e p e o p l e i t

n e e d s , a n d i t s f a s t e r g r o w t h r a t e i n l a t e r y e a r s m o r e t h a n c o m p e n s a t e s f o r t h e

s l o w b e g i n n i n g .

A - 3 . 3 . I N F R A S T R U C T U R E

W h e n t h i s p o l i c y w a s d e c i d e d u p o n , I n d i a h a d a n u m b e r o f r e a c t o r y e a r s

o f e x p e r i e n c e i n o p e r a t i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r s w i t h w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d

p r o c e d u r e s f o r t r a i n i n g a n d l i c e n s i n g o p e r a t i n g p e r s o n n e l , a n d a s a f e t y c o m m i t t e e

f o r r e v i e w i n g d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d o p e r a t i o n o f r e a c t o r s .

T h e i n d u s t r i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e c a n b e s t b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o p a r t s , t h e f i r s t

o n e d e a l i n g w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l i n d u s t r y a n d t h e s e c o n d d e a l i n g w i t h t h e n u c l e a r

i n d u s t r y . T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l p o r t i o n o f t h e p l a n t c o n s i s t s m a i n l y o f t u r b i n e s ,

g e n e r a t o r s , t r a n s f o r m e r s , s w i t c h g e a r , f e e d h e a t i n g p l a n t s , c o n d e n s e r s , p u m p s e t c .

I n 1 9 6 3 , t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l p o w e r p l a n t m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y w a s j u s t b e i n g

s e t u p i n I n d i a , t h o u g h t h e e q u i p m e n t c a p a c i t i e s w e r e l o w e r t h a n r e q u i r e d b y

t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r s t a t i o n s t h a t w e r e p l a n n e d ; t h i s m e a n t a s c a l e - u p i n s i z e w a s

n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e c o n d c a t e g o r y o f e q u i p m e n t t o b e m a n u f a c t u r e d b y d o m e s t i c

T A B L E A - 3 . 1 . N A T I O N A L P A R T I C I P A T I O N I N I N D I A N N U C L E A R P O W E R S T A T I O N S t o - J Os

Name of the station

Location Reactor type

Power gross MW(e)

Year of criticality

Nuclear designer

Major Indian participation

1. TAPS-1 & 2 Tarapur, Maharashtra

2. RAPS-1 & 2 Kota, Rajasthan

3. MAPS-1 & 2 Kalpakkam, PHWR Tamilnadu

4. NAPS-1 & 2 Narora, Uttar Pradesh

2 X 210

2 X 220

2 X 235

1972 1980

1980 1982

1983 1984

IGE, USA

AECL, Canada

DAE, India

Site selection, tender specifications, design reviews, operation and maintenance.

NB: It was a turnkey type contract.

Project management, construction, fabrication of nuclear and conventional equipment , operations and maintenance.

Total responsibility.

Total responsibility, including advanced design features to suit future 500 MW(e) units.

M z Ö tt >

Contract type

Turnkey Non-turnkey

Totally Indian

Status

In operation RAPS-1 in operation RAPP-2 in advanced stage of commissioning MAPS-1 in advanced stage of construction MAPP-2 under construction Under construction

INDIA 277

i n d u s t r y i n c l u d e s i t e m s s u c h a s r e a c t o r c o m p o n e n t s , r e a c t o r b o i l e r s e t c .

c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e n u c l e a r s i d e . I n t h i s r e g a r d t h e i n d u s t r y h a d r e l a t i v e l y l e s s

e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e s p e c i a l q u a l i t y f a b r i c a t i o n r e q u i r e d f o r t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y .

W h e n I n d i a e m b a r k e d o n i t s n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e , i t h a d s e v e r a l

t h e r m a l p o w e r s t a t i o n s o p e r a t i n g o v e r t h e y e a r s w i t h e x p e r i e n c e d p e r s o n s t o

o p e r a t e t h e m , f i v e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d r e g i o n a l g r i d s e a c h w i t h a n i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y

o f a b o u t 2 0 0 0 M W ( e ) , p e t r o c h e m i c a l a n d f e r t i l i z e r c o m p l e x e s i n s t a l l e d a n d

o p e r a t i n g w i t h e x t e n s i v e i n d i g e n o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n , n a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h a n d

d e v e l o p m e n t c e n t r e s a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g c a p a c i t y f o r l i g h t a n d h e a v y e l e c t r i c a l

e q u i p m e n t . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , a n u m b e r o f s t e e l p l a n t s , m a c h i n e t o o l p l a n t s ,

f a c i l i t i e s f o r h e a v y f o r g i n g s / c a s t i n g s e t c . w e r e a l s o b e i n g s e t u p t o m e e t t h e

n a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h i s b a s e w a s h i g h l y u s e f u l i n e m b a r k i n g o n t h e n u c l e a r

p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

A b o l d p o l i c y o f e n l a r g i n g t h e g e n e r a l i n d u s t r i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w a s a d o p t e d

b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t . I n r e s p e c t o f i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y r e l a t i n g

t o s p e c i a l m a t e r i a l s l i k e f u e l , n u c l e a r i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , h e a v y w a t e r e t c . , a

p o l i c y o f d e v e l o p i n g i t w i t h i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A t o m i c E n e r g y w a s a d o p t e d .

T h e r e w e r e s e v e r a l u n i v e r s i t i e s , i n s t i t u t e s o f t e c h n o l o g y , p o l y t e c h n i c a l

s c h o o l s ( f o r t e c h n i c i a n t r a i n i n g ) , a n d i n d u s t r i a l t r a i n i n g s c h o o l s ( f o r c r a f t s m e n

t r a i n i n g ) w h i c h w e r e c a t e r i n g t o t h e d i v e r s e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e c o u n t r y .

T r a i n i n g o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s f o r t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e d i d n o t p o s e a n y

p r o b l e m , s i n c e a t r a i n i n g s c h o o l h a d a l r e a d y b e e n s e t u p i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f

A t o m i c E n e r g y t o t r a i n e n g i n e e r s a n d s c i e n t i s t s . W h i l e a l a r g e n u m b e r o f

t e c h n i c a l i n s t i t u t e s i n I n d i a w e r e o f f e r i n g c o u r s e s i n v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s , t e c h n i c i a n s

a n d c r a f t s m e n h a d t o b e g i v e n f u r t h e r s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g i n o u r T r a i n i n g C e n t r e

b e f o r e e n g a g i n g t h e m i n t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r i n d u s t r y .

I n d i a h a s n o w a d e q u a t e e x p e r i e n c e i n p o w e r r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n s a n d I n d i a n

i n d u s t r y a l s o h a s c o m e u p t o a l e v e l o f s u p p l y i n g a l m o s t a l l t h e c o m p o n e n t s

r e q u i r e d f o r a n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t .

A - 3 . 4 . E X P E R I E N C E

I n d i a h a s a c h i e v e d s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y i n t h e v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e n u c l e a r

p o w e r p r o g r a m m e , f r o m d e s i g n t o o p e r a t i o n , o n a p r o g r e s s i v e b a s i s . T h e

i m p o r t a n t p h a s e s o f t h e I n d i a n n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e A - 3 . 2 ,

a n d s a l i e n t a c t i v i t i e s a r e d i s c u s s e d b e l o w .

A - 3 . 4 . 1 . A P S A R A

T h e I n d i a n A t o m i c E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n w a s s e t u p i n 1 9 4 8 a n d a s e p a r a t e

M i n i s t r y ( D e p a r t m e n t o f A t o m i c E n e r g y ) w a s c r e a t e d i n 1 9 5 4 . I n 1 9 5 5 , a

278 APPENDIX A-l

T A B L E A - 3 . 2 . I M P O R T A N T A C T I V I T I E S I N I N D I A N N U C L E A R P O W E R

P R O G R A M M E

Year Milestone activity

1948 Atomic Energy Commission was set up.

1954 A Ministry of Atomic Energy (Department of Atomic Energy) was set up.

1956 A swimming-pool type research reactor, 'Apsara' (1 MW(th)) was built.

A group of engineers was sent abroad for training for CIRUS (40 MW(th)) research reactor.

1957 A training school was started to train scientists and engineers.

1960 CIRUS and ZERLINA research reactors became critical.

1963/1965 Decision was taken to embark on nuclear power programme. Groups of engineers were sent abroad for training for TAPS and RAPS.

1969 First (TAPS 1 & 2) nuclear power station started operation.

1971 A nuclear training centre was established.

1972 Second power station RAPS-1 started and went into operation. The design group was expanded to undertake A-E activities.

1979/1980 RAPP-2 under advanced stage of commissioning. Madras Atomic Power Project-1 (MAPP-1) under advanced stage of construction.

Madras Atomic Power Project-2 (MAPP-2) and Narora Atomic Power Project 1 & 2 (NAPP-1 & 2) in various stages of construction.

d e c i s i o n w a s t a k e n t o b u i l d a s w i m m i n g - p o o l - t y p e r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r , A P S A R A ,

i n t h e A t o m i c E n e r g y E s t a b l i s h m e n t , b a s e d o n i n d i g e n o u s d e s i g n . E x c e p t f o r

t h e f u e l e l e m e n t s w h i c h w e r e p r o c u r e d o n l e a s e f r o m t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , a l l

o t h e r i n p u t s f o r t h e p r o j e c t w e r e f r o m w i t h i n t h e c o u n t r y . T h e r e a c t o r w e n t

c r i t i c a l i n 1 9 5 6 . T h e s u c c e s s i n t h i s a d v e n t u r e i n s e l f - r e l i a n c e l a t e r s e t t h e

s t y l e o f o u r n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

A-3.4.2. BARC training school

T h e B h a b h a A t o m i c R e s e a r c h C e n t r e ( B A R C ) w a s s e t u p a s a c o r e o r g a n i z a t i o n

f o r R & D a n d m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t r e l a t e d t o n u c l e a r s c i e n c e s a n d e n g i n e e r i n g ,

a n d t o g e n e r a t e g r o w t h f o r a l l a c t i v i t i e s c o n n e c t e d w i t h n u c l e a r p o w e r .

INDIA 279

A t r a i n i n g s c h o o l w a s s e t u p i n t h i s r e s e a r c h c e n t r e a n d , s i n c e i t s i n c e p t i o n

i n 1 9 5 7 , o n a n a v e r a g e a b o u t 1 5 0 t o 2 0 0 p r o m i s i n g g r a d u a t e s i n s c i e n c e a n d

e n g i n e e r i n g a r e r e c r u i t e d a n n u a l l y i n t h e d i s c i p l i n e s o f p h y s i c s , c h e m i s t r y , b i o l o g y ,

r a d i o b i o l o g y , e n g i n e e r i n g ( c h e m i c a l , e l e c t r i c a l , e l e c t r o n i c s a n d m e c h a n i c a l ) a n d

m e t a l l u r g y . T h e s e t r a i n e e s a r e g i v e n s p e c i a l i z e d t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g

i n t h e v a r i o u s a r e a s o f n u c l e a r s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y f o r a p e r i o d o f o n e y e a r .

A b o u t 3 3 0 0 t r a i n e e s h a v e g r a d u a t e d f r o m t h e t r a i n i n g s c h o o l s o f a r . T h e

t r a i n i n g s c h o o l w i l l c o n t i n u e t o m e e t t h e m a j o r d e m a n d s o f m a n p o w e r f o r

t h e e n t i r e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e o f t h e c o u n t r y a l s o i n t h e y e a r s t o c o m e .

T e a c h i n g i s d o n e b y w o r k i n g e n g i n e e r s a n d s c i e n t i s t s o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t . T h i s

m e t h o d e n s u r e s t h a t t e a c h i n g s t a f f f r o m u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e n o t d r a w n a w a y f r o m

t h e i r u s u a l w o r k a n d t h a t t r a i n i n g i s o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s t h e n e e d s o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t .

T h e t r a i n e e s a r e s e n t t o r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r i e s / r e a c t o r s / p l a n t s f o r s h o r t p e r i o d s

o f t i m e f o r e x p o s u r e t o p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s .

T h e a i m o f t h e t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e i s p r i m a r i l y t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e k n o w l e d g e

o f t h e t r a i n e e s i n b a s i c s u b j e c t s a n d g i v e t h e m i n t e r - d i s c i p l i n a r y t r a i n i n g , a s

t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e r e q u i r e s a n o v e r a l l k n o w l e d g e o f v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s .

T h e s e c o v e r a s e r i e s o f c o m p u l s o r y a n d e l e c t i v e c o u r s e s s u p p l e m e n t e d w i t h

l a b o r a t o r y w o r k . T h e c o u r s e s a r e p l a n n e d i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h u n i v e r s i t i e s , t h u s

h a v i n g a c l o s e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e a c a d e m i c w o r l d a n d t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y .

T r a i n e e s h a v e t o t a k e w r i t t e n e x a m i n a t i o n s a t t h e e n d o f e a c h c o u r s e a n d h a v e t o

o b t a i n a c e r t a i n g r a d e b e f o r e t h e y a r e f o u n d s u i t a b l e f o r a b s o r p t i o n i n t h e

D e p a r t m e n t .

A-3.4.3. CIRUS and ZERLINA

W h i l e A P S A R A w a s b e i n g b u i l t i n 1 9 5 5 , a n o f f e r o f a s s i s t a n c e w a s r e c e i v e d

f r o m C a n a d a t o s e t u p a 4 0 M W ( t h ) r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r o f t h e C a n a d i a n N R X t y p e .

I n d i a a c c e p t e d t h e o f f e r a n d a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r t r a i n i n g t h e r e q u i r e d o p e r a t i n g

p e r s o n n e l i n C a n a d a w e r e m a d e .

T h e s e c o n d r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r , C I R U S , a h e a v y - w a t e r - m o d e r a t e d , n a t u r a l -

u r a n i u m - f u e l l e d r e a c t o r , w a s m a d e o p e r a t i o n a l i n 1 9 6 0 . T h i s r e a c t o r w a s b u i l t

m a i n l y f o r n u c l e a r r e s e a r c h , m a t e r i a l s t e s t i n g , p r o d u c t i o n o f i s o t o p e s ( f o r m e d i c a l ,

i n d u s t r i a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n s ) a n d t r a i n i n g . D e s i g n , e n g i n e e r i n g a n d

c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k w e r e h a n d l e d b y C a n a d i a n c o m p a n i e s . T h e o p e r a t i o n s

p e r s o n n e l , t r a i n e d i n C a n a d a , o n r e t u r n i n g t o I n d i a w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

f o r e i g n e n g i n e e r i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m p a n i e s a n d w e r e a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d i n

t h e c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f t h e r e a c t o r . L a t e r , t h e s e e n g i n e e r s o c c u p i e d k e y p o s i t i o n s

i n t h e d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d o p e r a t i o n o f n u c l e a r p o w e r s t a t i o n s i n t h e c o u n t r y .

F o r m e e t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f o p e r a t o r s , e x p e r i e n c e d p e r s o n s w e r e

r e c r u i t e d a n d g i v e n o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g . S u b s e q u e n t l y a p r o g r a m m e t o t r a i n

f r e s h h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s w i t h o u t a n y e x p e r i e n c e w a s a l s o s t a r t e d , w h i c h w a s

280 APPENDIX A-l

t h e f o r e r u n n e r o f t h e t e c h n i c i a n a n d c r a f t s m e n t r a i n i n g t h a t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d

l a t e r i n t h e n u c l e a r t r a i n i n g c e n t r e i n t h e c o u n t r y .

B y t h i s t i m e , a s a f e t y c o m m i t t e e h a d b e e n c o n s t i t u t e d a n d t h i s c o m m i t t e e ,

a m o n g t h e o t h e r j o b s i t w a s d o i n g r e l a t i n g t o s a f e t y a s p e c t s , a l s o s t a r t e d

l i c e n s i n g p e r s o n n e l . T h i s c o m m i t t e e l a i d d o w n t e c h n i c a l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

p r o c e d u r e s f o r t h e s a f e o p e r a t i o n o f r e a c t o r s a n d t h e h a n d l i n g o f e m e r g e n c y

s i t u a t i o n s .

A t a t i m e w h e n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f n u c l e a r - g r a d e u r a n i u m m e t a l a n d t h e

f a b r i c a t i o n o f f u e l e l e m e n t s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d h i g h l y s p e c i a l i z e d a r e a s o f n u c l e a r

t e c h n o l o g y , I n d i a u n d e r t o o k t o s e t u p p l a n t s f o r p r o d u c i n g n u c l e a r g r a d e u r a n i u m

m e t a l a n d f u e l e l e m e n t s f o r t h e C I R U S r e a c t o r i n t i m e t o f u e l i t b e f o r e c o m m e n c e m e n t

o f o p e r a t i o n . T h e s u c c e s s o f t h i s v e n t u r e i s p r o v e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s r e a c t o r

h a s b e e n i n o p e r a t i o n w i t h i n d i g e n o u s f u e l f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g w i t h o u t a n y

m a j o r p r o b l e m s . T h e e x p e r i e n c e t h u s g a i n e d g a v e u s c o n f i d e n c e t o e m b a r k o n

s e t t i n g u p a p l a n t f o r t h e r e p r o c e s s i n g o f i r r a d i a t e d f u e l f r o m t h i s r e a c t o r . I t i s

w e l l k n o w n t h a t a t t h e t i m e t h i s d e c i s i o n w a s t a k e n , r e p r o c e s s i n g f a c i l i t i e s

e x i s t e d o n l y i n f o u r o r f i v e c o u n t r i e s . I n 1 9 6 1 , c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k c o m m e n c e d

a n d t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n f u e l r e p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t w a s c o m p l e t e d i n 1 9 6 4 .

T h e t h i r d r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r , Z E R L I N A , a l a t t i c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a s s e m b l y

u s i n g n a t u r a l u r a n i u m a n d h e a v y w a t e r , a t t a i n e d c r i t i c a l i t y i n 1 9 6 1 . B y t h i s

t i m e , a n u m b e r o f R & D f a c i l i t i e s w e r e b u i l t a r o u n d t h e t h r e e r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r s

f o r s c i e n t i f i c a n d e n g i n e e r i n g s t u d i e s p e r t a i n i n g m a i n l y t o n u c l e a r e n e r g y .

B A R C , a r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y c e n t r e , h a d b y n o w b e c o m e t h e n e r v e c e n t r e

f o r a l l r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r

p r o g r a m m e a n d a b a s e f o r t h e t r a n s f e r o f k n o w - h o w t o a l l t h e p a r t i e s i n v o l v e d t h e r e i n .

A - 3 . 4 . 4 . T a r a p u r A t o m i c P o w e r S t a t i o n ( T A P S )

I n 1 9 6 3 t h e d e c i s i o n w a s t a k e n t o e m b a r k o n a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

A f t e r s i t e s e l e c t i o n a n d p r e p a r a t i o n o f t e n d e r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s b y I n d i a n p r o f e s s i o n a l s ,

a g l o b a l t e n d e r f o r b u i l d i n g a n u c l e a r p o w e r s t a t i o n w a s floated. O n e v a l u a t i o n

o f t h e b i d s , a n u c l e a r p o w e r s t a t i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o b o i l i n g - w a t e r r e a c t o r s

w a s s e l e c t e d ( T A P S 1 a n d 2 ) . A g r o u p o f o p e r a t i o n a l e n g i n e e r s , t h e n w o r k i n g

w i t h e x i s t i n g r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r s o r t h e r m a l p o w e r p l a n t s , w a s s e n t t o t h e v e n d o r ' s

c o u n t r y f o r t r a i n i n g . O n t h e i r r e t u r n , t h e g r o u p w a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e v e n d o r ' s

e n g i n e e r s d u r i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r i o d . T h e y a l s o t o o k p a r t i n w r i t i n g s t a r t u p

p r o c e d u r e s a n d o p e r a t i n g m a n u a l s . T h e s h i f t e n g i n e e r s w e r e l i c e n s e d a c c o r d i n g t o

p r o c e d u r e s f o l l o w e d b y t h e v e n d o r .

T h e v e n d o r u s e d c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s c e m e n t a n d s t e e l w h i c h

w e r e a v a i l a b l e i n t h e c o u n t r y a n d l o c a l l a b o u r f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s . T h e

s t a t i o n w a s c o m m i s s i o n e d w i t h t h e h e l p o f I n d i a n e n g i n e e r s a n d s t a f f . T h e

c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m d o m e s t i c i n d u s t r y w a s m a i n l y i n t h e a r e a s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n

INDIA 281

a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n . F a c i l i t i e s f o r s t o r i n g s p e n t f u e l a n d d i s p o s i n g o f r a d i o a c t i v e

w a s t e s w e r e p r o v i d e d b y I n d i a n s . I n a d d i t i o n t o a s a f e t y c o m m i t t e e , a h e a l t h

p h y s i c i s t i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e s t a t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n w a s l o c a t e d a t t h e s t a t i o n

t o l o o k a f t e r s a f e t y , r a d i o l o g i c a l p r o t e c t i o n a n d e m e r g e n c y p r o c e d u r e s . T h u s

t h e I n d i a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n f o r t h e f i r s t n u c l e a r p o w e r s t a t i o n w a s l i m i t e d t o s i t e

s e l e c t i o n , t e n d e r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , d e s i g n r e v i e w s , o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e .

A - 3 . 4 . 5 . R a j a s t h a n A t o m i c P o w e r S t a t i o n ( R A P S )

R a j a s t h a n A t o m i c P o w e r S t a t i o n ( R A P S 1 a n d 2 ) w a s c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h

C a n a d i a n c o l l a b o r a t i o n . B e f o r e t h e d e c i s i o n t o b u i l d t h i s p o w e r s t a t i o n w a s

t a k e n , a j o i n t s t u d y w a s c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e t w o g o v e r n m e n t s . T h e s t u d y

c o n t a i n e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e s i t e s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f

t h e p l a n t , p r e l i m i n a r y h a z a r d s e v a l u a t i o n , l i k e l y s o u r c e s o f m a t e r i a l s a n d

e q u i p m e n t , a p p r o x i m a t e f i n a n c i a l e s t i m a t e s ( t o t a l e x p e n d i t u r e , I n d i a n c o n t e n t ,

i m p o r t e d c o n t e n t , f u e l c o s t s a n d t o t a l e n e r g y c o s t s ) , a s u g g e s t e d s c h e d u l e a n d a

s u g g e s t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r t h e d e s i g n , p l a n t a n d m a t e r i a l p r o c u r e m e n t , c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

p e r s o n n e l t r a i n i n g a n d c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f t h e s t a t i o n . T h e s t u d y a l s o s t a t e d t h a t

e q u i p m e n t a n d m a t e r i a l s s h o u l d b e p r o c u r e d , a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e , i n I n d i a a n d

o n l y t h o s e t h a t w e r e n o t o b t a i n a b l e l o c a l l y s h o u l d b e i m p o r t e d . E q u i p m e n t a n d

m a t e r i a l s s u p p l i e d b y t h e v e n d o r r e q u i r e d t h e b u y e r ' s a p p r o v a l .

T h e I n d i a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s s t a t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f p r o j e c t m a n a g e m e n t ,

c o n s t r u c t i o n , f a b r i c a t i o n o f n u c l e a r a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t t o t h e e x t e n t

p o s s i b l e , c o m m i s s i o n i n g , o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e . I n d i a i s q u i t e a d v a n c e d i n

c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k a n d a c o n t r a c t o r c o u l d b e e a s i l y f o u n d .

I n r e s p e c t o f R A P S - 1 a l l e q u i p m e n t r e q u i r e d f o r a u x i l i a r y s y s t e m s , s u c h a s

c o m p r e s s e d a i r , w a t e r t r e a t m e n t , s w i t c h y a r d e t c . , w a s s u p p l i e d f r o m d o m e s t i c

s o u r c e s . A u x i l i a r y s y s t e m h e a t e x c h a n g e r s , b r i d g e c r a n e s , s t a i n l e s s s t e e l t a n k s ,

c o n t r o l p a n e l s , m o t o r c o n t r o l c e n t r e s , c a b l e s , b a t t e r i e s a n d c h a r g e r s , c o m p o n e n t s

f o r t h e r a d w a s t e s y s t e m , s m a l l a n d m e d i u m d i a m e t e r p i p e s a n d v a l v e s r e q u i r e d

f o r a u x i l i a r y s y s t e m s , t r a n s f o r m e r s , a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g e q u i p m e n t , a i r d u c t w o r k

a n d r a d i a t i o n d e t e c t o r s w e r e t h e o t h e r t y p i c a l i t e m s s u p p l i e d l o c a l l y . P a r t

m a n u f a c t u r e o f e n d s h i e l d s , a n i m p o r t a n t r e a c t o r c o m p o n e n t , w a s a l s o t a k e n

u p l o c a l l y .

A f e w e x p e r i e n c e d e n g i n e e r s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s i m i l a r

n u c l e a r p o w e r s t a t i o n i n C a n a d a , a n d c o n s t i t u t e d t h e c o r e o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

g r o u p o f R A P S . T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , i n c l u d i n g e r e c t i o n o f r e a c t o r c o m p o n e n t s

t o s t r i n g e n t q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s , w a s d o n e b y I n d i a n s w i t h c o n s u l t a n c y a n d

e n g i n e e r i n g p r o v i d e d b y t h e C a n a d i a n s .

I n d i a n e n g i n e e r s w h o w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i n s p e c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s a t

T A P S w e r e u t i l i z e d t o b u i l d u p a q u a l i t y c o n t r o l g r o u p a t R A P S . W i t h t h e s e

p e r s o n s a s t h e c o r e , a q u a l i t y c o n t r o l a n d i n s p e c t i o n g r o u p w a s f o r m e d w h i c h

c a r r i e d o u t i n s p e c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s a t t h e s i t e .

282 APPENDIX A-l

A - 3 . 4 . 6 . I n d i g e n i z a t i o n

I n d i g e n o u s e q u i p m e n t a n d m a t e r i a l s t h a t w e r e e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e i n t h e c o u n t r y

w e r e u s e d i n R A P S - 1 . T o i n c r e a s e n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n R A P S - 2 , s p e c i a l

e f f o r t s w e r e i n i t i a t e d .

W h i l e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f R A P S - 1 w a s i n p r o g r e s s , a n e n g i n e e r i n g g r o u p w a s

e s t a b l i s h e d t o l o o k a f t e r p r o c u r e m e n t o f i n d i g e n o u s e q u i p m e n t , d e s i g n a s p e c t s

a n d q u a l i t y s u r v e i l l a n c e o f l o c a l e q u i p m e n t a n d c o m p o n e n t s f o r R A P S a n d

f u t u r e r e a c t o r s . T h i s g r o u p w a s a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r e p a r i n g s a f e t y r e p o r t s

a n d l o c a t i n g i n d u s t r i e s w h i c h c o u l d u n d e r t a k e f a b r i c a t i o n o f r e a c t o r e q u i p m e n t

s u c h a s t h e c a l a n d r i a e t c . C o n s t r u c t i o n e x p e r i e n c e a t R A P S - 1 h e l p e d a g r e a t

d e a l i n i m p r o v i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d s , t i m e s c h e d u l e s e t c . f o r R A P S - 2 .

T h e n u c l e a r e q u i p m e n t f o r w h i c h i n d i g e n o u s m a n u f a c t u r e r s h a d t o b e

l o c a t e d w e r e t h e c a l a n d r i a ( r e a c t o r v e s s e l ) , e n d s h i e l d s , r e a c t o r b o i l e r s , h e a t

e x c h a n g e r s f o r r e a c t o r p r o c e s s fluids, i n - c o r e c o m p o n e n t s , f u e l l i n g m a c h i n e s ,

f u e l t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t s e t c . A t t h a t t i m e t h e o n l y e x p e r i e n c e o f

v e s s e l f a b r i c a t i o n i n I n d i a w a s c o n f i n e d t o c e m e n t k i l n s , b o i l e r d r u m s , c h e m i c a l

r e a c t o r s e t c . W e l d i n g o f s t a i n l e s s s t e e l p l a t e s t o v e r y c l o s e d i m e n s i o n a l t o l e r a n c e s

a n d m a c h i n i n g o f f i n i s h e d c o m p o n e n t s t o t h e h i g h p r e c i s i o n i n v o l v e d i n t h e

f a b r i c a t i o n o f t h e a b o v e e q u i p m e n t w a s n e w t e c h n o l o g y .

F o r t h e c a l a n d r i a , a f a b r i c a t o r w a s c h o s e n w h o h a d e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e

f a b r i c a t i o n o f c e m e n t m i l l a n d d a i r y e q u i p m e n t . T h e f o r m e r w o r k r e l a t e d t o

h e a v y f a b r i c a t i o n w h i l e t h e l a t t e r d e a l t w i t h s t a i n l e s s s t e e l w o r k . C o n s i d e r a b l e

d e v e l o p m e n t a l w o r k i n c l u d i n g f a b r i c a t i o n o f a p r o t o t y p e o f t h e m o r e c o m p l e x

d u m p p o r t a s s e m b l y w a s u n d e r t a k e n . T h e p r e l i m i n a r y a c t i v i t i e s i n c l u d e d

d e v e l o p m e n t o f w e l d i n g p r o c e s s e s , s e q u e n c e o f w e l d i n g t o m i n i m i z e d i s t o r t i o n s ,

e v o l v i n g N D E t e c h n i q u e s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o o l i n g . M u c h o f t h e w o r k w a s

j o i n t l y h a n d l e d b y t h e d o m e s t i c a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r i n g g r o u p a n d t h e f a b r i c a t o r s .

S i m i l a r e f f o r t w a s n e e d e d f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f t h e e n d s h i e l d s a n d

b o i l e r s . T h e i n - c o r e c o m p o n e n t s s u c h a s s h i e l d i n g p l u g s , s e a l i n g p l u g s , r e a c t i v i t y

m e c h a n i s m s e t c . r e q u i r e d e x p e r i e n c e i n h i g h - p r e c i s i o n m a c h i n i n g , h e a t t r e a t m e n t

a n d w o r k o n d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f a l l o y s . T h e m a c h i n e t o o l i n d u s t r i e s w e r e a p p r o a c h e d

t o d o t h i s w o r k . I n t h e c a s e o f e n d f i t t i n g s a n d f u e l l i n g m a c h i n e h e a d s , t h e

m a c h i n i n g p r o c e s s e s w e r e s o c o m p l e x t h a t t h e y h a d t o b e d e v e l o p e d i n - h o u s e

i n t h e w o r k s h o p s o f o u r r e s e a r c h c e n t r e , B A R C . A s t h e p r o g r a m m e s g r e w , t h e

n e e d t o h a v e c o m p e t i t i o n w a s r e c o g n i z e d . A c t i v e s t e p s w e r e t h e n t a k e n t o

q u a l i f y m o r e t h a n o n e s u p p l i e r f o r a n u m b e r o f i t e m s .

U r a n i u m m i n i n g a n d m i l l i n g , f u e l f a b r i c a t i o n a n d m a n u f a c t u r e o f n u c l e a r

c o n t r o l i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n w e r e t h e o t h e r a r e a s o f n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n . T h e

p r o c e s s k n o w - h o w f o r t h e u r a n i u m m i l l w a s d e v e l o p e d a t B A R C . H a l f t h e f i r s t

c h a r g e o f m e t a l l i c u r a n i u m f u e l f o r C I R U S w a s m a n u f a c t u r e d i n I n d i a a n d a l l

s u b s e q u e n t c h a r g e s w e r e m a d e i n I n d i a . F o r R A P S , s e m i - p r o d u c t i o n - s c a l e

INDIA 283

f a c i l i t i e s w e r e s e t u p a t B A R C t o p r o d u c e n u c l e a r - g r a d e u r a n i u m o x i d e p e l l e t s

a n d t h e f u e l a s s e m b l i e s . A n i n d u s t r i a l - s c a l e p l a n t , t h e N u c l e a r F u e l C o m p l e x ( N F C ) ,

w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y s e t u p f o r f a b r i c a t i o n o f f u e l e l e m e n t s a n d f o r p r o d u c t i o n o f

Z i r c a l o y f o r c a l a n d r i a t u b e s a n d p r e s s u r e t u b e s f o r t h e e x i s t i n g a n d f u t u r e

r e a c t o r s . H a l f t h e f i r s t c h a r g e f u e l f o r R A P S w a s m a d e i n I n d i a . A l l s u b s e q u e n t

c h a r g e s w e r e a l s o m a d e i n d i g e n o u s l y . A p a r t o f t h e h e a v y w a t e r w a s a l s o

i n d i g e n o u s l y a v a i l a b l e a n d p r o j e c t s w e r e t a k e n i n h a n d t o p r o d u c e t h e h e a v y

w a t e r r e q u i r e d f o r t h e w h o l e p r o g r a m m e . C o m m e n c i n g f r o m e n r i c h e d u r a n i u m

s u p p l i e d b y t h e U S A , f u e l a s s e m b l i e s f o r T A P S w e r e a l s o p r o d u c e d a t N F C .

D e s i g n a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e c o n t r o l a n d i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s y s t e m s f o r t h e

first r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r , A P S A R A , w a s t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f a c o n c e r t e d p r o g r a m m e

i n t h e f i e l d o f n u c l e a r i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n . F o r t h e f i r s t n u c l e a r p o w e r s t a t i o n ,

T A P S , b u i l t o n a t u r n k e y b a s i s , t h e c o n t r a c t o r w a s p e r s u a d e d t o s u b - c o n t r a c t

t h e s u p p l y o f c o n t r o l a n d i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n p a n e l s t o t h e i n d i g e n o u s g r o u p w h i c h

s u p p l i e d t h e r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n . I n d u e c o u r s e , a f u l l - s c a l e e l e c t r o n i c s

i n d u s t r y w a s s e t u p f o r t h e s u p p l y o f s e v e r a l i t e m s a m o n g w h i c h w e r e t h e

n u c l e a r i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d e l e c t r o n i c c o m p u t e r s .

I n g e n e r a l , l o c a l i n d u s t r y p a r t i c i p a t e d q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l l y i n s u p p l y i n g t h e

s p e c i a l c o m p o n e n t s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t s . C o n s i d e r a b l e d e l a y s

w e r e , h o w e v e r , e x p e r i e n c e d i n g e t t i n g t h e c o m p o n e n t s f a b r i c a t e d o n t i m e .

T h i s w a s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , s i n c e t h e t r a i n i n g e f f o r t r e q u i r e d , t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s

i n v o l v e d , h i g h r e j e c t i o n r a t e s a n d t i g h t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s p o s e d p r o b l e m s o f

c o n s i d e r a b l e m a g n i t u d e .

A - 3 . 4 . 7 . M a n p o w e r

R e g a r d i n g t r a i n i n g o f m a n p o w e r , t h e f i r s t b a t c h o f e n g i n e e r s a n d t e c h n i c i a n s

f o r o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f R A P S u n d e r w e n t t r a i n i n g o n a s i m i l a r p l a n t

i n C a n a d a . T h e n u m b e r o f p e r s o n s i n v o l v e d w a s o n l y a b o u t 5 % o f t h e e s t i m a t e d

o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e s t a f f . O n i t s r e t u r n , t h i s g r o u p r e c r u i t e d a n d t r a i n e d

t h e r e s t o f t h e s t a f f i n t h e N u c l e a r T r a i n i n g C e n t r e ( N T C ) s e t u p b y t h e

d e p a r t m e n t . T h e p e r s o n n e l a t T A P S w e r e g i v e n o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g , a n d t h i s

w a s f o u n d q u i t e a d e q u a t e , s i n c e i t w a s p o s s i b l e t o r e c r u i t e x p e r i e n c e d p e r s o n s

f r o m n e a r b y a r e a s . R A P S , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s l o c a t e d f a r a w a y f r o m a n y

i n d u s t r i a l c e n t r e a n d t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s u i t a b l e t e c h n i c i a n s a n d c r a f t s m e n w a s

e x t r e m e l y l o w . T h e t r a i n i n g c e n t r e w a s d e s i g n e d t o t a k e f r e s h p e o p l e a n d t r a i n

t h e m t o s u i t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r s t a t i o n s . T h e c o m m i s s i o n i n g

o f R A P S - 1 w a s d o n e b y a g r o u p o f I n d i a n s a n d C a n a d i a n s u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e o f

t h e f o r e i g n c o l l a b o r a t o r . T h e f i r s t b a t c h o f s h i f t - c h a r g e e n g i n e e r s w a s a l s o

l i c e n s e d b y t h i s g r o u p . R A P S - 1 b e c a m e c r i t i c a l i n 1 9 7 2 a n d s t a r t e d c o m m e r c i a l

o p e r a t i o n i n 1 9 7 3 .

284 APPENDIX A-l

A - 3 . 4 . 8 . N u c l e a r T r a i n i n g C e n t r e ( N T C )

A N u c l e a r T r a i n i n g C e n t r e ( N T C ) w a s s e t u p i n 1 9 7 1 a t R A P S . F a c i l i t i e s

w e r e b u i l t t o i m p a r t t h e o r e t i c a l t r a i n i n g t o p r o f e s s i o n a l , t e c h n i c a l a n d c r a f t s m e n

t r a i n e e s . T r a i n i n g s h o p s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d t o u p g r a d e t h e s k i l l s a n d g i v e t r a i n i n g

f o r s p e c i a l i z e d s k i l l s . T h e t r a i n i n g i s n o r m a l l y o f t w o y e a r s ' d u r a t i o n , s i x m o n t h s

a t t h e c e n t r e a n d 1 8 m o n t h s o n - t h e - j o b i n t h e R A P S p o w e r s t a t i o n .

A l l p e r s o n s w h o h a v e u n d e r g o n e t r a i n i n g a r e a l s o t a k e n f o r r e t r a i n i n g a t

p e r i o d i c i n t e r v a l s . S u c h r e t r a i n i n g i s a l s o d o n e w h e n e v e r n e w e q u i p m e n t i s

i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e s t a t i o n o r m a j o r d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i o n a l c h a n g e s a r e e f f e c t e d .

T h e t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e f o r t e c h n i c i a n s a n d c r a f t s m e n t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e

l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t i n g i n t h e c o u n t r y .

A t r a i n i n g s i m u l a t o r ( f o r P H W R s ) d e s i g n e d b y t h e d e p a r t m e n t i s a t p r e s e n t

u n d e r m a n u f a c t u r e i n I n d i a . A f t e r i t s i n s t a l l a t i o n a t t h e N T C , a m o r e t h o r o u g h

t r a i n i n g o f t h e o p e r a t i n g p e r s o n n e l w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e .

A - 3 . 4 . 9 . M a d r a s A t o m i c P o w e r S t a t i o n ( M A P S 1 a n d 2 )

T h e e n g i n e e r i n g g r o u p w a s e x p a n d e d t o a c h i e v e c o m p l e t e a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r i n g

c a p a b i l i t y . T h e c o m p l e t e p l a n n i n g a n d e n g i n e e r i n g o f M A P S w a s t a k e n u p

i n d i g e n o u s l y . T h e e x p e r t i s e a v a i l a b l e i n B A R C w a s u s e d i n i m p o r t a n t a r e a s s u c h

a s s a f e t y , e n g i n e e r i n g d e v e l o p m e n t , m a n u f a c t u r e o f c r i t i c a l c o m p o n e n t s , e n v i r o n -

m e n t a l a s p e c t s e t c .

A s r e g a r d s t h e i n d i g e n i z a t i o n e f f o r t f o r M A P S , d o m e s t i c s u p p l i e r s u n d e r t o o k

t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f a l l e l e c t r i c a l e q u i p m e n t , i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l s y s t e m

e q u i p m e n t , t u r b i n e a n d g e n e r a t o r , v a r i o u s s i z e s o f p u m p s , v a l v e s , h e a t e x c h a n g e r s

e t c . A l l t h e r e a c t o r c o m p o n e n t s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d i n d i g e n o u s l y . O n l y s o m e

o f t h e s p e c i a l r a w m a t e r i a l s n o t a v a i l a b l e i n t h e c o u n t r y w e r e i m p o r t e d . T o t a l

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r d e s i g n e n g i n e e r i n g , m a n u f a c t u r e o f c o m p o n e n t s , q u a l i t y

a s s u r a n c e , c o n s t r u c t i o n , c o m m i s s i o n i n g , o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e w a s t h a t o f

t h e I n d i a n D e p a r t m e n t o f A t o m i c E n e r g y . A l l c a t e g o r i e s o f p e r s o n n e l r e q u i r e d

f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f M A P S a r e b e i n g t r a i n e d a t R A P S a n d N T C .

A - 3 . 4 . 1 0 . P r e s e n t s t a t u s

C o m m i s s i o n i n g o f R A P S - 2 a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f M A P S - 1 a r e i n a d v a n c e d

s t a g e s . T h e o t h e r p r o j e c t s a r e i n v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . A r c h i t e c t -

e n g i n e e r i n g f o r t h e N a r o r a A t o m i c P o w e r S t a t i o n ( N A P S ) i s a t t h e s t a g e o f

c o m p l e t i o n . W i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e o n M A P S d e s i g n , i t w a s p o s s i b l e t o i n c l u d e

m a n y a d v a n c e d d e s i g n f e a t u r e s i n t h i s p o w e r s t a t i o n t o s u i t f u t u r e 5 0 0 M W ( e )

u n i t s . T h e i n d i g e n o u s c o n t e n t o f t h e p r o j e c t s p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s e d o v e r a

p e r i o d o f t i m e f r o m a b o u t 5 5 % i n R A P S - 1 t o a b o u t 9 0 % i n N A P S .

INDIA 285

A - 3 . 5 . C O N C L U S I O N

T h e I n d i a n e x p e r i e n c e i s t h a t t h e e x t e n t o f n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e

m a n u f a c t u r e o f n u c l e a r c o m p o n e n t s d e p e n d s t o a g r e a t e x t e n t o n t h e o v e r a l l

n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e o f t h e c o u n t r y . I t w a s f o u n d a d v a n t a g e o u s t o a d o p t

o n e t y p e o f p o w e r r e a c t o r f o r m e e t i n g t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r n e e d s , s i n c e t h i s c a l l s

f o r l e s s i n v e s t m e n t i n i n d u s t r y b y w a y o f e q u i p m e n t a n d t r a i n i n g o f m a n p o w e r .

I n d i a t o s t a r t w i t h h a s o p t e d f o r 2 0 0 M W ( e ) r e a c t o r s . O n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r t h i s s i z e w a s t h e c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f t h e s t a t i o n i n t h e p r e s e n t

e l e c t r i c g r i d s . I t h a s a l s o t o b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t m a n u f a c t u r e r s a r e p r e p a r e d t o

i n v e s t c a p i t a l i n s e t t i n g u p f a c i l i t i e s t o m a k e n u c l e a r c o m p o n e n t s o n l y i f t h e y

a r e a s s u r e d o f a s u s t a i n e d d e m a n d , a n d a p r o g r a m m e o f t h i s t y p e f u l f i l s t h i s

r e q u i r e m e n t a d m i r a b l y .

T h e m a n p o w e r p l a n n i n g f o r t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e i n I n d i a s t a r t e d

o v e r 2 5 y e a r s a g o . R e q u i r e m e n t s w e r e m a i n l y m e t f r o m t h e B A R C t r a i n i n g

s c h o o l i n r e s p e c t o f s c i e n t i s t s a n d e n g i n e e r s a n d f r o m N T C i n r e s p e c t o f

t e c h n i c i a n s a n d c r a f t s m e n . I n d u s t r y a l s o s e r v e d a s a s o u r c e o f e x p e r i e n c e d

m a n p o w e r i n c o n v e n t i o n a l a r e a s . I n d i a n e x p e r i e n c e h a s b e e n t h a t t h e a m o u n t

o f m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e d f o r t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e i s c o m p a r a t i v e l y

h i g h e r t h a n t h a t i n d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s , o w i n g t o t h e l e s s e r m e c h a n i z a t i o n ,

n e w t e c h n o l o g y i n v o l v e d , a d o p t i o n o f a r e p a i r p h i l o s o p h y r a t h e r t h a n a

r e p l a c e m e n t p h i l o s o p h y w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e a n d n o n - a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c o n t r a c t o r s '

s e r v i c e s f o r s t a t i o n m a i n t e n a n c e .

T o s u m m a r i z e , b o t h m a n p o w e r p l a n n i n g a n d n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n h a v e

b e e n p r o c e s s e s w h i c h h a v e e v o l v e d i n I n d i a o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e . I t i s

a m o d e s t p r o g r a m m e , b u i l t o n a s o l i d f o u n d a t i o n c a p a b l e o f c o n t i n u o u s g r o w t h .

REPUBLIC OF KOREA

A - 4 . 1 . N U C L E A R P O W E R P R O G R A M M E O F K O R E A

D u r i n g t h e l a s t d e c a d e , t h e e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r d e m a n d h a s b e e n i n c r e a s i n g a t a n

a v e r a g e r a t e o f 1 9 % , a n d t h i s t r e n d i s e x p e c t e d t o c o n t i n u e i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s .

A s a n e n e r g y - r e s o u r c e s - p o o r n a t i o n , K o r e a h a s n o a l t e r n a t i v e b u t t o c h o o s e

n u c l e a r p o w e r a s t h e b a c k b o n e o f i t s e n e r g y d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e g e n e r a t i n g c a p a c i t y

w a s 7 0 0 0 M W ( e ) a s o f 1 9 7 8 . T h e n a t i o n ' s f i r s t n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t , K O R I - 1 ,

h a s b e e n o p e r a t i n g s i n c e A p r i l 1 9 7 8 , a n d s i x m o r e n u c l e a r u n i t s a r e e i t h e r u n d e r

c o n s t r u c t i o n o r i n t h e b i d d i n g s t a g e ( s e e T a b l e A - 4 . 1 ) .

T h e n u c l e a r p a r t o f t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r i s e x p e c t e d t o b e 3 0 % b y 1 9 8 6 ,

a n d o v e r 6 0 % b y 1 9 9 5 . K o r e a p l a n s t o b u i l d 4 5 n u c l e a r u n i t s w i t h a t o t a l c a p a c i t y

o f 4 3 0 0 0 M W ( e ) b y t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0 , w h i c h m e a n s a n a v e r a g e o f t w o p l a n t s p e r y e a r .

A - 4 . 2 . P O L I C Y , S T R A T E G Y , P R O C E D U R E S F O R N A T I O N A L P A R T I C I P A T I O N

T h e m a i n p u r p o s e o f n u c l e a r p o w e r i n K o r e a i s t o p r o d u c e r e l i a b l e a n d c h e a p

e l e c t r i c i t y . H o w e v e r , b e c a u s e o f t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e i n v e s t m e n t s a n d t h e

s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n o l o g i e s i n v o l v e d , s p i n - o f f e f f e c t s o n a l l e c o n o m i c s e c t o r s o f t h e

c o u n t r y w i l l b e v e r y g r e a t .

K o r e a h a s d e t e r m i n e d t o u s e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f u l l y , b e c a u s e t h e t o t a l

i n v e s t m e n t s f o r b u i l d i n g 4 5 u n i t s b y t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0 a r e e s t i m a t e d t o b e 7 0 X 1 0 9

U S d o l l a r s i n c l u d i n g t h e f u e l c o s t s , a n d b e c a u s e w i t h o u t i n t e n s i v e n a t i o n a l

p a r t i c i p a t i o n n e i t h e r n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t s n o r t h e n a t i o n ' s e c o n o m y c a n e x i s t .

K o r e a ' s b a s i c s t r a t e g i e s f o r n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a r e :

( a ) S t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e h e a v y i n d u s t r i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d c a p a b i l i t i e s

( b ) I m p o r t i n g a d v a n c e d f o r e i g n t e c h n o l o g y a n d k n o w - h o w

( c ) I n t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t

( d ) P r o m u l g a t i o n o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t ' s r e g u l a t i o n s p e c i f y i n g t h e n a t i o n a l

p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e s i n e a c h s u c c e s s i v e s u p p l y c o n t r a c t

A s f o r i t s p r o c e d u r e s r e g a r d i n g t h e n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n e f f o r t , K o r e a h a s

b e g u n w i t h t h e field o f a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r i n g ( A E ) , n o t m e r e l y b e c a u s e t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f A E c a p a b i l i t i e s c a n r e d u c e t h e c a p i t a l o u t f l o w r e q u i r e d f o r t h e A E

p o r t i o n i t s e l f ( a b o u t 1 0 % o f t h e t o t a l p r o j e c t c o s t s ) , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e i t i s t h e

REPUBLIC OF KOREA 287

T A B L E A - 4 . 1 . C U R R E N T S T A T U S O F N U C L E A R P O W E R I N T H E

R E P U B L I C O F K O R E A

Plant Capacity (MW(e))

Reactor type Contract type Status

KORI No. 1 595 PWR, Westinghouse Turnkey Operation 1978

KORI No.2 650 PWR, Westinghouse Turnkey Construction 1 9 7 7 - 1 9 8 3

WOLSUNG No. l

678 CANDU,AECL Turnkey Construction 1 9 7 6 - 1 9 8 2

KORI No. 5 950 PWR, Westinghouse Non-turnkey Construction 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 8 4

KORI No.6 950 PWR, Westinghouse Non-turnkey Construction 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 8 5

Plant No.7 950 PWR, Westinghouse Non-turnkey Construction 1 9 7 9 - 1 9 8 6

Plant No.8 950 PWR, Westinghouse Non-turnkey Construction 1 9 7 9 - 1 9 8 7

p r e r e q u i s i t e t o f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e n a t i o n ' s s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y i n r e a c t o r s e l e c t i o n ,

c o n s t r u c t i o n , o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e , a n d d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n o f c o m p o n e n t s .

F o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f n u c l e a r c o m p o n e n t s i n c l u d i n g N S S S , t u r b i n e -

g e n e r a t o r s , a n d b a l a n c e o f p l a n t , t h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s d e s i g n a t e d a n d g i v e n e x c l u s i v e

rights t o t w o g r o u p s o f l o c a l m a n u f a c t u r e r s . B e t w e e n t h e t w o d e s i g n a t e d g r o u p s ,

t h e m a j o r i t e m s t o b e m a n u f a c t u r e d a r e b e i n g d i v i d e d a n d s p e c i a l i z e d . T h e g r o u p s

h a v e a l s o s e t u p a l o c a l s u b - c o n t r a c t i n g s y s t e m f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g s p a r e p a r t s .

H o w e v e r , f o r t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n o l o g i e s a n d k n o w - h o w r e q u i r e d f o r t h e

m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f n u c l e a r c o m p o n e n t s , t h e l o c a l c o m p a n i e s a r e m a i n l y r e l y i n g o n

f o r e i g n t e c h n i c a l c a p a b i l i t i e s p r o v i d e d b y m e a n s o f l i c e n s i n g a n d k n o w - h o w

a g r e e m e n t s , a t l e a s t u n t i l t h e y b u i l d u p t h e i r o w n c a p a b i l i t y b y a d o p t i n g a n d

d i s s e m i n a t i n g f o r e i g n t e c h n o l o g y , a s w e l l a s t h r o u g h t h e i r o w n r e s e a r c h a n d

d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s .

288 APPENDIX A-l

A - 4 . 3 . 1 . Research institutes

A s a b a s i c i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r n u c l e a r e n e r g y d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e K o r e a A t o m i c

E n e r g y R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e ( K A E R I ) h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 9 5 9 , w i t h t h e

f o l l o w i n g m a i n f u n c t i o n s :

( a ) P r o v i d e t h e G o v e r n m e n t a n d u t i l i t i e s w i t h n e w t e c h n i c a l d a t a a n d

i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d i n f o r m u l a t i n g t h e n a t i o n ' s e n e r g y p o l i c y a n d

p l a n n i n g , e s p e c i a l l y f o r i t s f i r s t n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t .

( b ) T h r o u g h r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s , p r o v i d e t r a i n i n g o f n u c l e a r p r o f e s s i o n a l s a n d

t e c h n i c i a n s .

( c ) H e l p l o c a l i n d u s t r i e s i n s e l e c t i n g , a d o p t i n g a n d d i s s e m i n a t i n g n e w f o r e i g n

t e c h n o l o g y , a n d a c t a s a m e d i a t o r f o r t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f e r .

( d ) D e v e l o p i n d i g e n o u s t e c h n i c a l c a p a b i l i t i e s , t h u s e n h a n c i n g n a t i o n a l

p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

( e ) P r o v i d e r a d i o i s o t o p e s f o r i n d u s t r i a l a n d f o r m e d i c a l u s e s .

T h e K A E R I h a s s e r v e d a s h e a d q u a r t e r s f o r t h e K o r e a n n u c l e a r d e v e l o p m e n t

f o r a l m o s t t w o d e c a d e s , a n d i t w a s t h e r e t h a t t h e f i r s t K o r e a n p o w e r r e a c t o r

p r o j e c t o r i g i n a t e d .

T h e K o r e a N u l c e a r F u e l D e v e l o p m e n t I n s t i t u t e ( K N F D I ) , K o r e a N u c l e a r

E n g i n e e r i n g S e r v i c e s , I n c . ( K N E ) a n d , t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , t h e K o r e a I n s t i t u t e o f

S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y ( K I S T ) a s w e l l a s a f e w o t h e r r e s e a r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e

r e a l l y s p i n - o f f s f r o m K A E R I , a n d m o s t o t h e r n e w l y e s t a b l i s h e d r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s

i n K o r e a h a v e b e e n s t a f f e d f r o m t h e K A E R I p o o l o f s c i e n t i s t s a n d e n g i n e e r s .

A-4.3.2. Science and Technology Development Plan

A s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e n a t i o n a l e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s , t h e F i v e Y e a r

S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y D e v e l o p m e n t P l a n s h a v e b e e n f o r m u l a t e d a n d i m p l e m e n t e d

s i n c e 1 9 6 2 . T h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s , a s a w h o l e , h a v e n o t o n l y m a d e i t p o s s i b l e

t o e s t a b l i s h a f i r m f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n ' s s c i e n t i f i c a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l

i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s , b u t h a v e a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n d u s t r i e s .

A-4.3.3. Educational infrastructure

T h e K o r e a n e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m i s b a s i c a l l y a 6 - 3 - 3 - 4 y e a r s t r u c t u r e , a n d u p t o

t h e s i x t h g r a d e i t i s a c o m p u l s o r y e d u c a t i o n . T h e r e w e r e 1 0 3 8 0 s c h o o l s a s o f 1 9 7 7 ,

i n c l u d i n g p r i m a r y s c h o o l s u p t o u n i v e r s i t i e s , w i t h e n r o l m e n t o f m o r e t h a n

1 0 m i l l i o n o u t o f a t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 7 m i l l i o n . T h e r a t e o f i l l i t e r a c y i s e s t i m a t e d

t o b e a b o u t 7 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . T h e r e a r e 7 3 c o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s w i t h

2 5 0 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s a n d 1 1 0 0 0 p r o f e s s o r s ; a b o u t 6 0 % o f t h e s t u d e n t s a r e m a j o r i n g i n

n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , e n g i n e e r i n g o r r e l a t e d s u b j e c t s .

A - 4 . 3 . 4 . M a n p o w e r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e - T h e N a t i o n a l T e c h n i c a l Q u a l i f i c a t i o n

S y s t e m

T h e N a t i o n a l T e c h n i c a l Q u a l i f i c a t i o n S y s t e m , w h i c h w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 9 7 5

u n d e r t h e N a t i o n a l T e c h n i c a l Q u a l i f i c a t i o n L a w , i s a s y s t e m o f r e c o g n i z i n g

q u a l i f i c a t i o n s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y f o r t h o s e e n g i n e e r s a n d c r a f t s m e n w h o s e t e c h n i c a l

c a p a b i l i t i e s h a v e r e a c h e d a s p e c i f i e d l e v e l , a n d o f a c c e l e r a t i n g t h e u s e o f t h e i r

c a p a b i l i t i e s .

I t s a i m s a r e :

— T o i m p r o v e t h e q u a l i t y o f e n g i n e e r s a n d c r a f t s m e n t h r o u g h a n e v a l u a t i o n

s y s t e m .

— T o i n c r e a s e p r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t f o r q u a l i f i c a t i o n h o l d e r s .

— T o i n c r e a s e a n d i m p r o v e t e c h n i c a l e d u c a t i o n t o f i l l i n d u s t r i a l n e e d s b y

t e s t i n g .

— T o s e c u r e b e t t e r t e c h n i c a l m a n p o w e r a n d m a x i m i z e i t s u s e b y s t a n d a r d i z i n g

c r i t e r i a a n d t i t l e s f o r e x i s t i n g q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , f o r s u c h c r i t e r i a w e r e i n c o n s i s t e n t

a n d t o o d i v e r s e .

U n d e r t h i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n l a w , e v e r y c r a f t s m a n a n d e n g i n e e r i s r e q u i r e d t o t a k e

t e c h n i c a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n t e s t s o n h i s m a j o r fields a t t h e e n d o f h i s t r a i n i n g o r

e d u c a t i o n ( F i g u r e A - 4 . 1 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r h a v i n g a c c u m u l a t e d

e x p e r i e n c e d u r i n g v a r y i n g l e n g t h s o f t i m e .

A - 4 . 3 . 5 . I n d u s t r i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e

K o r e a i s a s e m i - i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r y , a n d i t s i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t s r e p r e s e n t e d

3 1 % o f t h e t o t a l n a t i o n a l G N P a s o f 1 9 7 8 . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 5 % o f i t s

U S $ 1 2 . 7 X 1 0 9 i n e x p o r t s i n 1 9 7 8 w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d g o o d s .

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e s e v e r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o l i g h t i n d u s t r i a l

p r o d u c t s , K o r e a h a s l a u n c h e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f h e a v y a n d t e c h n o l o g y - i n t e n s i v e

i n d u s t r i e s , s u c h a s m a c h i n e r y , s h i p - b u i l d i n g , s t e e l s , e l e c t r o n i c s a n d p e t r o c h e m i c a l s ,

s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s .

K o r e a h a s b u i l t a n i n t e g r a t e d i r o n a n d s t e e l p l a n t h a v i n g a p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y

o f 5 . 5 m i l l i o n t o n n e s a y e a r , w h i c h i s e x p e c t e d t o e x p a n d t o 8 . 5 m i l l i o n t o n n e s

b y 1 9 8 1 . K o r e a h a s a l s o b u i l t u p i n d u s t r i e s f o r h i g h - g r a d e s p e c i a l s t e e l s , a l l o y s a n d

n o n - f e r r o u s m e t a l s p r o d u c t i o n .

290 APPENDIX A-l

FIG.A-4.1. Technical qualification system.

A s f o r s h i p - b u i l d i n g i n d u s t r i e s , K o r e a i s c a p a b l e o f b u i l d i n g 3 m i l l i o n G T a

y e a r o f v a r i o u s s h i p s i n c l u d i n g 3 0 0 0 0 0 G T c l a s s t a n k e r s 1 . I t h a s a l s o d e v e l o p e d i t s

o w n i n d i g e n o u s a u t o m o b i l e a n d h e a v y m a c h i n e r y f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k s f o r b o t h

d o m e s t i c a n d e x p o r t p u r p o s e s . A t p r e s e n t , K o r e a n i n d u s t r y i s a b l e t o m a n u f a c t u r e

a b o u t 6 0 % o f t h e n a t i o n ' s t o t a l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r i n d u s t r i a l f a c i l i t i e s , t o o l s , a n d

m a c h i n e r y .

K o r e a h a s a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d a q u a l i t y c o n t r o l a n d s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n s y s t e m i n i t s

i n d u s t r i e s . T h e K o r e a S t a n d a r d s R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e ( K - S R I ) i s o n e o f m a n y

o r g a n i z a t i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e q u a l i t y c o n t r o l a n d s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n a s p e c t s .

A - 4 . 4 . E X P E R I E N C E

A - 4 . 4 . 1 . General b a c k g r o u n d

T h e K o r e a E l e c t r i c C o m p a n y ( K E C O ) i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s . I t i s t h e s o l e e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y i n K o r e a .

T h e M i n i s t r y o f S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y ( M O S T ) i s t h e r e s p o n s i b l e m i n i s t r y

f o r a l l a s p e c t s r e l e v a n t t o n u c l e a r l i c e n s i n g a n d s a f e t y .

1 GT = Gross ton or 2240 pounds.

A-4.4.2. Services

Contractual approach

T h e f i r s t t h r e e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s ( K O R I - 1 , - 2 a n d W O L S U N G - 1 ) w e r e b u i l t

u n d e r t h e t u r n k e y c o n t r a c t s y s t e m . H o w e v e r , i t h a s b e e n f o u n d t h a t t h e t u r n k e y

c o n t r a c t i s n o t a s u i t a b l e f o r m o f c o n t r a c t i n v i e w o f t h e n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n g o a l s .

T h e r e a f t e r , a l l t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s i n c l u d i n g K O R I - 3 a n d - 4 h a v e b e e n

u n d e r t h e n o n - t u r n k e y s y s t e m , u n d e r w h i c h K E C O s i g n s a s e p a r a t e c o n t r a c t w i t h

e a c h s u p p l i e r ( N S S S , T / G , a n d f u e l , a s w e l l a s a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r i n g ) .

K E C O h i r e d a f o r e i g n c o n s u l t i n g f i r m f o r p l a n t s N o . 7 a n d 8 i n o r d e r t o g e t

h e l p i n p r e p a r i n g t h e b i d r e q u e s t d o c u m e n t s a n d i n e v a l u t i n g t h e b i d s . T h e f o r e i g n

c o n s u l t i n g f i r m i s , h o w e v e r , o b l i g a t e d t o w o r k w i t h t h e K o r e a N u c l e a r E n g i n e e r i n g

S e r v i c e s , I n c . ( K N E ) a s i t s K E C O - d e s i g n a t e d K o r e a n c o u n t e r p a r t . K N E i s e x p e c t e d

t o t a k e o v e r t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f s u c h p r e - p r o j e c t s e r v i c e s b y 1 9 8 0 .

Planning

P l a n n i n g r e l a t e d t o n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t s , s u c h a s t h e n a t i o n a l p o w e r s y s t e m

p l a n n i n g , f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s , a n d t h e s i t e s e l e c t i o n s a r e a l l b e i n g d o n e b y t h e n a t i o n a l

i n s t i t u t e s s u c h a s K A E R I , K I S T , K D I a n d K N E .

U p t o 1 9 7 0 , w h e n t h e f i r s t n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t , K O R I - 1 , w a s p l a n n e d , m o s t o f

t h e p l a n n i n g w a s d o n e w i t h t h e h e l p o f f o r e i g n c o n s u l t i n g f i r m s .

Architect-engineering (AE)

T h e a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r i n g s e r v i c e s f o r t h e f i r s t t h r e e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s w i t h

t u r n k e y c o n t r a c t s w e r e a l l p r o v i d e d b y f o r e i g n A E firms u n d e r t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f

t h e m a i n c o n t r a c t o r s , w i t h o u t a n y n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

U n d e r t h e n o n - t u r n k e y a p p r o a c h , t h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p i t s

o w n A E c a p a b i l i t i e s a s o n e o f t h e t o p p r i o r i t i e s . T o a c h i e v e t h i s , w i t h e n d o r s e m e n t

o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t , K A E R I h a s e s t a b l i s h e d K o r e a N u c l e a r E n g i n e e r i n g S e r v i c e s , I n c .

( K N E ) i n 1 9 7 5 a s i t s s u b s i d i a r y c o m p a n y . T h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s s e t f o r t h t h e

f o l l o w i n g p o l i c i e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o K N E :

— A l l A E s e r v i c e s r e q u i r e d f o r n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t s s h a l l b e c e n t r a l i z e d ,

d e v e l o p e d , a n d a c c u m u l a t e d b y K N E .

— N u c l e a r - r e l a t e d l o c a l i n d u s t r i e s s h a l l j o i n i n f o s t e r i n g K N E , w i t h t h e i r

m a n p o w e r a n d t e c h n o l o g y s o i n t e g r a t e d a s t o b e r e a d y t o r e c e i v e t h e

a d v a n c e d t e c h n o l o g y f r o m f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s e f f e c t i v e l y , w h i l e K A E R I s h a l l

p l a y a m a j o r r o l e i n o p e r a t i o n a n d K E C O i n p r o v i d i n g n e c e s s a r y f u n d s .

— K N E s h a l l m a i n t a i n t e c h n i c a l c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h f o r e i g n e n g i n e e r i n g f i r m s

f o r a c q u i r i n g a n d a c c u m u l a t i n g A E c a p a b i l i t i e s .

292 APPENDIX A-l

T A B L E A - 4 . 2 . N A T I O N A L P A R T I C I P A T I O N R A T E S I N A E ( % )

Plant Engineering design

Field engineering

Nos 5 and 6 13 0 8.5

Nos 7 and 8 39 30 35.5

Nos 9 and 10 65 80 70.5

Nos 11 and 12 75 85 78.7

Nos 13 and 14 85 90 86.8

T A B L E A - 4 . 3 . M A N P O W E R P L A N T O F K N E

^ s . Year

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n ^ ^

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Design & engineering

14 79 305 667 1007 1264 1444 1580 1639

Secondment to KECO's turnkey contractors

158 50 40 •

and Speciality

consulting services

152 160 160 180 200 230 250 260 280

Overseas training

90 80 40 30 20 10 10 10

Others 20 20 30 30 50 50 60 60

Total 166 507 615 957 1267 1564 1754 1910 1989

U n t i l K N E r e a c h e s s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y i n i t s A E c a p a b i l i t i e s , K E C O i s p e r m i t t e d t o

h i r e f o r e i g n c o m p a n i e s f o r A E s e r v i c e s , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e y w o r k a n d s h a r e w i t h K N E

i n a l l a s p e c t s o f t h e w o r k p e r f o r m e d . B y t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s , h o w e v e r , K N E i s e x p e c t e d

t o b e c o m e t h e m a i n c o n t r a c t o r f o r A E s e r v i c e s ( T a b l e A - 4 . 2 ) . K N E s t a f f i s e x p e c t e d

t o i n c r e a s e t o 2 0 0 0 b y 1 9 8 6 ( T a b l e A - 4 . 3 ) .

Construction

A l l t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d e r e c t i o n w o r k s e x c e p t s u p e r v i s i o n a r e b e i n g d o n e b y

K o r e a n c o m p a n i e s f o r a l l t h e n u c l e a r p l a n t s .

Regulatory and licensing

K o r e a h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h i n g i t s o w n c o d e s a n d s t a n d a r d s f o r r e a c t o r s a f e t y a n d

r e g u l a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e A t o m i c E n e r g y L a w , w h i c h w a s e n a c t e d i n 1 9 5 8 .

H o w e v e r , o w i n g t o a l a c k o f i t s o w n e x p e r i e n c e a n d c a p a b i l i t i e s , i t h a s b e e n a g e n e r a l

p r a c t i c e t h a t t h e c r i t e r i a f o r s u c h c o d e s a n d s t a n d a r d s c o n s i s t o f a d o p t i n g t h o s e o f

t h e r e a c t o r s u p p l i e r s w i t h s o m e a d j u s t m e n t s t o t h e l o c a l s i t u a t i o n s .

T h e M i n i s t r y o f S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y ( M O S T ) p e r f o r m s t h e n u c l e a r

r e g u l a t o r y f u n c t i o n s w i t h a s t a f f o f 9 0 i n c l u d i n g t w o s t a n d i n g c o m m i s s i o n s , a n d

t w o b u r e a u s : t h e B u r e a u o f A t o m i c E n e r g y a n d t h e N u c l e a r R e g u l a t o r y B u r e a u .

K A E R I a n d o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l i n s t i t u t e s p r o v i d e M O S T w i t h t e c h n i c a l d a t a

a n d a s s i s t a n c e i n r e s p e c t o f t h e r e g u l a t o r y a n d l i c e n s i n g s e r v i c e s .

Operation

T h e f i r s t n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t , K O R I - 1 , h a s b e e n o p e r a t e d s i n c e A p r i l 1 9 7 8 b y

1 6 0 l o c a l K o r e a n s t a f f a n d o p e r a t o r s , w i t h o u t f o r e i g n m a n p o w e r . T h e e n t i r e

o p e r a t i n g p e r s o n n e l w e r e h a n d p i c k e d f r o m e x i s t i n g t h e r m a l p o w e r s t a t i o n s o r

e q u i v a l e n t i n d u s t r i e s , a n d a l l o f t h e m w e r e g i v e n a v e r y i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g a b r o a d a n d

a t t h e s i t e .

T h e k e y t o t h e s u c c e s s i n o p e r a t i o n w a s ( a ) s e l e c t i o n o f g o o d q u a l i t y m e n ,

( b ) i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g , a n d ( c ) p r o v i s i o n o f i n c e n t i v e s t o k e e p u p t h e w o r k i n g m o r a l e .

A-4.4.3. Materials

( 1) Construction materials. M a j o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s , s u c h

a s s t e e l , p i p e s , c e m e n t , e l e c t r i c w i r e s , a r e m a n u f a c t u r e d a n d s u p p l i e d b y

K o r e a n m a n u f a c t u r e r s .

(2) Fuel fabrication. I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e t o t a l f u e l c y c l e c o s t i n K o r e a

w i l l r e a c h a p p r o x i m a t e l y U S $ 1 5 X 1 0 9 b y t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0 , i f t h e n u c l e a r

d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n i s c o m p l e t e d .

294 APPENDIX A-l

A c c o r d i n g t o a c o n t i n u i n g s u r v e y , u r a n i u m o r e o c c u r s i n g r a p h i t i c b l a c k

s l a t e i n a l o w g r a d e . T h o u g h t h e a v e r a g e g r a d e o f d o m e s t i c u r a n i u m o r e

i s m u c h l o w e r t h a n o t h e r c o m m e r c i a l l y d e v e l o p e d f o r e i g n d e p o s i t s i n t h i s

s t a g e , i t w i l l b e c o m e e c o n o m i c i n v i e w o f t h e r e c e n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l u p w a r d

t r e n d i n p r i c e a n d d e m a n d .

F u e l f a b r i c a t i o n s e e m s t o b e w i t h i n K o r e a n c a p a b i l i t i e s . C a p i t a l c o s t s

w i l l b e s i g n i f i c a n t b u t b a s i c a l l y i t i s a l a b o u r - i n t e n s i v e t e c h n o l o g y . I t

m i g h t w e l l b e d o n e m o r e e c o n o m i c a l l y i n K o r e a t h a n i n a m o r e d e v e l o p e d

c o u n t r y . A p i l o t - p l a n t - s c a l e f u e l f a b r i c a t i o n f a c i l i t i y i s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n .

K o r e a h o p e s t o c o n s t r u c t a c o m m e r c i a l f u e l f a b r i c a t i o n f a c i l i t y i n a f e w

y e a r s e i t h e r u s i n g i t s o w n t e c h n o l o g y o r i n a j o i n t v e n t u r e w i t h s o m e

o t h e r c o u n t r y .

A-4.4.4. Components

T h e c u r r e n t n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e f o r c o m p o n e n t s i n t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r

p l a n t s i n K o r e a i s e s t i m a t e d t o b e a r o u n d 2 0 % . T h e G o v e r n m e n t a n d i n d u s t r i e s

h a v e p r o p o s e d j o i n t l y y e a r l y n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e s , a s s h o w n i n T a b l e A - 4 . 4 .

T h e G o v e r n m e n t , t o p r o m o t e n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n , p r o v i d e s i n d u s t r i e s w i t h

v a r i o u s i n c e n t i v e s s u c h a s t a x b e n e f i t s a n d l o a n s . N a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e s i n

t h e m a j o r f o r e i g n s u p p l i e r s ' c o n t r a c t s a r e s p e c i f i e d .

A - 4 . 5 . M A N P O W E R

A-4.5.1. General technical manpower

S i n c e K o r e a h a s a n a b u n d a n c e o f c a p a b l e , a d a p t a b l e m a n p o w e r r e s o u r c e s ,

b u t l i t t l e i n t h e w a y o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f b o t h s c i e n c e a n d

t e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e e c o n o m y a r e d i c t a t e d b y h o w e f f i c i e n t l y t h e m a n p o w e r

r e s o u r c e s a r e d e v e l o p e d i n t o h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e t e c h n i c a l m a n p o w e r . I n o r d e r t o

d e v e l o p s u c h t e c h n i c a l m a n p o w e r , K o r e a h a s l a u n c h e d ' F i v e Y e a r M a n p o w e r

D e v e l o p m e n t P l a n s ' s i n c e 1 9 6 2 , a n d a t p r e s e n t a l o n g - t e r m m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t

p l a n ( 1 9 7 5 t o 1 9 9 1 ) i s i n p r o g r e s s . T h e d e m a n d f o r e c a s t s a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e A - 4 . 5 .

A-4.5.2. Nuclear manpower

I t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r i s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e n a t i o n ' s t o t a l

t e c h n i c a l m a n p o w e r r e s e r v o i r . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e s i z e o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e ,

a n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n ( 1 9 7 7 t o 1 9 8 6 ) h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d .

T a b l e A - 4 . 6 s h o w s t h e d e m a n d f o r e c a s t s f o r v a r i o u s e n d - u s e r s .

T A B L E A - 4 . 4 . P L A N N E D N A T I O N A L P A R T I C I P A T I O N R A T E S 4 ( % )

O F N U C L E A R P O W E R P L A N T S

Year Plant 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1986 1991 1996

Nuclear (34.0) 1.0 2.2 3.7 4.3 9.0 12.9 29.4 32.6

Turbine & 1.6 3.5 8.0 14.0 20.7 30.3 37.0 38.4 generator (39.6)

Electrical (6.3) 2.9 3.4 4.6 5.8 6.2 6.3 6.3 6.3

General power (4.4) 0.8 1.8 2.7 3.3 3.5 3.8 3.9 4.4

Civil & structure 12.4 15.7 15.7 15.7 15.7 15.7 15.7 15.7 (15.7) I

Total (100) 18.7 26.6 34.7 43.1 55.1 69.0 92.3 97.4

a The rates apply to the plants to be started in each particular year.

T A B L E A - 4 . 5 . O V E R A L L D E M A N D F O R S C I E N T I F I C A N D

T E C H N I C A L M A N P O W E R ( 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 9 1 )

^ ^ Year

Type 1975 1977 1981 1986 1991

Employment (A) 11 830 12 929 15 019 17 855 20 369

Technical manpower (B) 359 498 806 1 276 1 779

Scientists 10 17 33 56 83

Engineers 110 152 233 359 516

Craftsmen 239 329 540 861 1 180

B/A (%) 3.03 3.85 5.37 7.15 8.73

Note: Unit : 1000 persons.

2 9 6 APPENDIX A-l

T A B L E A - 4 . 6 . N U C L E A R T E C H N I C A L M A N P O W E R D E M A N D

Category ^ ^ ^ ^ 1977 1981 1986

Manufacturing companies 90 230 2 340

Construction companies 90 380 1 030

Architect- engineering companies 160 577 1 300

Utility 435 1430 3 000

Research & development institutes 495 1013 2 170

Educational institutes 20* 30 100

Regulatory organizations 20 100 140

Organizations for radioisotope utilization

80 120 200

Total 1390 3880 10 280

M a j o r s o u r c e s f o r t r a i n i n g n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r a r e :

(a) Educational institutes. S e o u l N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y a n d H a n y a n g U n i v e r s i t y

p r o v i d e n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r i n g c o u r s e s a n d p r o d u c e 6 0 n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r s ( B . S . )

a n n u a l l y . S e o u l N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y p r o v i d e s g r a d u a t e c o u r s e s i n n u c l e a r

p h y s i c s a n d e n g i n e e r i n g f o r t h e M . S . a n d P h . D .

(b) Nuclear Training Centre, KAERI. A t t h e r e q u e s t s o f K E C O , G o v e r n m e n t ,

a n d i n d u s t r i e s , i t p r o v i d e s n u c l e a r t r a i n i n g t o b o t h t e c h n i c i a n s a n d

e n g i n e e r s . T h e c e n t r e h a s a n a n n u a l t r a i n i n g c a p a c i t y o f a b o u t 8 0 0 .

(c) Overseas training. I n t e r n a t i o n a l t e c h n i c a l c o - o p e r a t i o n h a s p l a y e d a k e y

r o l e i n d e v e l o p i n g K o r e a ' s n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e

t r a i n i n g o f m a n p o w e r . S i n c e K o r e a j o i n e d t h e I A E A i n 1 9 5 7 , m o r e t h a n

2 0 0 0 K o r e a n s c i e n t i s t s , e n g i n e e r s a n d t e c h n i c i a n s h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d b y

t h e I A E A t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e p r o g r a m m e s .

B i l a t e r a l t e c h n i c a l c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a , C a n a d a ,

t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f G e r m a n y a n d F r a n c e h a v e a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d m u c h

t o n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r t r a i n i n g .

(d) KECO training. K E C O h a s i t s o w n o p e r a t o r ' s t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e a t t h e

K O R I s i t e . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s i m u l a t o r f o r o p e r a t o r ' s t r a i n i n g w a s

c o m p l e t e d i n O c t o b e r 1 9 7 9 a n d i s n o w i n o p e r a t i o n .

A - 4 . 5 . 3 . G e n e r a l v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g f o r c r a f t s m e n a n d t e c h n i c i a n s

A s f o r g e n e r a l v o c a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g , K o r e a h a s 9 4 h i g h - s c h o o l -

l e v e l v o c a t i o n a l s c h o o l s f o r c r a f t s m e n a n d 4 2 t w o - y e a r - j u n i o r c o l l e g e s f o r

t e c h n i c i a n s ' e d u c a t i o n . W i t h t h e s e t w o s c h o o l s y s t e m s , o n e - t h i r d o f t h e n a t i o n ' s

t o t a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f c r a f t s m e n a n d t e c h n i c i a n s a r e b e i n g t r a i n e d , w h i l e t h e

r e m a i n i n g t w o - t h i r d s a r e b e i n g t r a i n e d t h r o u g h i n d u s t r i a l o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e V o c a t i o n a l T r a i n i n g L a w , e v e r y i n d u s t r i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t h a v i n g

5 0 0 o r m o r e e m p l o y e e s h a s a m a n d a t o r y r e q u i r e m e n t t o e s t a b l i s h i t s o w n t r a i n i n g

c e n t r e . U n d e r t h i s p r o g r a m m e , t h e e m p l o y e r s n o t o n l y t r a i n t h e i r o w n e m p l o y e e s

b u t a l s o o t h e r e m p l o y e e s o f s m a l l a n d m e d i u m i n d u s t r i e s . T h e t r a i n e e s a r e r e q u i r e d

t o t a k e t h e T e c h n i c a l Q u a l i f i c a t i o n T e s t s a f t e r t h e e n d o f e a c h t r a i n i n g r e c e i v e d .

A - 4 . 6 . R E S U L T S O F E X P E R I E N C E A N D P R O B L E M S E N C O U N T E R E D

— K o r e a s i g n e d a t u r n k e y c o n t r a c t f o r t h e K O R I - 1 n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t i n

1 9 7 0 , w i t h a w e l l - k n o w n f o r e i g n r e a c t o r s u p p l i e r . T h e r e w a s l a c k o f

e x p e r i e n c e , k n o w l e d g e a s w e l l a s u n p r e p a r e d n e s s i n K o r e a , a n d t h e f i r s t

p o w e r p l a n t c o n t r a c t a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w e r e d o n e w i t h m a n y p r o b l e m s

a n d d i f f i c u l t i e s , a n d w i t h a d e l a y o f t w o y e a r s .

— A l t o u g h K o r e a h a s a g o o d - s i z e d t e c h n i c a l m a n p o w e r r e s e r v o i r , t h e m o s t

d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m t h a t t h e n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r y f a c e s t o d a y i s t o g e t e n o u g h

s k i l l e d c r a f t s m e n a n d q u a l i f i e d e n g i n e e r s . O w i n g t o a s u d d e n i n c r e a s e i n

d e m a n d f o r v a r i o u s s e c t o r s o f t h e e c o n o m y , s k i l l e d a n d e x p e r i e n c e d

m a n p o w e r i s v e r y s c a r c e . T h i s h a s r e s u l t e d n o t o n l y i n r a i s i n g w a g e s b u t

h a s a l s o b r o u g h t a s e v e r e c o m p e t i t i o n f o r m a n p o w e r a m o n g i n d u s t r i e s .

- T h e b a s i c d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r s f o r n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a r e u l t i m a t e l y

q u a l i t y a n d c o s t s . K o r e a n i n d u s t r y , w i t h a l a c k o f i n d u s t r i a l t r a d i t i o n a n d

e x p e r i e n c e , i s h a v i n g m u c h d i f f i c u l t y i n c o p i n g w i t h q u a l i t y c o n t r o l

p r o b l e m s , e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e n u c l e a r - g r a d e c o m p o n e n t s .

- I n m a n u f a c t u r i n g s o p h i s t i c a t e d i t e m s s u c h a s n u c l e a r c o m p o n e n t s , t h e .

m o s t c r u c i a l p o i n t s a r e t e c h n o l o g y a n d k n o w - h o w . K o r e a w a s u n a b l e t o

r e a l i z e t h i s f u l l y , u n t i l s h e h a d l a u n c h e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t e c h n o l o g y -

i n t e n s i v e i n d u s t r i e s .

298 APPENDIX A-l

T h e f o r e i g n f i r m s o f d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s a r e o f t e n e i t h e r r e l u c t a n t t o s e l l t h e

w a n t e d t e c h n o l o g i e s o r h a v e p a i n f u l s t r i n g s a t t a c h e d . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , K o r e a h a s

d e t e r m i n e d t o d e v e l o p i t s s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n o l o g y t h r o u g h i t s o w n r e s e a r c h a n d

d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s .

A - 4 . 7 . S U M M A R I Z I N G R E M A R K S

S y s t e m a t i c n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t , a c t i v e r e s e a r c h a n d a d a p t a t i o n f o r

s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n o l o g i e s , a n d d i l i g e n t a n d r a t i o n a l i n d u s t r i a l m a n a g e m e n t s e e m

t o b e t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e w a y s f o r K o r e a t o m a x i m i z e t h e s p i n - o f f b e n e f i t s f r o m

n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t s .

PHILIPPINES

A - 5 . 1 . T H E P H I L I P P I N E N U C L E A R P O W E R P R O G R A M M E

A s p a r t o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t s t r a t e g y o f d i v e r s i f y i n g e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s t o

m e e t t h e i n c r e a s i n g d e m a n d f o r p o w e r b r o u g h t a b o u t b y i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n ,

h i g h e r e c o n o m i c g r o w t h t a r g e t s a n d r i s i n g s t a n d a r d s o f l i v i n g , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s h a s

e m b a r k e d o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t . A t u r n k e y c o n t r a c t f o r

a 6 2 0 M W ( e ) P W R w a s s i g n e d w i t h W e s t i n g h o u s e i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 6 . T h e p l a n t i s

u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d i s e x p e c t e d t o g o i n t o c o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t i o n b y t h e e n d

o f 1 9 8 3 . A t t h a t t i m e , i t w i l l b e g e n e r a t i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 2 % o f t h e t o t a l

i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y o f 5 2 0 0 M W ( e ) i n t h e e l e c t r i c g r i d o f L u z o n , t h e b i g g e s t i s l a n d

i n t h e c o u n t r y .

T h e N a t i o n a l P o w e r C o r p o r a t i o n ( N P C ) , a g o v e r n m e n t o w n e d u t i l i t y , h a s

t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d o p e r a t i o n o f t h e n u c l e a r p l a n t . T h e

P h i l i p p i n e A t o m i c E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n ( P A E C ) i s t h e G o v e r n m e n t A g e n c y

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r l i c e n s i n g a n d r e g u l a t i o n . B o t h t h e N P C a n d P A E C a r e u n d e r t h e

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f E n e r g y .

A s e c o n d n u c l e a r u n i t o f t h e s a m e c a p a c i t y w a s o r i g i n a l l y s c h e d u l e d t o b e

c o n s t r u c t e d a t t h e s a m e s i t e a n d b e o p e r a t i o n a l b y 1 9 8 8 . H o w e v e r , b e c a u s e o f

t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t c o s t s i n t h e l a s t f e w y e a r s w h i c h w o u l d

m a k e f i n a n c i n g o f t h e p r o j e c t m o r e d i f f i c u l t a n d i n v o l v e d , a f i r m d e c i s i o n o n t h e

s e c o n d u n i t h a d t o b e d e f e r r e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f f u r t h e r i n c r e a s i n g

o i l p r i c e s t h e r e h a s b e e n a r e c e n t g o v e r n m e n t t h r u s t t o m a x i m i z e t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n

o f i n d i g e n o u s s o u r c e s o f e n e r g y , s u c h a s h y d r o , c o a l a n d g e o t h e r m a l , i n t h e o v e r a l l

p o w e r e x p a n s i o n p r o g r a m m e . W h i l e t h e s e f a c t o r s m a y h a v e a n o v e r a l l e f f e c t o f

r e d u c i n g t h e p a c e o f n u c l e a r p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e c o u n t r y , i t i s e x p e c t e d

t h a t t h e r e w i l l b e o t h e r n u c l e a r p l a n t s b u i l t a f t e r t h e f i r s t o n e .

A - 5 . 2 . P O L I C I E S , S T R A T E G I E S A N D P R O C E D U R E S

I n a l l i n d u s t r i a l a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o j e c t s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t h e r e i s a b a s i c

g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y t o m a x i m i z e n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n b y e n c o u r a g i n g t h e

u t i l i z a t i o n o f i n d i g e n o u s m a n p o w e r , s e r v i c e s a n d m a t e r i a l s t o t h e w i d e s t e x t e n t

p o s s i b l e . T h e r e a s o n a b l y h i g h d e g r e e o f s u c c e s s i n i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e p o l i c y l i e s

i n t h e a b u n d a n c e o f q u a l i f i e d m a n p o w e r a n d a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m

i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l e n g i n e e r i n g f i e l d s s u c h a s c i v i l , m e c h a n i c a l , e l e c t r i c a l a n d

c h e m i c a l .

300 APPENDIX A-l

T h e s a m e p o l i c y i s b e i n g p u r s u e d i n t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r f i e l d . A n u m b e r o f

l o c a l e n g i n e e r i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m p a n i e s , m a n u f a c t u r i n g s h o p s a n d c o n s u l t i n g

f i r m s h a v e q u a l i f i e d a n d o b t a i n e d c o n t r a c t s f o r u n d e r t a k i n g w o r k i n t h e n u c l e a r

p o w e r p r o j e c t .

T h e i n d u s t r i a l , s c i e n t i f i c a n d e d u c a t i o n a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s p r e s e n t i n t h e

c o u n t r y h a v e a l l o w e d a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h d e g r e e o f n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s f o r a f i r s t p r o j e c t s u c h a s t h e P h i l i p p i n e

N u c l e a r P o w e r P l a n t ( P N P P - I ) . T h e e x t e n t o f l o c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e c o n s t r u c -

t i o n a c t i v i t i e s c a n b e o b s e r v e d f r o m t h e r a t i o o f f o r e i g n t o l o c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n

p e r s o n n e l . A s o f t h e first q u a r t e r o f 1 9 7 9 , t h e r e w e r e a b o u t 4 0 0 0 c o n s t r u c t i o n

w o r k e r s , a n d o f t h i s n u m b e r o n l y a r o u n d 3 0 w e r e f o r e i g n e r s . N u c l e a r - g r a d e s t e e l ,

c e m e n t a n d a g g r e g a t e s a r e s u p p l i e d f r o m l o c a l s o u r c e s . P a r t s o f t h e t r a i n i n g

p r o g r a m m e f o r p l a n t o p e r a t o r s a n d p r o j e c t p e r s o n n e l a r e c o n d u c t e d l o c a l l y .

A l i s t i n g o f e l e m e n t s o f t h e l o c a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e t h a t a r e u t i l i z e d f o r t h e

n u c l e a r p r o j e c t a r e p r e s e n t e d b e l o w :

(a) Industrial

— S t e e l a n d s t e e l p r o d u c t s m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t s

— C e m e n t f a c t o r i e s

— I n d u s t r i a l c h e m i c a l firms

— L u m b e r m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o m p a n i e s

— E l e c t r i c a l p r o d u c t s m a n u f a c t u r i n g firms

— E n g i n e e r i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m p a n i e s w i t h s k i l l s a n d m a n p o w e r i n :

• D e s i g n o f i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l p o w e r p l a n t s

' N o n - d e s t r u c t i v e e x a m i n a t i o n

• W e l d i n g , p i p e f i t t i n g , m a c h i n e r y a s s e m b l i n g a n d fitting

• C i v i l w o r k s c o n s t r u c t i o n

— E n g i n e e r i n g s h o p s w i t h c a s t i n g a n d f o r g i n g f a c i l i t i e s

— C o n s u l t i n g c o m p a n i e s :

• G e o l o g i c s t u d i e s

• E n v i r o n m e n t a l s t u d i e s

PHILIPPINES 301

(b) Scientific

— A t o m i c E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n w i t h a r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r a n d l a b o r a t o r y

f a c i l i t i e s

(c) Educational

— S t a t e u n i v e r s i t y o f f e r i n g u n d e r g r a d u a t e a n d g r a d u a t e c u r r i c u l a i n

c o n v e n t i o n a l e n g i n e e r i n g f i e l d s , a n d g r a d u a t e c u r r i c u l a i n n u c l e a r

e n g i n e e r i n g

— P r i v a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s w i t h u n d e r g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m m e s i n c o n v e n t i o n a l

e n g i n e e r i n g

— C o l l e g e s o f f e r i n g c o u r s e s f o r t e c h n i c i a n s i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l a n d m e c h a n i c a l

fields.

T o t h e a b o v e l i s t i n g s h o u l d b e a d d e d t h e a v a i l a b l e e x p e r t i s e a n d f a c i l i t i e s o f

t h e u t i l i t y w h i c h h a s d e s i g n e d a n d c o n s t r u c t e d h y d r o e l e c t r i c a n d t h e r m a l p o w e r

p l a n t s .

A - 5 . 4 . E X P E R I E N C E

J u s t l i k e m o s t o t h e r c o u n t r i e s e m b a r k i n g o n t h e i r first n u c l e a r p r o j e c t , t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s h a s o p t e d f o r a t u r n k e y c o n t r a c t a r r a n g e m e n t f o r t h e f i r s t u n i t . W i t h

t h e e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d i n t h i s i n i t i a l u n d e r t a k i n g , i t i s e x p e c t e d t h a t s o m e f o r m

o f n o n - t u r n k e y a r r a n g e m e n t w i l l b e m a d e f o r s u b s e q u e n t p r o j e c t s . H o w e v e r ,

e v e n w i t h t h i s f i r s t p r o j e c t , n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e c i v i l c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d

i n s t a l l a t i o n o f p l a n t s y s t e m s a n d c o m p o n e n t s w i l l b e h i g h .

D e t a i l s o f n a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e i n s p e c i f i c a r e a s a r e g i v e n b e l o w .

A-5.4.1. Management and administration

W h i l e t h e P N P P - I p r o j e c t i s o f a t u r n k e y n a t u r e i n w h i c h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

f o r e x e c u t i o n a n d c o - o r d i n a t i o n r e s t s w i t h t h e m a i n c o n t r a c t o r , t h e P h i l i p p i n e

u t i l i t y h a s a p r o j e c t m a n a g e m e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n w h i c h i n t e r f a c e s w i t h t h e m a i n

c o n t r a c t o r o r g a n i z a t i o n t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e w o r k p r o c e e d s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e

p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e c o n t r a c t a n d t o e v a l u a t e a l l p r o j e c t r e v i s i o n r e q u e s t s . I t i s

e x p e c t e d t h a t t h i s p r o j e c t t e a m w i l l b e a b l e t o u n d e r t a k e t h e m a n a g e m e n t a n d

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f u n c t i o n s f o r s u b s e q u e n t p r o j e c t s .

L i c e n s i n g i s a n a c t i v i t y f o r w h i c h t h e p r o j e c t t e a m o f t h e u t i l i t y e x e r c i s e s

c o m p l e t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . A u n i t i s i n c h a r g e o f c o - o r d i n a t i n g t h e w o r k o f t h e

u t i l i t y s t a f f a n d t h e i r c o n s u l t a n t o n t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c y .

302 APPENDIX A-l

I n t e r f a c i n g w i t h t h e l o c a l r e g u l a t o r y b o d y i s b e s t l e f t t o t h e u t i l i t y t o a t t a i n

b e t t e r r a p p o r t a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

A-5.4.2. Architect-engineering

T h e m a i n c o n t r a c t o r h a s a n a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r f o r t h e p r o j e c t . H o w e v e r ,

a u n i t i n t h e u t i l i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n e x e r c i s e s d e s i g n r e v i e w o n d r a w i n g s a n d

s p e c i f i c a t i o n s t o e n s u r e t h a t s a f e t y r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d a p p l i c a b l e c o d e s a n d

s t a n d a r d s a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e p l a n t d e s i g n . T h e s e d r a w i n g s i n c l u d e , b u t a r e

n o t l i m i t e d t o , l a y o u t s a n d g e n e r a l b u i l d i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s , w i r i n g d i a g r a m s f o r

t h e e l e c t r i c a l , c o n t r o l a n d i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , i n s t a l l a t i o n d r a w i n g s , p i p i n g

d i a g r a m s , f l o w d i a g r a m s , e t c . T h i s e f f o r t a l s o r e s u l t s i n a t r a n s f e r o f d e s i g n

k n o w - h o w t o t h e d e s i g n r e v i e w g r o u p w i t h i n t h e o w n e r ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n .

A-5.4.3. Construction

( a ) A l l c i v i l w o r k s s t a r t i n g f r o m s i t e p r e p a r a t i o n t o c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p l a n t

b u i l d i n g s a n d s t r u c t u r e s a r e b e i n g d o n e b y a g r o u p o f c o n s t r u c t i o n

firms w h i c h o r g a n i z e d t h e m s e l v e s i n t o a c o n s o r t i u m t o q u a l i f y f o r t h e

n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t .

( b ) E r e c t i o n a n d r a d i o g r a p h i c e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s t e e l c o n t a i n m e n t v e s s e l

w a s p e r f o r m e d b y l o c a l e n g i n e e r s a n d w e l d e r s .

( c ) M e c h a n i c a l a n d e l e c t r i c a l s y s t e m i n s t a l l a t i o n w i l l b e d o n e b y a l o c a l

e n g i n e e r i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m p a n y .

( d ) C o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s f o r c o n n e c t i n g t h e p l a n t t o t h e

g r i d w i l l b e d o n e b y t h e u t i l i t y .

( e ) D e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l s e c u r i t y s y s t e m f o r t h e p l a n t

w a s c o n t r a c t e d t o a l o c a l a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r i n g f i r m .

A-5.4.4. Inspection and testing

( a ) T e s t s a n d i n s p e c t i o n s o f e q u i p m e n t s u p p l i e d b y t h e m a i n c o n t r a c t o r

a n d o t h e r s u p p l i e r s s h a l l b e m a d e j o i n t l y b y t h e u t i l i t y a n d m a i n

c o n t r a c t o r .

( b ) T h e s a m e a r r a n g e m e n t s s h a l l h o l d f o r t h e p r e o p e r a t i o n a l a n d s t a r t u p

t e s t i n g .

( c ) P e r f o r m a n c e t e s t s s h a l l b e c o n d u c t e d b y t h e u t i l i t y a f t e r s u c c e s s f u l

c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e p l a n t s t a r t u p p r o g r a m m e .

A-5.4.5. Quality assurance

( a ) S u r v e i l l a n c e o f p l a n t a c t i v i t i e s o n - s i t e i s p e r f o r m e d b y t h e q u a l i t y

a s s u r a n c e g r o u p o f t h e u t i l i t y .

PHILIPPINES 303

( b ) S e m i - a n n u a l a u d i t s o f t h e q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e p r o g r a m m e o f t h e m a i n

c o n t r a c t o r a n d i t s s u b - c o n t r a c t o r s a r e p e r f o r m e d b y t h e u t i l i t y Q A

g r o u p . P e r s o n n e l o f t h e r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c y a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e w i t h t h e

u t i l i t y d u r i n g t h e s e a u d i t s , a l t h o u g h i n d e p e n d e n t a u d i t s a r e p e r f o r m e d

b y t h e r e g u l a t o r y b o d y a t l e a s t o n c e a y e a r .

A-5.4.6. Licensing and regulation

( a ) L i c e n s i n g a n d r e g u l a t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n p e r f o r m e d b y t h e P h i l i p p i n e

A t o m i c E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n ( P A E C ) . W i t h i n t h e P A E C i s a u n i t t h a t

i s d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e l i c e n s i n g a n d r e g u l a t i o n f u n c t i o n , t h e

D e p a r t m e n t o f N u c l e a r R e g u l a t i o n s a n d S a f e g u a r d s . T h i s d e p a r t m e n t

h a s a f u l l - t i m e s t a f f o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 t e c h n i c a l p e r s o n n e l , a l t h o u g h

t h e y a r e a s s i s t e d b y s p e c i a l i s t s f r o m o t h e r u n i t s o f P A E C .

( b ) R e v i e w a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s a f e t y a n a l y s i s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l

r e p o r t s a r e p e r f o r m e d b y t h e P A E C s t a f f w i t h a s s i s t a n c e f r o m t h e I A E A

t h r o u g h a s h o r t - t e r m s a f e t y m i s s i o n .

( c ) I n s p e c t i o n a n d e n f o r c e m e n t a c t i v i t i e s a r e c a r r i e d o u t b y t e a m s

o r g a n i z e d i n t o c i v i l , m e c h a n i c a l , e l e c t r i c a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n s p e c t i o n

u n i t s . I n s p e c t i o n t e a m s v i s i t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e t w i c e a m o n t h a n d

e a c h v i s i t h a s a d u r a t i o n o f o n e w e e k . A n y d e f i c i e n c i e s o b s e r v e d d u r i n g

i n s p e c t i o n a r e b r o u g h t t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e u t i l i t y w h i c h t h e n t a k e s

a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n t o r e s o l v e t h e i s s u e s r a i s e d .

( d ) I n t h e e x e r c i s e o f i t s r e g u l a t o r y f u n c t i o n , t h e P A E C a v a i l s i t s e l f o f

t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e f r o m t h e I A E A i n t h e f o r m o f l o n g - t e r m c o n s u l t a n t s .

A-5.4.7. Operation and maintenance

O p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e w i l l b e p e r f o r m e d b y t h e u t i l i t y . T h e o p e r a t i o n s

p e r s o n n e l h a v e b e e n r e c r u i t e d a n d a r e c u r r e n t l y u n d e r g o i n g t r a i n i n g . I n t h e

r e c r u i t m e n t o f t h i s p e r s o n n e l a m i n i m u m n u m b e r o f y e a r s o f p o w e r p l a n t o r

i n d u s t r i a l e x p e r i e n c e w a s r e q u i r e d . R e c r u i t m e n t o f m a i n t e n a n c e p e r s o n n e l w a s

u n d e r t a k e n i n 1 9 7 9 .

I n t h e r e c r u i t m e n t o f o p e r a t i o n s p e r s o n n e l , p r o v i s i o n i s m a d e f o r r e p l a c e -

m e n t b e c a u s e o f p o s s i b l e r e s i g n a t i o n s , j o b s h i f t s a n d r e t i r e m e n t s .

A-5.4.8. Siting and environmental investigations

T h e u t i l i t y h a s a f o r e i g n i n - h o u s e c o n s u l t a n t w h o s e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n c l u d e s

t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e s i t i n g a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r o g r a m m e .

I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e p r o g r a m m e s , h o w e v e r , h a s b e e n u n d e r t a k e n b y a u n i t i n

t h e u t i l i t y . T h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o g r a m m e c o n s i s t s o f m e t e o r o l o g i c a l , t e r r e s t r i a l

304 APPENDIX A-l

a n d a q u a t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . C e r t a i n s t u d i e s w h i c h a r e p a r t o f t h e a q u a t i c

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e b e e n c o n t r a c t e d t o a l o c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s u l t i n g c o m p a n y .

A-5.4.9. Safety and emergency procedures

T h e s e p r o c e d u r e s a r e b e i n g d e v e l o p e d b y t h e u t i l i t y w i t h a d v i c e f r o m t h e i r

i n - h o u s e c o n s u l t a n t .

A-5.4.10. Materials

— C o n c r e t e a g g r e g a t e s s u c h a s g r a v e l a n d s a n d a r e m a n u f a c t u r e d n e a r t h e

p l a n t s i t e .

— N u c l e a r - g r a d e s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l i s s u p p l i e d b y a l o c a l s t e e l m a n u f a c t u r i n g

c o m p a n y . T h i s c o m p a n y h a d b e e n s u p p l y i n g t h e s t e e l n e e d s o f o t h e r

i n d u s t r i a l p r o j e c t s a n d i t q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t b y

i n t r o d u c i n g s o m e i m p r o v e m e n t s i n i t s m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l

p r o c e s s e s .

— N u c l e a r - g r a d e c e m e n t i s a l s o s u p p l i e d b y a l o c a l f a c t o r y w h i c h q u a l i f i e d

i n a s i m i l a r m a n n e r a s t h e s t e e l m a n u f a c t u r e r .

— A l l c o n s t r u c t i o n l u m b e r a n d l u m b e r p r o d u c t s a r e l o c a l l y s u p p l i e d .

A-5.4.11. Fuel cycle

A p r o g r a m m e f o r u r a n i u m e x p l o r a t i o n h a s b e e n l a u n c h e d i n s e a r c h o f

p o s s i b l e n a t i o n a l s o u r c e s f o r f u t u r e u s e i n t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e . T h e

p r o g r a m m e o b j e c t i v e i s t o h a v e t h e c o u n t r y c o v e r e d b y a n a t i o n - w i d e s u r v e y

a s w e l l a s r e g i o n a l i z e d r a d i o m e t r i c a n d g e o c h e m i c a l s u r v e y s t o d e l i n e a t e p r o s p e c t i v e

s i t e s f o r e x t e n s i v e e x p l o r a t i o n . A d e t a i l e d e x p l o r a t o r y d r i l l i n g p r o g r a m m e o f

d e l i n e a t e d s i t e s w i l l d e p e n d o n p o s i t i v e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f u r a n i u m m i n e r a l i z a t i o n

f r o m p r e l i m i n a r y e x p l o r a t o r y a c t i v i t i e s .

L i m i t e d u r a n i u m a i r b o r n e s u r v e y i s b e i n g u n d e r t a k e n j o i n t l y b y a l o c a l

m i n i n g c o m p a n y a n d a f o r e i g n p a r t n e r o v e r 2 5 0 0 k m 2 i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f

L u z o n . U r a n i u m g e o c h e m i c a l p r o s p e c t i o n w o r k w a s e a r l i e r c o n d u c t e d i n t h e

r e g i o n b y t h e P A E C a n d t h e M i n i s t r y o f E n e r g y w i t h a s s i s t a n c e f r o m t h e I A E A .

A-5.4.12. Components

S u p p l y o f c o m p o n e n t s f o r a n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t r e p r e s e n t s a n a r e a w h e r e

t h e i n d u s t r y i n t h e c o u n t r y h a s y e t t o d e v e l o p i t s c a p a b i l i t y . P r a c t i c a l l y a l l o f

t h e e q u i p m e n t a n d c o m p o n e n t s f o r t h e P N P P - I w i l l b e s u p p l i e d f r o m f o r e i g n

s o u r c e s w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e f o l l o w i n g :

PHILIPPINES 305

(1) Turbine generator building equipment

— T r a v e l l i n g c r a n e

— T r a s h r a c k a s s e m b l y

(2) Accessory electrical equipment

— P o w e r a n d c o n t r o l c a b l e s a n d t e r m i n a t i o n s

— L i g h t i n g fixtures, c o n d u i t s , e t c .

(3) Station services

— W a t e r t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m

— V e n t i l a t i o n a n d a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g s y s t e m

— F i r e p r o t e c t i o n s y s t e m

— G r o u n d w a t e r s u p p l y s y s t e m

— C r a n e s a n d l a b o r a t o r y e q u i p m e n t

A - 5 . 5 . T R A I N I N G

T w o g r o u p s o f p r o j e c t p e r s o n n e l a r e g i v e n t r a i n i n g : T h e h e a d q u a r t e r s

g r o u p w h i c h i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s u p e r v i s i n g t h e p r o j e c t a n d t h e o p e r a t i o n s g r o u p

w h i c h w i l l b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e p l a n t . T h e

t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e i s d i v i d e d i n t o a l o c a l p h a s e a n d a f o r e i g n p h a s e . T r a i n i n g i s

g i v e n b y o r m a d e a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g a g e n c i e s / o r g a n i z a t i o n s :

— P h i l i p p i n e A t o m i c E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n ( P A E C )

— U n i v e r s i t y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ( U P )

— W e s t i n g h o u s e I n t e r n a t i o n a l P r o j e c t s C o r p o r a t i o n ( W I P C O ) - t h e m a i n

c o n t r a c t o r f o r t h e n u c l e a r p r o j e c t

— E b a s c o O v e r s e a s C o r p o r a t i o n — t h e i n - h o u s e c o n s u l t a n t o f N P C

— I n t e r n a t i o n a l A t o m i c E n e r g y A g e n c y ( I A E A ) a n d o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n s

A - 5 . 5 . 1 . T r a i n i n g o f h e a d q u a r t e r s e n g i n e e r s

T h e l o c a l t r a i n i n g p h a s e o f t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s e n g i n e e r s i s c o n d u c t e d b y

P A E C t h r o u g h t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s w h i c h d e a l w i t h n u c l e a r f u n d a m e n t a l s , n u c l e a r

i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l , h e a l t h p h y s i c s a n d r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n , a n d n u c l e a r

p o w e r p l a n t s y s t e m s . T h r o u g h t h i s a p p r o a c h o f h a v i n g t h e e n g i n e e r s u n d e r t a k e

l o c a l t r a i n i n g b e f o r e t h e y a r e s e n t f o r t r a i n i n g a b r o a d , a n e v a l u a t i o n o f e a c h

p e r s o n ' s c a p a b i l i t y i s m a d e p o s s i b l e . T h i s s c r e e n i n g p r o c e s s w i l l e n s u r e t h a t t h o s e

306 APPENDIX A-l

s e n t f o r f u r t h e r t r a i n i n g w i l l p e r f o r m w e l l a n d t h u s m i n i m i z e f a i l u r e s a n d d r o p -

o u t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , l o c a l t r a i n i n g w i l l a l l o w a g r e a t e r n u m b e r o f e n g i n e e r s , n o t

o n l y f r o m t h e u t i l i t y b u t a l s o f r o m s u b - c o n t r a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r o j e c t , t o

r e c e i v e n u c l e a r t r a i n i n g . T h o s e e n g i n e e r s w h o s e j o b r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s r e q u i r e a

d e e p e r k n o w l e d g e o f n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y , e n r o l a n d t a k e u p g r a d u a t e s t u d y

p r o g r a m m e s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s .

T h e f o r e i g n p h a s e o f t h e e n g i n e e r s t r a i n i n g g e n e r a l l y i n v o l v e s s p e c i a l i z e d

c o u r s e s a n d / o r o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g a t W I P C O a n d E b a s c o . T h e n u c l e a r p o w e r

c o u r s e s a n d f e l l o w s h i p s o f f e r e d b y t h e I A E A a r e a l s o u s e d f o r t h e i r t r a i n i n g

p r o g r a m m e .

A-5.5.2, Training programme for the reactor operators

T h e r e a c t o r o p e r a t o r s w h o h a v e b e e n r e c r u i t e d f o r t h e p r o j e c t a r e a l l

g r a d u a t e e n g i n e e r s w i t h a t l e a s t t h r e e y e a r s o f i n d u s t r i a l e x p e r i e n c e . A f e w h a v e

c o n v e n t i o n a l p l a n t e x p e r i e n c e ; b u t a l l o f t h e m h a v e e i t h e r v e r y l i m i t e d o r n o

e x p o s u r e t o n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y . T h i s r e q u i r e d a t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s t a r t i n g

w i t h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t s o f n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y .

T h e l o c a l p h a s e o f t h e t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e i n v o l v e s t r a i n i n g i n n u c l e a r

t e c h n o l o g y a t t h e P A E C , a t t h e p l a n t s i t e a n d o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g a t a t h e r m a l

p o w e r p l a n t o f N P C . T h e n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y t r a i n i n g a t P A E C c o n s i s t s o f

a t t e n d a n c e a t c o u r s e s a n d o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g . T h e f i r s t c o u r s e t h a t t h e t r a i n e e s

t a k e i s t h e N u c l e a r P o w e r P l a n t O p e r a t o r s C o u r s e ( N P P O C ) h a v i n g a d u r a t i o n o f

1 2 w e e k s . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s c o u r s e i s t o p r o v i d e t h e m w i t h t h e b a s i c t o o l s t o

a l l o w t h e m t o c o m p r e h e n d n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y . T h e c o u r s e i n c l u d e s l e c t u r e s ,

w o r k s h o p s , p r a c t i c a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d t e c h n i c a l f i l m s .

F o l l o w i n g t h e N P P O C C o u r s e , t h e t r a i n e e s u n d e r g o o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g i n t h e

P h i l i p p i n e R e s e a r c h R e a c t o r ( P R R - I ) f o r a p e r i o d o f 8 w e e k s . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d ,

t h e t r a i n e e s a r e g i v e n d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e r e a c t o r , t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d

c o n t r o l s y s t e m , t h e r e a c t o r a u x i l i a r y s y s t e m s a n d t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l f a c i l i t i e s . T h e y

a r e a l s o g i v e n i n s t r u c t i o n s o n t h e c h e c k l i s t a n d p r o c e d u r e s t o b e f o l l o w e d d u r i n g

s t a r t u p , s t e a d y - s t a t e a n d s h u t d o w n o p e r a t i o n s . T h e y a l s o p e r f o r m r e a c t o r - b a s e d

e x e r c i s e s s u c h a s a p p r o a c h t o c r i t i c a l i t y , c o n t r o l r o d c a l i b r a t i o n a n d flux m a p p i n g .

A f t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l t r a i n i n g a t P A E C , t h e o p e r a t o r s a r e g i v e n

6 { m o n t h s t r a i n i n g i n a t h e r m a l p o w e r p l a n t o f N P C . D u r i n g t h i s t r a i n i n g , t h e

p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e first g i v e n a n i n d u s t r i a l s a f e t y s e m i n a r t o f a m i l i a r i z e t h e m w i t h

t h e s a f e t y p r a c t i c e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s a t t h e p l a n t . T h i s i s f o l l o w e d b y l e c t u r e s ,

d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d l a b o r a t o r y w o r k i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s :

— P o w e r p l a n t s y s t e m s o p e r a t i o n

— P o w e r p l a n t e l e c t r i c a l s y s t e m s

— P o w e r p l a n t m e c h a n i c a l m a i n t e n a n c e

PHILIPPINES 307

— P o w e r p l a n t i n s t r u m e n t a n d c o n t r o l s y s t e m

— P o w e r p l a n t t e s t i n g a n d p e r f o r m a n c e

— F u e l o i l a n d w a t e r t e c h n o l o g y

T h i s t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e c u l m i n a t e s w i t h t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t r a i n e e s i n

a c t u a l p o w e r p l a n t s h i f t o p e r a t i o n s w h e r e t h e t r a i n e e s j o i n d i f f e r e n t s h i f t t e a m s

t o o b s e r v e t h e c o n d u c t o f p l a n t o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e . D u r i n g t h i s p a r t o f

t h e p r o g r a m m e t h e t r a i n e e s g e t a f e e l o f s h i f t w o r k , a m a j o r f e a t u r e o f t h e t y p e

o f w o r k t h e y w i l l b e i n v o l v e d i n w h e n t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s t a r t s o p e r a t i o n .

T h e n e x t p h a s e o f t h e t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e i s t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o P r e s s u r i z e d

W a t e r R e a c t o r ( I P W R ) C o u r s e w h i c h i s c o n d u c t e d a t t h e p l a n t s i t e b y

W e s t i n g h o u s e . T h e c o u r s e i s d e s i g n e d t o f a m i l i a r i z e t h e t r a i n e e s w i t h t h e

W e s t i n g h o u s e P r e s s u r i z e d W a t e r R e a c t o r a n d d e a l s w i t h t h e m a j o r P W R s y s t e m s ,

p l a n t d y n a m i c s a n d r e l a t e d s a f e t y f e a t u r e s o f t h e p l a n t . W h i l e s o m e b a s i c c o n -

s i d e r a t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d , i t i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o b e a d e t a i l e d P W R d e s i g n c o u r s e .

A m o n g t h e t o p i c s d i s c u s s e d a r e :

— I n t r o d u c t i o n t o P W R

— R e a c t o r p h y s i c s a n d t h e r m a l h y d r a u l i c a n a l y s i s

— P W R s y s t e m s

— S e c o n d a r y a n d s u p p o r t s y s t e m s

— I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l s y s t e m s

— A c c i d e n t a n a l y s i s

— R a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n

A f t e r t a k i n g t h e s e o v e r v i e w c o u r s e s , t h e t r a i n e e s r e t u r n t o P A E C f o r t h e

s t a r t o f t h e i n - d e p t h a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e t r a i n i n g o n n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t

t e c h n o l o g y .

T h i s i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e f o r t h e p l a n t o p e r a t o r s a n d s e n i o r

o p e r a t o r s i s 3 8 w e e k s l o n g a n d d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r d i s t i n c t b u t i n t e r r e l a t e d p h a s e s .

T h e f i r s t 1 0 w e e k s o f t h e p r o g r a m m e a r e c o n d u c t e d b y P A E C w h i l e t h e

r e m a i n i n g 2 8 w e e k s a r e h e l d i n t h e U S A b y W e s t i n g h o u s e . T h e i n i t i a l p h a s e

p r o v i d e s t h e n e c e s s a r y f u n d a m e n t a l k n o w l e d g e o f n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t o p e r a t i o n s .

S u b s e q u e n t p h a s e s u t i l i z e t h i s f u n d a m e n t a l k n o w l e d g e a n d a p p l y i t t o s p e c i f i c

l a r g e P W R d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i o n s .

A - 5 . 6 . C O N C L U S I O N S

N a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n b y t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n s e v e r a l a r e a s i n t h e first n u c l e a r

p o w e r p r o j e c t w a s f o u n d b o t h p o s s i b l e a n d n e c e s s a r y , e v e n w i t h a t u r n k e y

c o n t r a c t . T h e P h i l i p p i n e s h a d o b t a i n e d y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e c o n s t r u c t i n g a n d

o p e r a t i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l p o w e r p l a n t s a n d i n d u s t r i a l p r o j e c t s b e f o r e i t d e c i d e d t o

e m b a r k o n a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

308 APPENDIX A-l

T h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s first n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t

i s i n t h e p r o v i s i o n o f s e r v i c e s a n d m a t e r i a l s , r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e s u p p l y o f c o m p o -

n e n t s a n d e q u i p m e n t . A l s o , o w i n g t o f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e r e w a s

n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h a r e s i t e - s p e c i f i c s u c h a s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s

a n d s t u d i e s i n g e o l o g y , s e i s m o l o g y , d e m o g r a p h y , e n v i r o n m e n t , e t c .

T h e p l a n n i n g a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e

i s a n o t h e r a r e a w h e r e n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n w a s f o u n d b o t h n e c e s s a r y a n d

p o s s i b l e . L o c a l t r a i n i n g i n n u c l e a r p o w e r f u n d a m e n t a l s a n d p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g i n

o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l p o w e r p l a n t s a l l o w e d a g r e a t e r

n u m b e r o f p e r s o n n e l t o b e g i v e n n u c l e a r t r a i n i n g a n d p r o v i d e d a m e a n s o f s c r e e n -

i n g c a n d i d a t e s f o r f u r t h e r s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g a b r o a d . I t a l s o s e r v e d t o b r i d g e t h e

g a p b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t b a c k g r o u n d s ( e d u c a t i o n , t r a i n i n g , a n d e x p e r i e n c e ) o f

t h e p e r s o n n e l t o b e t r a i n e d . T h i s i m p o r t a n t t a s k c a n b e s t b e p e r f o r m e d b y t h e

c o u n t r y i t s e l f , s i n c e t h e c o u n t r y k n o w s i t s o w n p e o p l e a n d i t s s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l a n d

e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m s .

I n s e t t i n g u p p o l i c i e s a n d p r o g r a m m e s f o r n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n , t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s s t r i v e d t o a t t a i n a p r o p e r b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e e c o n o m i c a n d t e c h n o -

l o g i c a l b e n e f i t s w h i c h c o u l d r e s u l t f r o m m a x i m i z i n g n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d

t h e a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m q u a l i t y w o r k w h i c h w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e o v e r r i d i n g

d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r .

A - 6 . 1 . N U C L E A R P O W E R P R O G R A M M E

A - 6 . 1 . 1 . I n t h e l a s t t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s S p a i n h a s h a d a m a r k e d i n d u s t r i a l

g r o w t h . T h i s h a s b r o u g h t a b o u t a n i m p o r t a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e i n s t a l l e d e l e c t r i c

p o w e r c a p a c i t y ; i n 1 9 9 0 i t w i l l b e a b o u t 2 0 t i m e s a s m u c h a s i n 1 9 5 3 .

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e S p a n i s h p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o p r i m a r y e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s ,

i t i s r e a l i z e d t h a t n u c l e a r p o w e r w i l l p l a y a n e v e r i n c r e a s i n g r o l e i n S p a i n ; i n 1 9 9 0

t h e i n s t a l l e d n u c l e a r c a p a c i t y w i l l a c c o u n t f o r a b o u t 2 7 % o f t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c

c a p a c i t y .

A - 6 . 1 . 2 . A t p r e s e n t , t h e r e a r e t h r e e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s i n o p e r a t i o n , w i t h

a t o t a l c a p a c i t y o f 1 1 2 0 M W ( e ) . T h e y w e r e b u i l t a s t u r n k e y p r o j e c t s a n d p u t

i n t o s e r v i c e b e t w e e n 1 9 6 8 a n d 1 9 7 2 .

T h e r e a r e 1 0 u n i t s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a t o t a l c a p a c i t y o f 9 5 3 6 M W ( e ) .

A n o t h e r 4 u n i t s h a v e r e c e i v e d p r e l i m i n a r y a u t h o r i z a t i o n a n d t h e r e a r e

1 9 a d d i t i o n a l u n i t s f o r w h i c h t h i s a u t h o r i z a t i o n h a s b e e n r e q u e s t e d .

N o w , t h e N S S S a n d t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r a r e p u r c h a s e d s e p a r a t e l y . A n a r c h i t e c t -

e n g i n e e r d e s i g n s t h e B O N I a n d B O P . T h e v a r i o u s i t e m s o f e q u i p m e n t a n d

c o m p o n e n t s a r e p u r c h a s e d f r o m t h e d o m e s t i c a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t , a n d

s p e c i a l i z e d c o m p a n i e s a r e e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d e r e c t i o n u n d e r t h e

s u p e r v i s i o n o f b o t h t h e u t i l i t y a n d t h e a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r .

A - 6 . 2 . P O L I C Y , S T R A T E G Y , P R O C E D U R E S

A - 6 . 2 . 1 . W i t h i t s n u c l e a r p r o g r a m m e S p a i n i n t e n d s t o m e e t t h e d e m a n d f o r

p o w e r w i t h a r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e o f d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n a n d s u f f i c i e n t a s s u r a n c e t h a t

p r i m a r y p o w e r r e s o u r c e s w i l l b e s u p p l i e d a t c o m p e t i t i v e p r i c e s a n d w i t h o u t

e x c e s s i v e e x p e n d i t u r e s o f f o r e i g n c u r r e n c y .

A - 6 . 2 . 2 . C o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e e s s e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n s t h a t t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r

p l a n t s t o b e o p e r a t e d i n S p a i n m u s t m e e t t h e s a f e t y a n d q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s

p r e v a i l i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y a n d t h a t t h e c o s t s o f g e n e r a t e d p o w e r m u s t b e

c o m p e t i t i v e , i t i s a l s o i n t e n d e d t o a t t a i n a h i g h d e g r e e o f n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d s e r v i c e s , b o t h i n o r d e r t o r e d u c e t h e d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e

f o r e i g n m a r k e t a n d t o r a i s e t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l l e v e l i n t h e S p a n i s h i n d u s t r y .

310 APPENDIX A-l

A - 6 . 2 . 3 . C o n d i t i o n i n g t h i s g o a l o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n t o

t h e s a f e t y a n d c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s r e q u i r e m e n t s h a s r e s u l t e d i n f o l l o w i n g a r o u t e

w h e r e t h e i n c r e a s e i n n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e g r a d u a l l y , a s d e t e r m i n e d

b y t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s i n t o S p a n i s h i n d u s t r y .

A - 6 . 2 . 4 . S p a i n c o n s i d e r s t h a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f h u m a n p r o g r e s s a n d w o r l d p e a c e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e S p a n i s h

G o v e r n m e n t d e d i c a t e s a g r e a t p a r t o f i t s a c t i v i t i e s t o t h i s c o - o p e r a t i o n t h r o u g h

i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o r b i l a t e r a l a g r e e m e n t s . S p a i n h a s s i g n e d a g r e e m e n t s

f o r c o - o p e r a t i o n i n t h e n u c l e a r f i e l d w i t h 1 4 c o u n t r i e s . T h e s e a g r e e m e n t s a r e

a v a l u a b l e m e a n s f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a n p o w e r r e s o u r c e s t h r o u g h j o i n t

t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s .

A - 6 . 2 . 5 . T h e k e y f a c t o r i n t h e n u c l e a r p r o g r a m m e h a s b e e n t h e J u n t a d e

E n e r g í a N u c l e a r ( J E N ) . N u c l e a r r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t w e r e s t a r t e d i n S p a i n

i n 1 9 4 8 , w h e n a C o m m i t t e e o f S t u d i e s w a s o r g a n i z e d . T h i s C o m m i t t e e w a s

c o n v e r t e d i n t o t h e J E N i n 1 9 5 1 . T h e t h r e e m a i n f u n c t i o n s a s s i g n e d t o J E N a t

t h a t t i m e w e r e s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , r a d i o a c t i v e

m i n e r a l p r o s p e c t i n g a n d t r a i n i n g o f p e r s o n n e l .

A - 6 . 2 . 6 . J E N h a s b e e n p e r f o r m i n g , i n a d d i t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g t a s k s :

— F u n c t i o n i n g a s t h e a d v i s o r y b o d y o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o n n u c l e a r m a t t e r s

— I n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e M i n i s t r y o f F o r e i g n

A f f a i r s

— F u n c t i o n i n g a s a r e g u l a t o r y a n d l i c e n s i n g b o d y

— D e v e l o p m e n t o f i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e fields o f n u c l e a r

f u e l a n d i s o t o p e s

— G i v i n g a d v i c e t o i n d u s t r y

— P r o m o t i n g s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f n u c l e a r

s u b j e c t s i n u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d i n d u s t r i e s .

A - 6 . 2 . 7 . J E N c o n t i n u e s t o p e r f o r m a t p r e s e n t a l l t h e s e f u n c t i o n s , b u t :

— I n 1 9 6 4 t h e I n s t i t u t o d e E s t u d i o s N u c l e a r e s ( I E N ) w a s c r e a t e d w i t h i n J E N

f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e p e r s o n n e l t r a i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s .

— T h e r e g u l a t i n g a n d l i c e n s i n g a c t i v i t i e s w i l l b e p e r f o r m e d i n t h e f u t u r e b y

a s p e c i a l i z e d b o d y c a l l e d t h e C o u n c i l o f N u c l e a r S a f e t y .

A - 6 . 2 . 8 . J E N h a s p l a y e d a v e r y i m p o r t a n t r o l e a s a s o u r c e f o r s p e c i a l i z e d

m a n p o w e r i n t h e n u c l e a r field; m a n y n o w w o r k i n g i n n u c l e a r i n d u s t r i e s r e c e i v e d

t r a i n i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e i n p r e v i o u s w o r k a t J E N .

SPAIN 311

A - 6 . 2 . 9 . T h e f a v o u r a b l e e v o l u t i o n u n d e r g o n e b y n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

t h e S p a n i s h n u c l e a r a c t i v i t i e s h a s b e e n d u e t o :

— T h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n u c l e a r r e s e a r c h a g e n c y ( J E N ) c a p a b l e o f h e l p i n g t h e

i n d u s t r y t o i n c o r p o r a t e n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s .

— R e s o l u t e p r o m o t i o n p o l i c y b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t .

— T h e e x i s t e n c e o f a N a t i o n a l P o w e r P l a n w i t h a n i m p o r t a n t n u c l e a r

p r o g r a m m e .

— T h e i n t e r e s t t a k e n b y t h e S p a n i s h i n d u s t r y i n n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y ; t h i s

i n t e r e s t h a s i n c r e a s e d o w i n g t o t h e g u i d i n g a s s i s t a n c e g i v e n b y J E N .

— T h e e x i s t e n c e o f a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r s w i t h g o o d e x p e r i e n c e i n c o n v e n t i o n a l

p o w e r p l a n t s , w h o h a v e m a d e a r e m a r k a b l e e f f o r t t o m a s t e r t h e n u c l e a r

t e c h n o l o g y .

— M a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s w i t h a g o o d t e c h n o l o g i c a l l e v e l a n d c a p a b l e o f

m a n u f a c t u r i n g h i g h - q u a l i t y p r o d u c t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e n a v a l , b o i l e r ,

f o r g i n g a n d e l e c t r i c a l s e c t o r s .

A - 6 . 2 . 1 0 . T h e m e a s u r e s w i t h w h i c h t h e G o v e r n m e n t p r o m o t e s n a t i o n a l

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s a r e :

— T h e e x i s t e n c e i n t h e M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r y a n d E n e r g y o f a G e n e r a l

D i r e c t i o n f o r I n d u s t r i a l P r o m o t i o n a n d T e c h n o l o g y w h i c h t a k e s c h a r g e

o f c h a n n e l l i n g a l l t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l t r a n s f e r r e c e i v e d b y t h e c o u n t r y .

— D e c l a r a t i o n b y t h e M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r y a n d E n e r g y o f ' i n d u s t r i e s w i t h a

p r e f e r e n t i a l i n t e r e s t ' . T h i s d e c l a r a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e s i n e a c h c a s e t h e t y p e s

o f p r o d u c t s w h i c h a r e t o b e m a n u f a c t u r e d , r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h r e s p e c t t o

i n v e s t m e n t , v o l u m e o f p r o d u c t i o n , e t c . T a x a n d t a r i f f e x e m p t i o n , a n d

c r e d i t f a c i l i t i e s a r e g r a n t e d a s c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e a b o v e . T h e d e c l a r a -

t i o n i s m a d e w i t h n o r e f e r e n c e t o a p a r t i c u l a r c o m p a n y ; t h e p r e f e r e n t i a l

c o n d i t i o n i s t h e n a w a r d e d t o o n e f i r m i n p a r t i c u l a r t h r o u g h o p e n t e n d e r .

T h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f N S S S a n d t u r b i n e c o m p o n e n t s a r e e x a m p l e s o f

i n d u s t r i e s i n c l u d e d i n t h i s g r o u p .

— A p p r o v a l o f ' m i x e d m a n u f a c t u r i n g ' . T h i s r e l a t e s t o t h a t e q u i p m e n t

m a n u f a c t u r e d i n S p a i n w i t h m a t e r i a l s , t e c h n o l o g y o r c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h

r e q u i r e t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f a f o r e i g n i n d u s t r y . T h e M i n i s t r y o f

C o m m e r c e a n d T o u r i s m e s t a b l i s h e s , f o r e a c h i n d i v i d u a l i t e m o f e q u i p -

m e n t , t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s t o b e m e t : q u a l i t y , a d d e d v a l u e b y

t h e S p a n i s h i n d u s t r y , c o m p o n e n t s a n d m a t e r i a l s w h i c h m a y b e i m p o r t e d

a n d t h o s e w h i c h m u s t b e p u r c h a s e d f r o m t h e S p a n i s h m a r k e t , e t c .

A m a n u f a c t u r e r w h o w i s h e s t o a d o p t t h e s y s t e m o f ' m i x e d m a n u f a c t u r i n g '

a p p l i e s f o r i t t o t h e M i n i s t r y o f C o m m e r c e a n d T o u r i s m .

312 APPENDIX A-l

T A B L E A - 6 . 1 . P A R T I C I P A T I O N O F S P A N I S H I N D U S T R Y I N T H E

I M P L E M E N T A T I O N O F N U C L E A R P O W E R P L A N T S

Item Plants under Plants in the construction design stage (%) (%)

Engineering services 80.0 90.0

Equipment ( total) 50.0 71.0

- NSSS 34.0 60.0

— turbo-generator 29.0 45.0

— rest of the equipment 70.0 90.0

Civil works 100.0 100.0

Erection 100.0 100.0

Training of personnel 80.0 100.0

Other services 80.0 80.0

Total 66.5 80.9

S o m e s a f e t y - r e l a t e d e q u i p m e n t f o r S p a n i s h n u c l e a r p l a n t s i s

m a n u f a c t u r e d u n d e r t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s m i x e d m a n u f a c t u r i n g

s y s t e m .

— T h e t h i r d k i n d o f m e a s u r e a p p l i e d b y t h e S p a n i s h G o v e r n m e n t i s t h e

s o - c a l l e d ' a g r e e d a c t i o n ' . W h i l e t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d m e a s u r e s r e l a t e t o

a c t i o n t a k e n w i t h r e s p e c t t o m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f e q u i p m e n t , t h e ' a g r e e d

a c t i o n ' i s e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e G o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e u t i l i t y , i n t h e c a s e

o f t h e e l e c t r i c p o w e r s e c t o r .

T h e ' a g r e e d a c t i o n ' e s t a b l i s h e s s o m e b e n e f i t s f o r t h o s e c o m p a n i e s d e s i r i n g

t o b u i l d a n d o p e r a t e a c e r t a i n i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t , w h i c h b e n e f i t s a r e t h e n

e x t e n d e d t o t h e v a r i o u s s u p p l i e r s o f e q u i p m e n t a n d s e r v i c e s f o r t h e p l a n t .

A - 6 . 2 . 1 1 . T h e m e a s u r e s m e n t i o n e d m a y b e a p p l i e d t o a n y k i n d o f i n d u s t r y

a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e w i d e l y a p p l i e d t o n u c l e a r p l a n t s .

I n t h e c a s e o f n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s a f o u r t h m e a s u r e i s t a k e n b y t h e

G o v e r n m e n t : w h e n i t g r a n t s a p r e l i m i n a r y a u t h o r i z a t i o n i t f i x e s t h e m i n i m u m

p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e p l a n t e x p e n d i t u r e w h i c h m u s t b e i n v e s t e d i n e q u i p m e n t a n d

s e r v i c e s f r o m S p a n i s h i n d u s t r y .

SPAIN 313

T A B L E A - 6 . 2 . M A N U F A C T U R I N G S I T U A T I O N I N S P A I N F O R

O T H E R I M P O R T A N T C O M P O N E N T S

(In addition to those discussed in Section A-6.4.4 of this national example)

Component Domestic participation (%)

Component Present Expected

— Primary coolant, pipings, valves, hangers and supports

4 0 - 6 0 6 0 - 7 0

— Racks for spent fuel elements 90 100

— Air locks and penetrations 45 80

— Waste treatment plant 75 90

— Main condenser 70 80

— Secondary coolant piping, valves, etc. 5 0 - 7 0 7 0 - 8 0

— Heat exchangers, pumps, pipes, valves 90 100

- Tanks 95 95

- Heatings, ventilation and air conditioning 70 85

— Demineralizers 95 95

— Cranes 85 95

Electrical

— Main transformer 95 95

- Cables 90 95

— Switchgear 100 100

— Motors 90 95

— Lighting and installation 100 100

— Auxiliary power supply and diesel generators

Instrumentation and control

— Control room instrumentation 70 85

— Control rod and control rod drives 75 75

— Radiation detection instruments 25 65

314 APPENDIX A-l

N a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e S p a n i s h n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s i s d e s c r i b e d i n

S e c t i o n A - 6 . 4 . T a b l e s A - 6 . 1 a n d A - 6 . 2 s h o w t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f s u c h p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

A - 6 . 2 . 1 2 . I n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f S p a n i s h n u c l e a r a c t i v i t i e s t h r e e p e r i o d s

c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d :

— T h e f i r s t o n e e x t e n d s f r o m 1 9 4 8 t o 1 9 6 5 . T h e m a i n a c t i v i t i e s d u r i n g t h i s

s t a g e w e r e : t r a i n i n g , r e s e a r c h , u r a n i u m p r o s p e c t i o n , p l a n n i n g , d e v e l o p -

m e n t o f a n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r r e g u l a t o r y a c t i v i t i e s , p r o m o t i n g t h e i n t e r e s t

o f i n d u s t r y i n n u c l e a r m a t t e r s . T h e l e a d i n g r o l e w a s p l a y e d b y J E N , w h i c h

c a r r i e d o u t m o s t o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s .

— T h e s e c o n d p e r i o d e x t e n d s f r o m 1 9 6 5 t o 1 9 7 3 . T h e t h r e e p l a n t s n o w i n

o p e r a t i o n w e r e b u i l t d u r i n g t h i s s t a g e , w h i c h i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e f a c t

t h a t n u c l e a r p o w e r b e c a m e a r e a l i t y i n t h e S p a n i s h i n d u s t r i a l c o n t e x t ;

t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l a s p e c t s w e r e c o n s o l i d a t e d a n d t h e i n d u s t r y b e c a m e f u l l y

a w a r e o f n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y . T h e l e a d i n g r o l e w a s p l a y e d b y t h e e l e c t r i c

u t i l i t i e s .

— T h e t h i r d p e r i o d s t a r t s w i t h t h e d e s i g n o f t h e u n i t s t h a t a r e n o w u n d e r

c o n s t r u c t i o n . I t s o u t s t a n d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s t h e g r a d u a l b u i l d u p o f a

S p a n i s h i n d u s t r y f o r n u c l e a r s e r v i c e s a n d e q u i p m e n t . T h e l e a d i n g r o l e i s

n o w p l a y e d b y t h e a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r s a n d e q u i p m e n t m a n u f a c t u r i n g

c o m p a n i e s .

A - 6 . 3 . 1 . I n S p a i n , t h e e l e c t r i c p o w e r g e n e r a t i n g s e c t o r c o n s i s t s o f a n u m b e r

o f c o m p a n i e s ; m o s t o f t h e m a r e p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s , a l t h o u g h s o m e o f t h e m a r e

i n c l u d e d i n t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r , t h e s t o c k h o l d e r b e i n g t h e I n s t i t u t o N a c i o n a l d e

I n d u s t r i a ( I N I ) .

A m o n g t h e e l e c t r i c u t i l i t i e s , t h e r e a r e a b o u t 1 5 w h i c h a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n

n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s .

A - 6 . 3 . 2 . T h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f e q u i p m e n t a n d a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r s b e l o n g

t o b o t h t h e p u b l i c a n d t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r s .

A - 6 . 3 . 3 . T h e i n d u s t r i a l p l a n n i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e P a r l i a m e n t a n d

G o v e r n m e n t a n d w i t h i n t h i s i t i s a s p e c i f i c f u n c t i o n o f t h e M i n i s t r i e s o f E c o n o m y ,

a n d o f I n d u s t r y a n d E n e r g y . T h e a c t i v i t i e s r e g a r d i n g n u c l e a r p o w e r a r e p e r f o r m e d ,

w i t h i n t h e M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r y a n d E n e r g y , b y t h e C o m i s a r í a d e l a E n e r g í a a n d

J u n t a d e E n e r g í a N u c l e a r ( J E N ) .

A - 6 . 3 . 4 . T h e r e g u l a t o r y a n d l i c e n s i n g a c t i v i t i e s a r e p e r f o r m e d b y t h e

M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r y a n d E n e r g y . I n t h e p a s t a l l t h e s a f e t y - r e l a t e d a s p e c t s o f t h e

SPAIN 315

p l a n t h a d t o b e s u b m i t t e d t o t h e J E N ; i n t h e f u t u r e t h i s r o l e w i l l b e t a k e n o n

b y t h e C o u n c i l o f N u c l e a r S a f e t y .

A-6.3.5. G e n e r a l t e a c h i n g o f s u b j e c t s r e l a t e d t o n u c l e a r s c i e n c e a n d

t e c h n o l o g y i s c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e s c i e n t i f i c a n d p o l y t e c h n i c u n i v e r s i t i e s .

A-6.3.6. S p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g i n n u c l e a r s u b j e c t s f o r g r a d u a t e s , p l a n t o p e r a t o r s ,

e t c . i s p e r f o r m e d a t t h e I n s t i t u t o d e E s t u d i o s N u c l e a r e s ( I E N ) o f J E N .

A - 6 . 4 . E X P E R I E N C E

T h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f S p a n i s h i n d u s t r y i n t h e t h r e e p l a n t s o f t h e f i r s t s t a g e

r a n g e d b e t w e e n 4 0 a n d 4 4 % . A s a r e s u l t o f b o t h t h e m e a s u r e s t a k e n a n d t h e

p r o g r e s s o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e a c t i v i t i e s i n S p a i n , t h e p e r c e n t a g e s o f

n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e p l a n t s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n o r d e s i g n a r e a s s h o w n

i n T a b l e A - 6 . 1 .

T h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n a s r e g a r d s t h e v a r i o u s s e r v i c e s , m a t e r i a l s a n d c o m p o -

n e n t s i s a s f o l l o w s .

A-6.4.1. Services

— S p a i n h a s f u l l c a p a c i t y t o p e r f o r m t h e f o l l o w i n g s e r v i c e s :

• M a n a g e m e n t a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

• P l a n n i n g

• C o n s t r u c t i o n

• I n s p e c t i o n a n d t e s t i n g

• Q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l

• R e g u l a t o r y a n d l i c e n s i n g

• O p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e

• E n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d s i t i n g

• S a f e t y a n d e m e r g e n c y p r o c e d u r e s

— T h e e n g i n e e r i n g a c t i v i t i e s i n n u c l e a r p r o j e c t s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o i m p l e m e n t ,

b o t h b e c a u s e o f t h e k n o w l e d g e o f v e r y a d v a n c e d t e c h n o l o g i e s a n d s p e c i f i c

r e g u l a t i o n s w h i c h a r e r e q u i r e d a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s

w h i c h a r i s e . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e m e t h o d f o l l o w e d i n S p a i n h a s b e e n t o

h a v e S p a n i s h a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r s w i t h w i d e e x p e r i e n c e i n c o n v e n t i o n a l

p r o j e c t s w o r k i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h f o r e i g n a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e e r s w i t h

n u c l e a r e x p e r i e n c e f r o m t h e s a m e c o u n t r y a s t h a t o f t h e N S S S s u p p l i e r .

I n t h e p l a n t s o f t h e f i r s t s t a g e , t h e S p a n i s h p a r t i c i p a t i o n w a s v e r y s m a l l

w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h i s f i e l d ; i n t h o s e n o w u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n i t i s 8 0 % a n d ,

i n t h e p l a n t s u n d e r d e s i g n , 9 0 % .

316 APPENDIX A-l

— T r a i n i n g o f o p e r a t i o n p e r s o n n e l h a s r e q u i r e d i n t h e p a s t a c e r t a i n s t a y

a b r o a d , a s t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e s i m u l a t o r s t h a t w i l l b e u s e d f o r t h i s

p u r p o s e h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d o n l y r e c e n t l y .

A-6.4.2. Materials

— A c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f s p e c i a l m a t e r i a l s , a s i n t h e c a s e o f Z i r c a l o y , a r e

n e i t h e r m a n u f a c t u r e d i n S p a i n n o r i s t h e i r m a n u f a c t u r i n g f o r e s e e a b l e

i n f o r t h c o m i n g y e a r s .

— H i g h - q u a l i t y s t e e l h a s t o b e i m p o r t e d . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e o v e r a l l n a t i o n a l

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s l o w i n s o m e e q u i p m e n t w h i c h n e e d s i m p o r t e d s p e c i a l

s t e e l , a l t h o u g h n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s e s

u t i l i z i n g s p e c i a l s t e e l s i s v e r y h i g h , a s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e t u r b i n e .

— A l l t h e r e m a i n i n g m a t e r i a l s a r e a v a i l a b l e f r o m S p a n i s h s u p p l i e r s i n s u f f i c i e n t

q u a n t i t y a n d o f a d e q u a t e q u a l i t y .

A-6.4.3. Fuel cycle

— F r o m t h e v e r y m o m e n t o f i t s c r e a t i o n , J E N u n d e r t o o k a v a s t p l a n f o r

u r a n i u m p r o s p e c t i n g w h i c h s t i l l c o n t i n u e s . T h e r e a s o n a b l e a s s u r e d

r e s o u r c e s a r e 2 0 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f U 3 0 8 a t a p r i c e o f U S $ 3 0 / l b .

— I n 1 9 7 1 E m p r e s a N a c i o n a l d e l U r a n i o , S . A . ( E N U S A ) w a s f o u n d e d ; i t s

s t o c k i s h e l d i n p a r t b y I N I a n d i n p a r t b y J E N .

E N U S A i s e n t r u s t e d w i t h a l l a c t i v i t i e s p e r f o r m e d i n S p a i n c o n c e r n i n g

t h e n u c l e a r f u e l c y c l e , f r o m u r a n i u m m i n i n g u p t o r e p r o c e s s i n g . T h e

f i n a l r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e d i s p o s a l i s u n d e r J E N r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . E N U S A i s

e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e f u e l m a n a g e m e n t a c t i v i t i e s , s u c h a s t h e c o n t r a c t i n g o f

e n r i c h m e n t s e r v i c e s .

— A m o n g t h e i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s d e v e l o p e d i n S p a i n i s i t s o w n t e c h n o l o g y

f o r u r a n i u m c o n c e n t r a t e f a b r i c a t i o n .

— E N U S A h a s o b t a i n e d m a n u f a c t u r i n g l i c e n c e s f r o m W e s t i n g h o u s e a n d

G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c f o r t h e f a b r i c a t i o n o f f u e l e l e m e n t s f o r t h e i r l i g h t - w a t e r

r e a c t o r s .

A f a c t o r y f o r t h e f a b r i c a t i o n o f t h e s e f u e l e l e m e n t s i s i n t h e d e s i g n s t a g e .

— N o a c t i v i t i e s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d i n S p a i n i n t h e f i e l d o f e n r i c h m e n t , s i n c e

i t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t i t w o u l d n o t b e p r o f i t a b l e t o d e v e l o p t h e m o n a

d o m e s t i c s c a l e . E N U S A h o l d s 1 1 . 1 % s t o c k i n E U R O D I F .

SPAIN 317

— T h e t e m p o r a r y s t o r a g e o f s p e n t f u e l e l e m e n t s i s d o n e a t p r e s e n t i n t h e

p l a n t f u e l s t o r a g e p o o l s .

— R e p r o c e s s i n g o n a p i l o t - p l a n t s c a l e h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d b y J E N . T h e r e

a r e n o i n d u s t r i a l r e p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t s i n S p a i n .

— T h e p u r c h a s e o f u r a n i u m c o n c e n t r a t e f r o m t h e f o r e i g n m a r k e t ( s i n c e t h e

S p a n i s h p r o d u c t i o n i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t ) , a s w e l l a s e n r i c h m e n t s e r v i c e s a n d

f u e l e l e m e n t f a b r i c a t i o n s e r v i c e s a r e e n s u r e d b y m e a n s o f l o n g - t e r m

c o n t r a c t s s i g n e d b y E N U S A i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t .

A-6.4.4. C o m p o n e n t s

A n o u t l i n e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i s a s f o l l o w s :

— NSSS. T h e N S S S c o m p o n e n t s w e r e i m p o r t e d i n t h e p a s t . I n 1 9 7 3 t h e

c o m p a n y E q u i p o s N u c l e a r e s , S . A . ( E N S A ) w a s c r e a t e d a s a n ' i n d u s t r y

w i t h a p r e f e r e n t i a l i n t e r e s t ' t o m a n u f a c t u r e a l l N S S S c o m p o n e n t s , w i t h

t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e c i r c u l a t i n g p u m p s . T h e c o m p a n y w i l l b e a b l e t o

m a n u f a c t u r e t h r e e t o f o u r v e s s e l s a y e a r , f r o m 1 9 8 0 .

— Turbines. T h e t u r b i n e s a r e b u i l t i n S p a i n i n s i z e s u p t o 1 0 0 0 M W ( e ) .

N a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s o n l y 3 8 % o w i n g t o t h e n e c e s s i t y o f i m p o r t i n g

m o s t o f t h e m a t e r i a l s ; i t i s e x p e c t e d t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n w i l l i n c r e a s e t o 5 0 % .

— Alternators. T h e a l t e r n a t o r s a r e m a n u f a c t u r e d i n S p a i n a l t h o u g h w i t h

s o m e i m p o r t e d c o m p o n e n t s , w h i c h m a k e s t h e n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n 5 0 % ,

w i t h p r o s p e c t s o f r e a c h i n g 7 0 % w i t h i n a f e w y e a r s .

— Other components. T a b l e A - 6 . 2 s h o w s t h e n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n a n d

p r o s p e c t s i n t h e s h o r t t e r m f o r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e . T h e f o l l o w i n g

c o m p o n e n t s a r e n o t p r o d u c e d n o r i s t h e i r f a b r i c a t i o n c o n s i d e r e d n o w

i n S p a i n :

• M e c h a n i c a l i n - c o r e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n

• S a f e t y r e l a t e d v e n t i l a t i o n e q u i p m e n t i n t h e c o n t a i n m e n t b u i l d i n g

• H E P A a i r f i l t e r s

• P r i m a r y c i r c u l a t i n g p u m p s

• S o m e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n e q u i p m e n t

• O n - l i n e c o m p u t e r

T h e S p a n i s h t e c h n i c a l e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g s y s t e m i s p r e s e n t e d i n

F i g . 3 . 3 — 5 i n C h a p t e r 3 . F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h i s s e c t i o n o n l y d e a l s w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c

n u c l e a r t r a i n i n g .

318 APPENDIX A-l

A - 6 . 5 . 1 . W h e n t h e n u c l e a r a c t i v i t i e s s t a r t e d i n S p a i n , a s m a l l g r o u p o f

p e r s o n s w e r e t r a i n e d a b r o a d a n d t h e n b e c a m e t h e h e a d s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t w o r k i n g

g r o u p s a t t h e l a b o r a t o r i e s c r e a t e d a t t h a t t i m e .

O n c e t h e f i r s t w o r k i n g n u c l e u s w a s f o r m e d , m o r e a n d m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d

t e c h n i q u e s w e r e d e v e l o p e d a n d t h e t r a i n i n g p o l i c y w a s c h a n g i n g u p t o t h e

c r e a t i o n i n 1 9 6 4 o f t h e I n s t i t u t o d e E s t u d i o s N u c l e a r e s ( I E N ) , w h i c h w a s

a s s i g n e d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t r a i n i n g p e r s o n n e l w i t h i n t h e J E N .

A - 6 . 5 . 2 . I E N p e r f o r m s t h i s d u t y a t p r e s e n t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r .

— Scholarships w h i c h a r e a i m e d a t p o s t - g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g i n a s p e c i f i c

s p e c i a l i t y a t J E N ' s l a b o r a t o r i e s . I E N h a s c o n t r i b u t e d i n t h i s m a n n e r t o

t h e t r a i n i n g o f s o m e 4 0 0 S p a n i s h a n d f o r e i g n p o s t - g r a d u a t e p e o p l e

s o f a r .

— Courses w h i c h c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d a s f o l l o w s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r p u r p o s e :

( a ) R e g u l a r c o u r s e s o f b a s i c t r a i n i n g , s u c h a s :

• N u c l e a r E n g i n e e r i n g . D u r a t i o n : 1 0 m o n t h s . T h i r t e e n c o u r s e s

h a v e b e e n g i v e n i n a l l a n d t h e y h a v e b e e n a t t e n d e d b y 2 4 8 p e o p l e

w i t h M . S . o r P h . D . d e g r e e s .

• B a s i c N u c l e a r T r a i n i n g f o r n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t o p e r a t o r s , i n t h e

first p h a s e o f t h e i r t r a i n i n g . D u r a t i o n : 4 m o n t h s . S i x t e e n c o u r s e s

h a v e b e e n g i v e n w h i c h h a v e b e e n a t t e n d e d b y 2 3 6 s t u d e n t s .

• I n s t r u m e n t a l C h e m i c a l A n a l y s i s . D u r a t i o n : 5 w e e k s . T w e l v e

c o u r s e s h a v e b e e n g i v e n t o 1 9 5 s t u d e n t s i n a l l .

• E n v i r o n m e n t a l R a d i o a c t i v i t y . D u r a t i o n : 9 w e e k s . T w o c o u r s e s

h a v e b e e n g i v e n w h i c h h a v e b e e n a t t e n d e d b y 3 2 s t u d e n t s .

( b ) T r a i n i n g c o u r s e s f o r p e r s o n n e l u s i n g o r h a n d l i n g r a d i o a c t i v e f a c i l i t i e s ,

s u c h a s :

• T r a i n i n g c o u r s e s f o r s u p e r v i s o r s a n d o p e r a t o r s o f r a d i o a c t i v e

f a c i l i t i e s . D u r a t i o n f r o m 1 t o 3 w e e k s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d a t t e n d a n c e

o f m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 0 g r a d u a t e s a n d o p e r a t o r s f o r t h i s t y p e o f

i n s t a l l a t i o n .

• C o u r s e s o f H e a l t h P h y s i c s , f o r :

— C h i e f s o f t h e H e a l t h P h y s i c s S e r v i c e . D u r a t i o n : 2 m o n t h s .

O n e c o u r s e h a s b e e n g i v e n s o f a r , a t t e n d e d b y 2 0 p a r t i c i p a n t s .

— H e a l t h P h y s i c s s u p e r v i s o r s . D u r a t i o n : 2 w e e k s . F i v e c o u r s e s

h a v e b e e n g i v e n , a t t e n d e d b y 6 0 p a r t i c i p a n t s .

SPAIN 319

( c ) S p e c i a l n o n - r e g u l a r c o u r s e s . T h e s e c o u r s e s a r e o r g a n i z e d e i t h e r a t

t h e r e q u e s t o f o t h e r b o d i e s o r w h e n I E N d e t e c t s t h e n e e d f o r t h e m

i n t h e c o u n t r y .

( d ) C o u r s e s i n c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e I A E A f o r g r a d u a t e s f r o m d e v e l o p i n g

c o u n t r i e s :

• O n e c o u r s e o n P l a n n i n g , D e v e l o p m e n t a n d I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f

N u c l e a r P o w e r P r o j e c t s : 3 2 p a r t i c i p a n t s .

• O n e c o u r s e o n Q u a l i t y A s s u r a n c e : 2 9 p a r t i c i p a n t s .

L i k e w i s e , I E N c o - o p e r a t e s w i t h o t h e r l o c a l e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s b o t h i n

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s p e c i a l c o u r s e s a n d i n t h e c o n d u c t i n g o f e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k

a t t h e J E N f a c i l i t i e s .

A - 6 . 5 . 3 . T h e c o m p a n i e s o n t h e i r p a r t o f t e n o r g a n i z e , i n d i v i d u a l l y o r j o i n t l y

w i t h o t h e r s , t r a i n i n g a n d s p e c i a l i z e d c o u r s e s o n s p e c i f i c s u b j e c t s .

A - 6 . 6 . R E S U L T S A N D P R O B L E M S

A - 6 . 6 . 1 . A s a g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t i t m a y b e s a i d t h a t S p a i n h a s a t t a i n e d a

r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e o f n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i t s n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e

a c t i v i t i e s .

A - 6 . 6 . 2 . T h e m a j o r d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n t e r e d h a v e b e e n :

Architect-engineer: T h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e p r o j e c t a n d , a s a r e s u l t , t h e

a d o p t i o n o f i n t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t r o l a n d c o - o r d i n a t i o n m e t h o d s ; a d o p t i o n

o f f o r e i g n s t a n d a r d s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y o n c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f l i c e n s i n g ;

a n a l y s i s o f d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e ; a c c i d e n t a n a l y s i s .

Manufacturers of equipment: S e i s m i c d e s i g n , s t r e s s a n a l y s i s ; s a f e t y c l a s s e s ;

q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e p r o g r a m m e ; a d a p t a t i o n o f f o r e i g n s t a n d a r d s a n d s p e c i a l c o d e s .

Regulatory body: A p p l i c a t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n o f f o r e i g n r e g u l a t i o n s ;

e v a l u a t i o n o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s o n a d v a n c e d t e c h n o l o g i e s .

A - 6 . 7 . S U M M A R I Z I N G R E M A R K S

A - 6 . 7 . 1 . S p a i n c a n b e d e f i n e d a s a c o u n t r y e n g a g e d i n a n i m p o r t a n t

n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e . I t h a s n o t d e v e l o p e d a r e a c t o r t e c h n o l o g y o f i t s o w n ,

b u t h a s m a d e , w i t h s u c c e s s , g r e a t e f f o r t s t o h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t n a t i o n a l

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p r o v i d i n g e q u i p m e n t a n d s e r v i c e s .

320 APPENDIX A-l

A - 6 . 7 . 2 . T h e f a c t o f h a v i n g s t a r t e d n u c l e a r a c t i v i t i e s a b o u t 1 5 y e a r s b e f o r e

b e g i n n i n g t h e f i r s t n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t h a s b e e n d e c i s i v e f o r t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e

S p a n i s h n u c l e a r p r o g r a m m e .

A - 6 . 7 . 3 . O t h e r f a c t o r s , s u c h a s t h e a c t i o n t a k e n b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t , i n t e r e s t

t a k e n b y i n d u s t r y , g e n e r a l c a p a c i t y t o s u p p l y b o t h i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t s a n d

s e r v i c e s o f t h e r e q u i r e d q u a l i t y , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s i z e o f t h e p r o g r a m m e , h a v e

c o n t r i b u t e d t o a t t a i n i n g t h e p r e s e n t d e g r e e o f n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

A - 7 . 1 . N U C L E A R P O W E R P R O G R A M M E

N u c l e a r p o w e r w i l l c o n t i n u e t o m a k e a n i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e

e n e r g y s u p p l y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a a s t h e n a t i o n m o v e s t o d e v e l o p

a m i x o f e n e r g y s o u r c e s t o o f f s e t t h e d e p e n d e n c e o n i m p o r t e d o i l .

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n u c l e a r p o w e r i n t h e U S A a f t e r W o r l d W a r I I m o v e d

t o w a r d f u l f i l l i n g t h e g o a l o f l o w - c o s t e l e c t r i c i t y f r o m n u c l e a r fission t o s a t i s f y a n

i n c r e a s i n g d e m a n d f o r e n e r g y . S o m e e a r l y m i l e s t o n e s l e a d i n g t o c o m m e r c i a l

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f n u c l e a r p o w e r w e r e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

1 9 4 2 . T h e f i r s t c o n t r o l l e d c h a i n r e a c t i o n w a s a c h i e v e d b y F e r m i i n t h e p i l e

a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o .

1 9 4 6 . T h e A t o m i c E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n ( A E C ) w a s e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e

A t o m i c E n e r g y A c t t o e x e r c i s e c i v i l i a n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e U S n u c l e a r e n e r g y

p r o g r a m m e .

1 9 5 3 . P r e s i d e n t E i s e n h o w e r p r e s e n t e d t h e A t o m s f o r P e a c e i n i t i a t i v e i n a

s p e e c h t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s ' G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y , e s t a b l i s h i n g a p l a n f o r

i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d u s e o f n u c l e a r e n e r g y

u n d e r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A t o m i c E n e r g y A g e n c y .

1 9 5 4 . T h e A t o m i c E n e r g y A c t w a s r e v i s e d t o a l l o w p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s t o

b u i l d a n d o p e r a t e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s . I n 1 9 5 5 , u n d e r a P o w e r R e a c t o r

D e m o n s t r a t i o n P r o g r a m F e d e r a l a i d w a s p r o v i d e d t o p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y t o

b u i l d a n d o p e r a t e d e m o n s t r a t i o n p o w e r p l a n t s .

1 9 5 5 . T h e f i r s t r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r l i c e n c e i n t h e U S A w a s g r a n t e d t o t h e N o r t h

C a r o l i n a S t a t e C o l l e g e .

1 9 5 7 . T h e first p r o t o t y p e c o m m e r c i a l p o w e r r e a c t o r i n t h e U S A , a p r e s s u r i z e d

w a t e r r e a c t o r ( P W R ) , w a s p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n a t S h i p p i n g p o r t , P e n n s y l v a n i a .

T h e r e a c t o r w a s b u i l t b y W e s t i n g h o u s e u n d e r c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e A t o m i c E n e r g y

C o m m i s s i o n a n d w a s b a s e d o n P W R t e c h n o l o g y d e v e l o p e d f o r t h e N a v a l

R e a c t o r P r o g r a m .

1 9 5 9 . T h e s e c o n d p r o t o t y p e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t , a b o i l i n g w a t e r r e a c t o r

( B W R ) , m a n u f a c t u r e d b y G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c , w e n t i n t o o p e r a t i o n n e a r C h i c a g o

( D r e s d e n - 1 ) .

322 APPENDIX A-l

1 9 6 3 . A N e w J e r s e y u t i l i t y ( J e r s e y C e n t r a l P o w e r a n d L i g h t C o . ) a n n o u n c e d

a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a 5 5 0 M W ( e )

b o i l i n g w a t e r r e a c t o r a t O y s t e r C r e e k . T h i s w a s t h e f i r s t c o n t r a c t b e t w e e n a

u t i l i t y a n d a m a n u f a c t u r e r b a s e d o n t h e e c o n o m i c c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s o f n u c l e a r

g e n e r a t e d e l e c t r i c i t y a n d t h e f i r s t t h a t d i d n o t i n v o l v e d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f

t h e A E C .

T h e c o m m e r c i a l m a r k e t f o r n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s i n t h e U S A h a s c o n t i n u e d

t o b e d o m i n a t e d b y l i g h t w a t e r r e a c t o r t e c h n o l o g y , w i t h o w n e r s h i p b y p u b l i c l y

a n d p r i v a t e l y o w n e d u t i l i t i e s . T h r e e c o m p a n i e s ( W e s t i n g h o u s e , C o m b u s t i o n

E n g i n e e r i n g , a n d B a b c o c k a n d W i l c o x ) n o w m a n u f a c t u r e p r e s s u r i z e d w a t e r

r e a c t o r s , a n d o n e c o m p a n y ( G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c ) m a n u f a c t u r e s b o i l i n g w a t e r r e a c t o r s .

S e v e r a l a d v a n c e d t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s h a v e b e e n o p e r a t e d i n t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n

o r p r o t o t y p e s t a g e s . A 3 3 0 M W ( e ) h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e r e a c t o r ( H T R ) h a s o p e r a t e d

a t F o r t S t . V r a i n s i n c e 1 9 7 4 . T h i s h e l i u m - c o o l e d a n d g r a p h i t e - m o d e r a t e d r e a c t o r

w a s p r e c e d e d b y a 4 0 M W ( e ) p r o t o t y p e H T R ( P e a c h B o t t o m - 1 ) w h i c h s t a r t e d

o p e r a t i o n i n t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 s a n d o p e r a t e d f o r m o r e t h a n s e v e n y e a r s . T h e l i g h t

w a t e r b r e e d e r r e a c t o r ( L W B R ) , w h i c h u s e s u r a n i u m / t h o r i u m f u e l , i s a n o t h e r

a d v a n c e d t h e r m a l r e a c t o r t e c h n o l o g y u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n b y t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f

E n e r g y . T h e S h i p p i n g p o r t A t o m i c P o w e r S t a t i o n , a t a l e v e l o f 6 0 M W ( e ) , w i t h a n

L W B R t e s t c o r e h a s b e e n i n o p e r a t i o n s i n c e 1 9 7 7 .

D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e l i q u i d - s o d i u m - c o o l e d f a s t b r e e d e r r e a c t o r ( L M F B R )

b e g a n i n t h e m i d 1 9 4 0 s . S e v e r a l p r o t o t y p e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e E B R - I , t h e E B R - I I a n d

t h e F e r m i - I , w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d o p e r a t e d f o r t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f e l e c t r i c i t y , a n d

t h e E B R - I I c o n t i n u e s a s a t e s t i n g f a c i l i t y . T h e F a s t F l u x T e s t F a c i l i t y ( F F T F ) i s

b e i n g c o m p l e t e d a t H a n f o r d , W a s h i n g t o n , f o r t h e t e s t i n g o f a d v a n c e d b r e e d e r f u e l s

a n d m a t e r i a l s .

T h e U S n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e g r e w r a p i d l y i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s .

B y t h e e n d o f 1 9 7 4 , o r d e r s h a d b e e n p l a c e d f o r 2 3 3 n u c l e a r g e n e r a t i n g u n i t s . A t

t h a t t i m e , g r o w t h o f t h e U S n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y b e g a n t o s l o w d o w n . C o n t r i b u t i n g

f a c t o r s w e r e t h e s e v e r e e c o n o m i c d o w n t u r n i n 1 9 7 4 , u t i l i t y financing p r o b l e m s

a n d l i c e n s i n g d e l a y s , a n d d e c r e a s e d p r o j e c t i o n s f o r t h e g r o w t h i n e l e c t r i c i t y

d e m a n d . T h e l a t t e r , a k e y f a c t o r , w a s b r o u g h t a b o u t b y a d r o p i n g r o w t h o f

e l e c t r i c i t y d e m a n d f r o m 7 . 5 % p e r y e a r i n t h e d e c a d e p r e c e d i n g 1 9 7 4 t o a p p r o x i -

m a t e l y 3 % p e r y e a r . S i n c e 1 9 7 6 , t h e n u m b e r o f p l a n t s b u i l t , u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n

o r p l a n n e d h a s d e c l i n e d f r o m a b o u t 2 3 5 t o 1 6 6 . M o r e r e c e n t l y , t h e a c c i d e n t a t

T h r e e M i l e I s l a n d ( T M I ) i n M a r c h 1 9 7 9 h a s f u r t h e r c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o n t r a c t i o n

o f t h e n u c l e a r s e c t o r .

F o l l o w i n g t h e a c c i d e n t a t T h r e e M i l e I s l a n d , t h e P r e s i d e n t i n s t i t u t e d a

m o r a t o r i u m o n n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t l i c e n s i n g a c t i v i t i e s p e n d i n g t h e f o r m u l a t i o n

o f a n a c t i o n p l a n f o r t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s .

T a b l e A - 7 . 1 p r o v i d e s r e c e n t p r o j e c t i o n s o f i n s t a l l e d U S n u c l e a r c a p a c i t y b y

t h e E n e r g y I n f o r m a t i o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( E I A ) o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y , a s

T A B L E A - 7 . 1 . U S N U C L E A R P O W E R F O R E C A S T S ( G W ( e ) )

Year 1985 1990 1995 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 0

Low: 87 122 137 160 300

High: 109 139 160 2 0 0 4 6 0

FIG.A-7.1. Domestic nuclear power capacity 1965-1995.

o f J u n e 1 9 8 0 , w h i c h f o r e s e e a c a p a c i t y o f 8 7 t o 1 0 9 G W ( e ) i n 1 9 8 5 a n d 1 2 2 t o

1 3 9 G W ( e ) i n 1 9 9 0 . F i g u r e A - 7 . 1 s h o w s t h e J u n e 1 9 8 0 p r o j e c t i o n f o r t h e m i d - c a s e

( a v e r a g e ) o f T a b l e A - 7 . 1 t h r o u g h 1 9 9 5 a n d a n u m b e r o f t h e e a r l i e r E I A p r o j e c t i o n s ,

a s w e l l a s t h e g r o w t h o f t h e U S n u c l e a r c a p a c i t y s i n c e 1 9 6 5 .

T h e u p d a t e d s t a t u s o f U S n u c l e a r p l a n t s , a s o f 3 1 M a r c h 1 9 8 0 , i s 6 7 n u c l e a r

p o w e r p l a n t s o p e r a t i n g ( o u t o f t h e 7 0 l i c e n s e d b y t h e N R C ) w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f

4 9 G W ( e ) , a n d 1 p l a n t w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f 1 0 0 0 M W ( e ) l i c e n s e d f o r l o w - p o w e r

t e s t i n g a t 1 0 % c a p a c i t y . I n a d d i t i o n , 8 7 p l a n t s w i t h a t o t a l c a p a c i t y o f 9 6 G W ( e )

h a d c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r m i t s ( 3 6 o f t h e s e w e r e u n d e r o p e r a t i n g l i c e n c e r e v i e w ) a n d

1 1 p l a n t s h a v i n g a c a p a c i t y o f 1 4 G W ( e ) w e r e u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r m i t r e v i e w .

T h u s , a t o t a l o f 1 6 6 p l a n t s w e r e i n o p e r a t i o n , u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n o r p l a n n e d w i t h

a t o t a l c a p a c i t y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 9 G W ( e ) .

324 APPENDIX A-l

A - 7 . 2 . P O L I C Y , S T R A T E G Y A N D P R O C E D U R E S

U S e n e r g y p o l i c y r e c o g n i z e s t h e n e e d t o r e d u c e t h e c o u n t r y ' s d e p e n d e n c e

o n i m p o r t e d o i l t h r o u g h c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d i n c r e a s e d r e l i a n c e o n o t h e r s o u r c e s o f

e n e r g y .

T o e n s u r e t h e v i a b i l i t y o f n u c l e a r e n e r g y f o r t h e p r e s e n c e a n d i n t h e f u t u r e ,

t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n s u p p o r t s p r o g r a m m e s t o i m p r o v e t h e c u r r e n t s y s t e m o f o n c e -

t h r o u g h l i g h t w a t e r r e a c t o r s ( L W R s ) a n d t o p r o v i d e a t e c h n i c a l b a s e f o r f a s t b r e e d e r

r e a c t o r s s h o u l d t h e y b e n e e d e d i n t h e n e x t c e n t u r y .

T h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t h a s t a k e n s t e p s i n a n u m b e r o f a r e a s r e l a t e d t o

n u c l e a r e n e r g y . F i r s t l y , t o i m p r o v e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s a f e t y a n d m a k e c h a n g e s

b a s e d o n t h e l e s s o n s l e a r n e d f r o m T h r e e M i l e I s l a n d ; s e c o n d l y , t o d e v e l o p a

n a t i o n a l r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t p l a n , i n c l u d i n g t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f

p o t e n t i a l w a s t e r e p o s i t o r y s i t e s a n d t h e p a s s a g e o f l e g i s l a t i o n f o r a c q u i s i t i o n b y

t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t o f a w a y - f r o m - r e a c t o r s p e n t f u e l s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s ; a n d ,

t h i r d l y , t o i m p r o v e t h e r e g u l a t o r y p r o c e s s a n d e x p e d i t e t h e s i t i n g a n d l i c e n s i n g o f

n u c l e a r p l a n t s t o r e d u c e t h e l e a d t i m e f o r p l a n t o p e r a t i o n .

F u r t h e r m o r e , b e c a u s e o f c o n c e r n o v e r t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f n u c l e a r w e a p o n s ,

t h e P r e s i d e n t h a s d e f e r r e d i n d e f i n i t e l y t h e r e p r o c e s s i n g o f s p e n t f u e l f o r t h e U S

c i v i l i a n n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e . T h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s p r o p o s e d t e r m i n a t i o n

o f t h e C l i n c h R i v e r B r e e d e r R e a c t o r a n d r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e f a s t b r e e d e r p r o g r a m m e

t o g i v e p r i o r i t y t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a d v a n c e d b r e e d e r d e s i g n s w i t h i m p r o v e d

s a f e t y a n d n o n - p r o l i f e r a t i o n f e a t u r e s .

A-7.2.1. Improved LWR fuel utilization

T h e r e a r e t h r e e g o v e r n m e n t p r o g r a m m e s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e g o a l o f

e x t e n d i n g t h e u r a n i u m r e s o u r c e b a s e f o r t h e o n c e - t h r o u g h f u e l c y c l e . T h e

LWR Improvement Program s u p p o r t s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t e s t i n g o f h i g h

b u r n u p f u e l s a n d L W R d e s i g n i m p r o v e m e n t s . T h e g o a l o f t h i s p r o g r a m m e i s 1 5 %

r e d u c t i o n i n u r a n i u m r e q u i r e m e n t s b y 1 9 9 0 , a n d a 1 0 — 1 5 % a d d i t i o n a l r e d u c t i o n

b y t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0 . Advanced Isotope Separation ( A I S ) t e c h n o l o g y i s e x p e c t e d

t o i n c r e a s e u r a n i u m u t i l i z a t i o n b y a s m u c h a s 2 0 % i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s . The National Uranium Resources Evaluation ( N U R E ) p r o j e c t i s i m p r o v i n g e s t i m a t e s o f t h e

a m o u n t a n d a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f U S u r a n i u m a n d t h o r i u m r e s o u r c e s .

A-7.2.2. Breeder reactor programme

T h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s f a s t b r e e d e r r e a c t o r p r o g r a m m e a r e a s

f o l l o w s : ( a ) a c o n c e p t u a l d e s i g n s t u d y ( C D S ) f o r a l i q u i d m e t a l f a s t b r e e d e r r e a c t o r

( L M F B R ) t e s t p l a n t t h a t w o u l d e m p l o y c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e t e c h n o l o g y ,

( b ) c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e F a s t F l u x T e s t F a c i l i t y ( F F T F ) t o p r o v i d e o p e r a t i n g

i n f o r m a t i o n o n f a s t b r e e d e r p l a n t c o m p o n e n t s a n d t o s e r v e a s a t e s t b e d f o r

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 325

a d v a n c e d f u e l c o n c e p t s , ( c ) a s t r o n g L M F B R r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e

i n t h e a r e a s o f c o m p o n e n t s , f u e l s a n d m a t e r i a l s , s a f e t y , a n d r e a c t o r p h y s i c s a n d

( d ) d e f e r r a l o f c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n o f t h e b r e e d e r .

A-7.2.3. Response to Three Mile Island

F o l l o w i n g t h e a c c i d e n t a t t h e T h r e e M i l e I s l a n d n u c l e a r p o w e r s t a t i o n

( T M I - 2 ) i n M a r c h 1 9 7 9 , t h e P r e s i d e n t e s t a b l i s h e d t h e K e m e n y C o m m i s s i o n t o

c o n d u c t a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y a n d i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e T M I e v e n t s a n d t h e i r

c a u s e s . T h e C o m m i s s i o n h a s c o m p l e t e d i t s r e p o r t a n d , b a s e d u p o n i t , t h e P r e s i d e n t

h a s m a d e t h e f o l l o w i n g r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a n d t a k e n t h e f o l l o w i n g a c t i o n s :

- R e q u e s t e d t h e N u c l e a r R e g u l a t o r y C o m m i s s i o n ( N R C ) t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e

p l a c e m e n t o f f e d e r a l i n s p e c t o r s a t a l l r e a c t o r s i t e s .

— R e q u e s t e d t h e N R C t o e v a l u a t e t h e n e e d f o r t h e c o n t i n u a l p r e s e n c e o f

a g o v e r n m e n t o b s e r v e r o r c o n t i n u a l c o m p u t e r m o n i t o r i n g i n t h e c o n t r o l

r o o m s o f o p e r a t i n g r e a c t o r s .

- D i r e c t e d t h e F e d e r a l E m e r g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t A g e n c y ( F E M A ) t o a s s u m e

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a l l o f f - s i t e e m e r g e n c y p l a n n i n g a n d r e s p o n s e , a n d t o

r e v i e w e m e r g e n c y p l a n s i n a l l S t a t e s w i t h o p e r a t i n g r e a c t o r s .

- R e q u e s t e d a d d i t i o n a l f u n d i n g o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y U S $ 6 5 m i l l i o n f o r N R C ,

t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y ( D O E ) a n d F E M A f o r p r o g r a m m e s t o

i m p r o v e r e a c t o r s a f e t y u s i n g t h e l e s s o n s l e a r n e d f r o m T M I .

— P r o p o s e d r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e N R C t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e C o m m i s s i o n

C h a i r m a n a n d t h e E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r f o r O p e r a t i o n s a n d t o i m p r o v e

t h e q u a l i t y o f n u c l e a r r e g u l a t i o n a n d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e r e s p o n s e

t o e m e r g e n c i e s .

— E s t a b l i s h e d a n e x p e r t a d v i s o r y c o m m i t t e e t o m o n i t o r t h e p r o g r e s s o f

a g e n c i e s a n d u t i l i t i e s i n i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e K e m e n y C o m m i s s i o n

r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . T h e P r e s i d e n t e s t a b l i s h e d t h e N u c l e a r S a f e t y O v e r s i g h t

C o m m i t t e e ( N S O C ) w i t h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o m o n i t o r a n d r e p o r t o n :

p r o g r e s s i n i m p r o v i n g n u c l e a r s a f e t y ; p r o g r e s s i n e f f e c t i n g m a n a g e m e n t ,

s u b s t a n t i v e a n d p r o c e d u r a l r e f o r m b y N R C ; o p e r a t o r t r a i n i n g a d e q u a c y

b y N R C a n d u t i l i t i e s ; p r o g r e s s o f F E M A i n e m e r g e n c y p l a n n i n g ; a n d ,

s u c c e s s o f t h e n e w R a d i a t i o n P o l i c y C o u n c i l i n i m p r o v i n g w o r k e r a n d

p u b l i c h e a l t h s a f e t y w i t h r e g a r d t o r a d i o l o g i c a l h a z a r d s .

I n r e s p o n s e t o t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a n d i t s o w n i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e

N R C h a s f o r m u l a t e d a n a c t i o n p l a n f o r r e s o l u t i o n o f g e n e r i c a n d s p e c i f i c s a f e t y

i s s u e s a n d f o r e x p a n d i n g i n s p e c t i o n a n d e n f o r c e m e n t f u n c t i o n s . N R C o b j e c t i v e s

326 APPENDIX A-l

a r e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o r e r i g o r o u s c r i t e r i a f o r o p e r a t o r a n d s u p e r v i s o r q u a l i f i c a -

t i o n s ; e x p a n d e d a n d i m p r o v e d u s e o f s i m u l a t o r s ; t h e r e - c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f l i c e n s e d

o p e r a t o r s ; a n d t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f o p e r a t i o n a l s a f e t y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y o f n u c l e a r

p l a n t s t h r o u g h b e t t e r c o n t r o l s y s t e m d e s i g n , i n f o r m a t i o n d i s p l a y a n d a d v a n c e d

t r a i n i n g . R e s e a r c h p r o g r a m m e s o f b o t h N R C a n d D O E a r e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s

i m p r o v i n g m e t h o d s i n risk a s s e s s m e n t f o r e v a l u a t i n g s a f e t y i s s u e s .

T h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y h a s a l s o p r o c e e d e d t o t a k e a c t i o n o n s a f e t y i m p r o v e m e n t s .

T h e f i r s t s t e p s a r e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e N u c l e a r S a f e t y A n a l y s i s C e n t e r ( N S A C ) , a s a

f o c u s f o r t h e e x c h a n g e o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n s a f e t y , a n d t h e I n s t i t u t e o f N u c l e a r P o w e r

O p e r a t i o n ( I N P O ) , t o s e t s a f e t y s t a n d a r d s f o r t h e t r a i n i n g o f p o w e r p l a n t p e r s o n n e l .

A-7.3.1. National organization

T h e E n e r g y R e o r g a n i z a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 7 4 a b o l i s h e d t h e A t o m i c E n e r g y

C o m m i s s i o n ( A E C ) a n d c r e a t e d i n i t s p l a c e t w o F e d e r a l a g e n c i e s : t h e Energy Research and Development Administration ( E R D A ) w h i c h , i n 1 9 7 8 , b e c a m e t h e

Department of Energy ( D O E ) a n d t h e Nuclear Regulatory Commission ( N R C ) .

T h e A E C , e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 9 4 5 a n d r e o r g a n i z e d i n 1 9 5 4 a n d a g a i n i n 1 9 6 1 ,

w a s h e a d e d b y a f i v e - m e m b e r C o m m i s s i o n a p p o i n t e d b y t h e P r e s i d e n t . T h e t a s k

o f t h e A E C w a s t o e x e r c i s e c i v i l i a n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n u c l e a r

e n e r g y i n t h e U S A ; i t s a c t i v i t i e s w e r e o v e r s e e n i n C o n g r e s s b y t h e J o i n t C o m m i t t e e

o n A t o m i c E n e r g y . M o u n t i n g c r i t i c i s m o f i t s d u a l r o l e i n p r o m o t i n g n u c l e a r e n e r g y

a n d r e g u l a t i n g n u c l e a r f a c i l i t i e s , a n d t h e n e e d t o p u t a l l F e d e r a l e n e r g y p r o g r a m m e s

u n d e r a s i n g l e a g e n c y , b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e A E C i n 1 9 7 4 .

A-7.3.2. Department of Energy

T h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p u r s u i n g n u c l e a r r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s

a n d f o r b r i n g i n g n e w n u c l e a r p o w e r t e c h n o l o g i e s t o t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n p h a s e l i e s

w i t h t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y ( D O E ) . T h e D O E l a b o r a t o r i e s p l a y a k e y r o l e i n

t h e s e n u c l e a r p o w e r r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s . L a b o r a t o r i e s o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e i n

t h i s r e s p e c t a r e O a k R i d g e i n T e n n e s s e e , A r g o n n e i n I l l i n o i s , H a n f o r d i n t h e S t a t e

o f W a s h i n g t o n , S a v a n n a h R i v e r i n S o u t h C a r o l i n a , B r o o k h a v e n i n t h e S t a t e N e w

Y o r k a n d t h e I d a h o N a t i o n a l E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r y i n I d a h o . A l s o , D O E s u p p o r t s

g o v e r n m e n t f u n d e d d e m o n s t r a t i o n b y i n d u s t r y t o e s t a b l i s h c o m m e r c i a l f e a s i b i l i t y .

A-7.3.3. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

T h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e l i c e n s i n g o f n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s a n d t h e r e g u l a t i o n

o f t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y a n d n u c l e a r a c t i v i t i e s a f f e c t i n g t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h a n d

s a f e t y l i e s w i t h t h e N u c l e a r R e g u l a t o r y C o m m i s s i o n ( N R C ) .

T h e N R C , l i k e i t s p r e d e c e s s o r , t h e A E C , h a s b e e n h e a d e d b y a f i v e - m e m b e r

C o m m i s s i o n a p p o i n t e d b y t h e P r e s i d e n t . T h e p r i n c i p a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e r i s

t h e E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r f o r O p e r a t i o n s a n d f i v e o p e r a t i n g o f f i c e s c a r r y o u t t h e

N R C ' s m a j o r f u n c t i o n s : licensing o f n u c l e a r p l a n t s b y t h e O f f i c e o f N u c l e a r

R e a c t o r R e g u l a t i o n ; l i c e n s i n g o f f u e l c y c l e f a c i l i t i e s a n d t r a n s p o r t o f n u c l e a r

m a t e r i a l s a n d safeguarding o f n u c l e a r f a c i l i t i e s a n d m a t e r i a l s b y t h e O f f i c e o f

N u c l e a r M a t e r i a l s S a f e t y a n d S a f e g u a r d s ; inspection and enforcement i n l i c e n s e d

n u c l e a r f a c i l i t i e s b y t h e O f f i c e o f I n s p e c t i o n a n d E n f o r c e m e n t ; standards develop-ment f o r t h e l i c e n s e d u s e o f r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s b y t h e O f f i c e o f S t a n d a r d s a n d

D e v e l o p m e n t a n d regulatory research i n s a f e t y , s a f e g u a r d s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a t

D O E l a b o r a t o r i e s a n d o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s b y t h e O f f i c e o f N u c l e a r R e g u l a t o r y R e s e a r c h .

S i n c e T M I , t h e O f f i c e f o r A n a l y s i s a n d E v a l u a t i o n o f O p e r a t i o n a l D a t a h a s

b e e n n e w l y c r e a t e d i n t h e N R C t o g i v e a d d i t i o n a l t e c h n i c a l s u p p o r t t o t h e s a f e t y

a n d s a f e g u a r d s m i s s i o n o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n . T h e P r e s i d e n t ' s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s

f o l l o w i n g t h e K e m e n y C o m m i s s i o n r e p o r t c a l l f o r s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e r o l e s o f t h e

C h a i r m a n , w h o i s o n e o f t h e five C o m m i s s i o n e r s , a n d t h e E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r o f

O p e r a t i o n s .

A-7.3.4. Industrial infrastructure

A-7.3.4.1. Reactor vendors

T h r e e p r i v a t e firms i n t h e U S A a r e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f t h e n u c l e a r s t e a m s u p p l y

s y s t e m s ( N S S S ) f o r p r e s s u r i z e d w a t e r r e a c t o r s ( P W R s ) : W e s t i n g h o u s e , C o m b u s t i o n

E n g i n e e r i n g a n d B a b c o c k & W i l c o x . O n e f i r m , G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c , m a n u f a c t u r e s t h e

N S S S f o r t h e b o i l i n g w a t e r r e a c t o r ( B W R ) .

O f t h e l i g h t w a t e r r e a c t o r N S S S c o n t r a c t s a w a r d e d b y U S u t i l i t i e s s i n c e 1 9 6 4 ,

W e s t i n g h o u s e h a s a c c o u n t e d f o r 3 7 % , G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c f o r 3 4 % , C o m b u s t i o n

E n g i n e e r i n g f o r 1 3 % a n d B a b c o c k & W i l c o x f o r 1 2 % .

A-7.3.4.2. Architect I engineers and constructors

F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f n u c l e a r p l a n t d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e U S A , t h e r e

a r e m o r e t h a n 5 0 a r c h i t e c t / e n g i n e e r ( A / E ) firms a n d i n e x c e s s o f 4 0 e n g i n e e r /

c o n s t r u c t o r ( E / C ) firms. O f t h e firms a c t i v e l y e n g a g e d i n w o r k o n t h e

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 0 p l a n t s n o w u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e r e a r e 1 6 a r c h i t e c t / e n g i n e e r s

a n d 1 9 e n g i n e e r / c o n s t r u c t o r s , 6 o f w h i c h a r e a l s o A / E s . T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e

A / E s a n d E / C s a r e p r i v a t e f i r m s , b u t s e v e r a l o f t h e m a j o r u t i l i t i e s a r e i n c l u d e d ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e g o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d T e n n e s s e e V a l l e y A u t h o r i t y ( T V A ) w h i c h

s e r v e s a s t h e A / E a n d E / C i n a l l o f i t s p o w e r p l a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s .

328 APPENDIX A-l

A - l A . E X P E R I E N C E

S o m e a s p e c t s o f t h e U S e x p e r i e n c e i n a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o t h e c o m m e r c i a l

n u c l e a r p o w e r f u e l c y c l e a n d t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d l i c e n s i n g o f n u c l e a r p o w e r

p l a n t s a r e o u t l i n e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s .

A-7.4.1. Uranium milling and mining

T h e r e a r e , a t p r e s e n t , 3 9 c o m p a n i e s i n t h e U S A t h a t m i n e u r a n i u m , i n c l u d i n g

t h r e e p h o s p h a t e r e c o v e r y p r o d u c e r s . D r i l l i n g i n 1 9 7 9 a m o u n t e d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y

4 1 X 1 0 6 f e e t , w i t h 2 7 X 1 0 6 f e e t o f e x p l o r a t i o n d r i l l i n g a n d 1 4 X 1 0 6 f e e t o f

d e v e l o p m e n t d r i l l i n g . T h i s w a s a d e c r e a s e o f 6 X 1 0 6 f e e t f r o m t h e t o t a l d r i l l e d i n

1 9 7 8 . T h e a v e r a g e o r e g r a d e p r o c e s s e d i n 1 9 7 9 w a s 0 . 1 1 % U 3 0 8 , c o m p a r e d t o

0 . 1 3 % i n 1 9 7 8 .

U S r e s o u r c e s o f U 3 0 8 i n t h e r e s e r v e s c a t e g o r y a t U S $ 5 0 / l b f o r w a r d c o s t a r e

e s t i m a t e d a t 9 3 6 0 0 0 t o n s , 1 a s o f 1 J u n e 1 9 8 0 . R e a s o n a b l y a s s u r e d r e s o u r c e s

( R A R ) a t l e s s t h a n U S $ 5 0 / l b ( U S r e s e r v e p l u s p r o b a b l e p o t e n t i a l r e s o u r c e s ) a r e

e s t i m a t e d t o b e 2 4 4 1 0 0 0 t o n s o f U 3 0 8 . T h e r e a r e a l s o a n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 7 0 0 0 t o n s

o f U S $ 5 0 / l b U 3 0 8 r e c o v e r a b l e b y t h e y e a r 2 0 0 8 a s b y p r o d u c t s o f p h o s p h a t e a n d

c o p p e r p r o d u c t i o n , a n d , i n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e r e s e r v e s o f 1 8 6 0 0 0 t o n s U 3 0 8 i n

t h e U S $ 5 0 - 1 0 0 / l b c o s t r a n g e . T h e U S p r o d u c t i o n c a p a b i l i t y o f U S $ 5 0 / l b o r e

w a s 1 8 7 0 0 t o n s i n 1 9 7 9 a n d a b o u t 2 4 0 0 0 t o n s i n 1 9 8 0 a n d i s c u r r e n t l y p r o j e c t e d

t o b e 4 8 0 0 0 t o n s p e r y e a r i n 1 9 8 5 .

P r o d u c t i o n c a p a b i l i t y w i l l c o n t i n u e t o i n c r e a s e i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , b u t p r e s s u r e s

b r o u g h t o n b y p r o j e c t i o n s o f d e c r e a s i n g d e m a n d h a v e , i n r e c e n t y e a r s , c a u s e d s o m e

p r o d u c e r s t o a b a n d o n p l a n s f o r d e v e l o p i n g m i n e s w i t h i d e n t i f i e d d e p o s i t s .

A-7.4.2. Uranium conversion

T h e r e a r e t w o U S s u p p l i e r s o f u r a n i u m h e x a f l u o r i d e c o n v e r s i o n s e r v i c e s :

A l l i e d C h e m i c a l a n d K e r r M c G e e . C u r r e n t l y 9 0 % o f t h e i r f u t u r e c o m m i t m e n t s

a r e t o U S c u s t o m e r s . K e r r M c G e e i s a l s o a l a r g e U 3 0 8 p r o d u c e r a n d h a s u s u a l l y

s o l d i t s u r a n i u m o n l y a s h e x a f l u o r i d e .

A-7.4.3. Uranium enrichment

G a s e o u s d i f f u s i o n p l a n t s f o r u r a n i u m e n r i c h m e n t a r e o p e r a t e d b y t h e

D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y a t O a k R i d g e , T e n n e s s e e , a t P a d u c a h , K e n t u c k y , a n d a t

P o r t s m o u t h , O h i o . E x p a n s i o n p r o g r a m m e s u n d e r w a y a t t h e s e p l a n t s a r e t h e

C a s c a d e I m p r o v e m e n t P r o g r a m ( C I P ) a n d C a s c a d e U p r a t i n g P r o g r a m ( C U P ) .

1 ton = 1 short ton = 9 .072 X 102 kg.

W h e n t h e s e a r e c o m p l e t e d i n 1 9 8 1 , t h e n o m i n a l c a p a c i t y w i l l b e 2 7 . 3 m i l l i o n

s e p a r a t i v e w o r k u n i t s ( M S W U ) p e r y e a r , a n i n c r e a s e o f 6 0 % .

C o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e G a s C e n t r i f u g e E n r i c h m e n t P l a n t a t P o r t s m o u t h , O h i o ,

w i l l a d d a n a d d i t i o n a l 8 . 8 M S W U p e r y e a r t o t h e U S c a p a c i t y . T h e f i r s t a d d i t i o n

o f 1 . 1 M S W U p e r y e a r i s e x p e c t e d b y 1 9 8 9 a n d s u b s e q u e n t i n c r e m e n t s a r e

p l a n n e d t o b e c o m p l e t e d b y 1 9 9 5 . W h e n t h e c e n t r i f u g e a d d i t i o n i s c o m p l e t e d , U S

e n r i c h m e n t p l a n t s o p e r a t i n g a t a t a i l s a s s a y o f 0 . 2 % w i l l b e a b l e t o m e e t t h e

e n r i c h m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 8 5 G W o f n u c l e a r p o w e r .

A f t e r t h e e n a c t m e n t o f t h e P r i v a t e O w n e r s h i p o f N u c l e a r M a t e r i a l s A c t

o f 1 9 6 4 , t h e U S A b e g a n t o l l e n r i c h m e n t . T h e U S A i s c o m m i t t e d t o r e m a i n i n g a

r e l i a b l e s u p p l i e r o f e n r i c h m e n t s e r v i c e s t o m e e t e n e r g y n e e d s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d

t o s t a t e s w h i c h m e e t i t s n o n - p r o l i f e r a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s . T o t h i s e n d , i n 1 9 7 9 , t h e

D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y i n t r o d u c e d a n e w t y p e o f s u p p l y a g r e e m e n t , t h e A d j u s t a b l e

F i x e d C o m m i t m e n t c o n t r a c t , t h a t w i l l i n c r e a s e r e s p o n s i v e n e s s t o t h e c h a n g i n g

n e e d s o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r i n d u s t r y .

A-7.4.4. Fuel fabrication

I n t h e U S A , l i g h t w a t e r r e a c t o r ( L W R ) f u e l f a b r i c a t i o n h a s m o v e d t h r o u g h

t h r e e c o m m e r c i a l s t a g e s . I n i t i a l l y , f u e l f o r a n L W R o f U S o r i g i n w a s m a n u f a c t u r e d

b y t h e r e a c t o r v e n d o r . T h e n , i n a b o u t 1 9 7 0 , s e v e r a l c o m p a n i e s , i n c l u d i n g E x x o n ,

G u l f O i l , G e t t y O i l a n d U n i t e d N u c l e a r , e n t e r e d t h e f a b r i c a t i o n b u s i n e s s t o s u p p l y

r e l o a d f u e l . B u t b y e a r l y 1 9 7 4 t h e m a r k e t s t a b i l i z e d i n t o i t s p r e s e n t a r r a n g e m e n t ,

l e a v i n g f i v e f u e l v e n d o r s : t h e f o u r r e a c t o r s u p p l i e r s G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c , W e s t i n g h o u s e ,

C o m b u s t i o n E n g i n e e r i n g a n d B a b c o c k & W i l c o x , a n d E x x o n N u c l e a r .

T h e c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e i s f o r e a c h L W R s u p p l i e r t o p r o v i d e a t l e a s t t h e i n i t i a l

f u e l l o a d f o r i t s r e a c t o r s , s i n c e m a t t e r s o f l i c e n s i n g , i n t e r f a c e a n d r e a c t o r / f u e l

w a r r a n t i e s m a k e a n y s u p p l y a r r a n g e m e n t s d i f f i c u l t . R e a c t o r v e n d o r s c o m p e t e w i t h

E x x o n N u c l e a r f o r r e a c t o r r e l o a d s . E a c h f u e l v e n d o r r u n s a h i g h l y i n t e g r a t e d

f a b r i c a t i o n o p e r a t i o n f r o m d e s i g n t h r o u g h f u e l a s s e m b l y .

A-7.4.5. Utilities

P o w e r p l a n t s i n t h e U S A a r e o w n e d b y r e g i o n a l l y o p e r a t i n g p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c

u t i l i t i e s . F i f t y - s i x u t i l i t i e s o w n t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 7 0 n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s n o w

o p e r a t i n g o r u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n . O f t h e s e , t w e n t y u t i l i t i e s o w n t h r e e o r m o r e

u n i t s , t w e l v e o w n f o u r o r m o r e u n i t s a n d n i n e o w n f i v e o r m o r e u n i t s . T h e

g o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d T e n n e s s e e V a l l e y A u t h o r i t y ( T V A ) i s t h e o w n e r o f t h e l a r g e s t

n u m b e r o f u n i t s , f i f t e e n , f o l l o w e d b y D u k e P o w e r a n d C o m m o n w e a l t h E d i s o n ,

b o t h o f w h i c h o w n t h i r t e e n u n i t s a t p r e s e n t .

330 APPENDIX A-7

• 9 0 0 MW(e) Non-South

• 1200 MW(e) Non-South

X 9 0 0 MW(e) South

* 1200 MW(e} South

i i _t_ _1_ _ L

1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980

Y E A R OF C O N S T R U C T I O N S T A R T

1982 1984 1986

FIG. A-7.2. Cost per kilowatt for nuclear power plants in constant US dollars (1979).

A-7.4.6. Nuclear plant capital costs and construction labour

F i g u r e A - 7 . 2 , b a s e d o n d a t a o f t h e C o n s t r u c t i o n L a b o r D e m a n d S t u d y ( C L D S )

o f t h e U S D e p a r t m e n t o f L a b o r , d i s p l a y s a v e r a g e c o s t s p e r k i l o w a t t ( 1 9 7 9

c o n s t a n t s U S d o l l a r s ) f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f n u c l e a r e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t i n g f a c i l i t i e s

f o r p r o j e c t s t a r t s f r o m 1 9 6 8 t o 1 9 8 5 b y u n i t s i z e a n d l o c a t i o n . T h e e s t i m a t e d

c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s s h o w n f o r l a r g e ( 1 2 0 0 M W ( e ) ) l i g h t w a t e r n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s

l o c a t e d i n a r e a s o t h e r t h a n t h e S o u t h w i l l i n c r e a s e f r o m a b o u t U S $ 5 7 3 p e r k W ( e )

( i n c o n s t a n t 1 9 7 9 U S d o l l a r s ) f o r u n i t s b e g i n n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n i n 1 9 7 0 t o a b o u t

$ 1 4 0 0 p e r k W ( e ) f o r u n i t s s t a r t e d i n 1 9 8 5 . S i m i l a r u n i t s b u i l t i n t h e S o u t h w i l l

c o s t a b o u t 1 8 % l e s s .

A n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g c o s t s h a s b e e n t h e s t e a d y i n c r e a s e i n c o n s t r u c -

t i o n t i m e f o r n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s . ( T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t i m e s t a r t s w i t h t h e

b e g i n n i n g o f p r e l i m i n a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k a n d e n d s w i t h f u e l l o a d i n g . ) T h e

a v e r a g e c o n s t r u c t i o n t i m e f o r n u c l e a r u n i t s ( 1 2 0 0 M W ( e ) ) b e g i n n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n

i n 1 9 7 4 w a s 1 0 0 m o n t h s a n d f o r t h o s e s t a r t e d i n 1 9 8 5 i s f o r e c a s t t o b e 1 2 0 m o n t h s .

T h e c o s t - c o n s t r u c t i o n t i m e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n

t i m e h a s , i n s o m e i n s t a n c e s , b e e n v o l u n t a r i l y d e l a y e d b y u t i l i t i e s o w i n g t o s l o w e r

g r o w t h i n d e m a n d f o r e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y t h a n w a s o r i g i n a l l y a n t i c i p a t e d .

P r o j e c t i o n s m a d e b y t h e C L D S p r o g r a m m e i n 1 9 8 0 f o r o n - s i t e l a b o u r r e q u i r e -

m e n t s d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s i n g l e - u n i t 1 0 0 0 M W ( e ) n u c l e a r p l a n t s t a r t e d i n 1 9 8 5

a r e b a s e d o n a 1 0 - y e a r c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r i o d . T h e t o t a l o n - s i t e m a n u a l l a b o u r

r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t e c h n i c i a n s a n d c r a f t s m e n o v e r t h e 1 0 - y e a r p e r i o d ( 1 9 8 5 — 1 9 9 4 )

a r e p r o j e c t e d t o b e 8 2 4 0 w o r k - y e a r s ( 1 w o r k - y e a r e q u a l s 1 9 2 9 . 2 w o r k - h o u r s ) . I n

a d d i t i o n , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r o n - s i t e n o n - m a n u a l l a b o u r , i n c l u d i n g e n g i n e e r s ,

d e s i g n a n d d r a f t i n g p e r s o n n e l , a n d m a n a g e m e n t a n d c l e r i c a l p e r s o n n e l a m o u n t

t o a t o t a l o f 2 6 0 4 w o r k - y e a r s o v e r t h e 1 0 - y e a r p e r i o d . F i g u r e A - 7 . 3 s h o w s t h e o n -

s i t e m a n p o w e r l o a d i n g c u r v e s f o r b o t h t h e m a n u a l l a b o u r a n d n o n - m a n u a l

r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e p e a k r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e 1 3 2 2 w o r k - y e a r s o f m a n u a l l a b o u r i n

t h e s i x t h y e a r o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d 4 4 8 w o r k - y e a r s o f n o n - m a n u a l e f f o r t i n t h e

e i g h t h y e a r .

F i g u r e A - 7 . 4 p r e s e n t s t h e C L D S f o r e c a s t o f o n - s i t e m a n u a l l a b o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s

i n t e r m s o f w o r k - h o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s p e r k i l o w a t t o f i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y f o r n u c l e a r

p o w e r p l a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h o s e u n i t s w i t h 1 9 7 9 c o n s t r u c t i o n s t a r t s i n t h e S o u t h

a r e e x p e c t e d t o r e q u i r e 1 5 . 1 w o r k - h o u r s p e r k W ( e ) ( 9 0 0 M W ( e ) ) . U n i t w o r k - h o u r

r e q u i r e m e n t s g r e w a t a n n u a l c o m p o u n d r a t e s o f 5 . 2 % a n d 3 . 5 % d u r i n g 1 9 6 8 - 1 9 7 4

a n d 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 7 9 , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d a r e e x p e c t e d t o g r o w a t 1 . 5 % d u r i n g 1 9 8 0 - 1 9 8 5 .

T h e g e o g r a p h i c a n d s i z e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s f o r w o r k - h o u r s / k W ( e ) a r e w e i g h t e d a v e r a g e s

o f t h e n a t i o n a l w o r k - h o u r f o r e c a s t . U n i t w o r k - h o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s i n c r e a s e d f r o m

a n a t i o n a l r a n g e o f 8 — 1 3 w o r k - h o u r s / k W ( e ) f o r s t a r t s i n 1 9 7 0 t o a r a n g e o f

1 4 - 1 8 w o r k - h o u r s / k W ( e ) i n 1 9 7 9 . C L D S p r o j e c t i o n s a s o f S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 9 , f o r

s t a r t s i n 1 9 8 5 , a r e 1 5 — 2 0 w o r k - h o u r s / k W ( e ) .

T h e n a t i o n a l m a n u a l l a b o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s b y c r a f t f o r n u c l e a r p l a n t c o n s t r u c -

t i o n f o r t h e y e a r s 1 9 7 9 t h r o u g h 1 9 8 3 , a s p r o j e c t e d b y t h e C L D S P r o g r a m i n

S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 9 , a r e c o n t a i n e d i n T a b l e A - 7 . 2 . T h e t o t a l l a b o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e

a s f o l l o w s : 1 2 2 2 6 0 w o r k - y e a r s i n 1 9 7 9 ; 1 2 7 3 1 0 w o r k - y e a r s i n 1 9 8 0 ( a 4 . 1 %

i n c r e a s e ) ; 1 1 2 7 7 0 w o r k - y e a r s i n 1 9 8 1 ( a d e c r e a s e o f 1 1 . 4 % ) ; 8 8 9 1 0 w o r k - y e a r s

i n 1 9 8 2 ( a d e c r e a s e o f 2 1 . 1 % ) a n d 6 9 7 3 0 w o r k - y e a r s i n 1 9 8 3 ( a d e c r e a s e o f

2 1 . 6 % ) . T h e s e p r o j e c t i o n s a r e n o t c o r r e c t e d f o r c a n c e l l a t i o n s a n d d e c r e a s e s i n

d e m a n d p r o j e c t i o n s a f t e r S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 9 a n d f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n d e l a y s a r i s i n g

f r o m T M I .

A - 7 . 4 . 7 . Reactor licensing process

T h e N u c l e a r R e g u l a t o r y C o m m i s s i o n ( N R C ) h a s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e

F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t f o r r e v i e w i n g a n d i s s u i n g l i c e n c e s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d

o p e r a t i o n o f n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s . T h e D e p a r t m e n t o f J u s t i c e , t h e E n v i r o n m e n t a l

P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y ( E P A ) a n d S t a t e a n d l o c a l r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s a l s o c o n t r i b u t e

ON-SITE M A N U A L LABOUR: TECHNICIANS A N D CRAFTSMEN ON-SITE NON-MANUAL PERSONNEL ENGINEERS: MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL, C I V I L , QA/QC, ETC._ OTHER: DRAFTING, CLERICAL, GUARDS

3 4 5 6 7 YEAR OF CONSTRUCTION

4 5 6 7 YEAR OF CONSTRUCTION

u> w N>

FIG.A-7.3. On-site manpower loading for a 1000 MW(e) nuclear power plant (start 1985).

* 9 0 0 MW(e) N o n - S o u t h

X 1200 MW(e) Non-South

• 9 0 0 MWIe) South

• 1200 MW(e) South

1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980

Y E A R OF C O N S T R U C T I O N S T A R T

1982 1984 1986

FIG.A-7.4. Manual work-hour per kilowatt for nuclear power plants. (Construction Labor Demand Study, September 1979.)

t o t h e p r o c e s s . A p p l i c a t i o n s t o t h e N R C f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d o p e r a t i o n a r e h a n d l e d

t h r o u g h t h e O f f i c e o f N u c l e a r R e a c t o r R e g u l a t i o n a n d I n s p e c t i o n a n d E n f o r c e m e n t .

T h e l i c e n s i n g p r o c e s s f o r n u c l e a r p l a n t s i s a n i m p o r t a n t p a t h w a y f o r i n t e r a c t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r i n d u s t r y . T h e A d m i n i s t r a -

t i o n h a s b e e n s e e k i n g t o i m p r o v e t h e r e g u l a t o r y p r o c e s s a n d e x p e d i t e t h e s i t i n g

a n d l i c e n s i n g o f n u c l e a r p l a n t s t o r e d u c e t h e l e a d t i m e f o r p l a n t o p e r a t i o n f r o m t h e

t e n o r m o r e y e a r s n o w r e q u i r e d . R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r r e v i s i o n s i n t h e l i c e n s i n g

p r o c e s s h a v e b e e n m a d e t o C o n g r e s s . T h e c u r r e n t p r o c e d u r e s f o r g r a n t i n g

c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r m i t s a n d o p e r a t i n g l i c e n c e s h a v e e v o l v e d o u t o f t h e A E C e x p e r i e n c e .

T h e p r o c e s s t h a t g e n e r a l l y a p p l i e s t o t h e g r a n t i n g o f e i t h e r t h e p e r m i t s o r t h e

l i c e n c e s c o n s i s t s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g five s t a g e s ( s e e F i g . 1 . 3 — 6 ( a ) ) :

( a ) C o n s t r u c t i o n P e r m i t o r O p e r a t i n g L i c e n c e A p p l i c a t i o n

( b ) R e v i e w b y N R C S t a f f

( c ) R e v i e w b y A d v i s o r y C o m m i t t e e o n R e a c t o r S a f e g u a r d s

( d ) H e a r i n g b e f o r e A t o m i c S a f e t y a n d L i c e n s i n g B o a r d

( e ) G r a n t i n g o f P e r m i t / L i c e n c e , o r A p p e a l R e v i e w

T A B L E A-l.2. N A T I O N A L L A B O U R R E Q U I R E M E N T S F O R N U C L E A R P O W E R P L A N T C O N S T R U C T I O N 3 OJ (Jj

Requirements (work-years) Per cent change

Craft 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 Total 1 9 7 9 - 8 0 1980—Í i l 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 1 9 8 2 - 8 3 1 9 7 9 - 8 3

Asbestos workers 1 070 1 530 2 120 1 820 1 520 8 060 42.8 38.4 - 13.8 - 16.7 41.9

Boilermakers 4 120 4 390 3 700 2 850 2 300 17 360 6.5 - 15.7 - 2 3 . 0 - 1 9 . 4 - 4 4 . 2

Bricklayers 500 450 410 270 180 1 810 - 9.9 - 8.8 - 3 3 . 0 - 3 4 . 2 - 6 3 . 8

Carpenters 16 630 14 540 11 650 8 670 6 240 57 730 - 12.6 - 19.8 - 2 5 . 6 - 2 8 . 0 - 6 2 . 5

Cement finishers 1 860 1 820 1 580 1 190 920 7 370 - 1.8 - 13.4 - 2 4 . 6 - 2 2 . 4 - 5 0 . 2

Electricians 17 330 20 620 19 050 15 550 12 610 85 160 19.0 - 7.6 - 18.4 - 18.9 - 2 7 . 2

Iron workers 11 220 10 160 8 270 6 210 4 490 40 350 - 9.5 - 18.6 - 2 4 . 9 - 2 7 . 7 - 6 0 . 0

Labourers 20 150 19 100 16 420 12 720 9 540 77 930 - 5.2 - 14.1 - 2 2 . 5 - 2 5 . 0 - 5 2 . 7

Millwrights 2 460 3 010 2 950 2 360 1 960 12 740 22.5 - 2.1 - 19.9 - 17.0 - 2 0 . 4

Operating engineers 8 510 8 030 6 680 5 240 4 020 32 480 - 5.6 - 16.9 - 2 1 . 6 - 2 3 . 3 - 5 2 . 8

Painters 2 570 2 980 3 030 2 510 2 070 13 160 16.0 1.5 - 17.1 - 17.5 - 19.5

Pipe fitters 29 270 33 460 30 620 24 560 20 040 137 950 14.3 - 8.5 - 19.8 - 18.4 - 3 1 . 5

Sheet metal workers 1 380 1 890 1 830 1 550 1 2 5 0 7 900 36.7 - 2.9 - 15.2 - 19.5 - 9.4

Truck drivers 4 650 4 780 4 000 3 060 2 320 18 810 2.6 - 16.2 - 2 3 . 7 - 2 4 . 1 - 5 0 . 2

Other workers 540 550 460 350 270 2 170 1.8 - 16.4 - 2 3 . 0 - 2 4 . 1 - 5 0 . 3

Total workers 1 2 2 2 6 0 127 310 112 770 88 910 69 730 520 980 4.1 - 11.4 - 2 1 . 1 - 2 1 . 6 - 4 3 . 0

a US Department of Labor, CLDS, Sep. 1979. Note: Work-years (37 h/week, 4.345 weeks/month, 12 months) = 1929.2 work-hours/year.

A-7.5.1. Early programmes of the AEC

T h e s h o r t a g e o f t r a i n e d n u c l e a r s c i e n t i s t s a n d e n g i n e e r s i n t h e 1 9 4 0 s a n d

1 9 5 0 s a n d t h e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t r a i n i n g a t e s t a b l i s h e d e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s

m a d e i t d e s i r a b l e f o r t h e A t o m i c E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n ( A E C ) t o o f f e r s p e c i a l i z e d

t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s i n i t s o w n l a b o r a t o r i e s i n n u c l e a r s c i e n c e s a n d i n t h e u s e o f

r a d i o i s o t o p e s f o r t h e b i o m e d i c a l s c i e n c e s . I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s , t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s

a n d s c h o o l s w e r e s e t u p a t t h e O a k R i d g e N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y a n d t h e A r g o n n e

N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y . I n U S u n i v e r s i t i e s , t h e f i r s t d e p a r t m e n t s o f n u c l e a r

e n g i n e e r i n g w e r e n o t e s t a b l i s h e d u n t i l 1 9 5 8 , a f t e r p a s s a g e o f t h e A t o m i c E n e r g y

A c t o f 1 9 5 4 . P a s s a g e o f t h i s a c t a l s o l i b e r a l i z e d U S n u c l e a r c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h

f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s a n d o p e n e d t h e A E C t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s t o b o t h U S c i t i z e n s

a n d f o r e i g n n a t i o n a l s u n d e r t h e A t o m s f o r P e a c e P r o g r a m .

T h e t w o s c h o o l s e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e A E C i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s w e r e t h e Oak Ridge School of Reactor Technology and the Argonne International School (Institute) of Nuclear Science and Engineering. T h e s e o f f e r e d a d v a n c e d c o u r s e s i n n u c l e a r

s c i e n c e a n d e n g i n e e r i n g t o q u a l i f i e d U S a n d f o r e i g n s c i e n t i s t s . T h e o p e r a t i o n o f

b o t h s c h o o l s d r e w t o a c l o s e i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s , a f t e r u n i v e r s i t i e s h a d d e v e l o p e d g r a d u a t e

p r o g r a m m e s i n n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r i n g w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r y f a c i l i t i e s .

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f U S u n i v e r s i t y p r o g r a m m e s a n d t h e t r a i n i n g o f p r o f e s s i o n a l

m a n p o w e r w e r e e n c o u r a g e d b y t h e A E C i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s t h r o u g h t h e

f u n d i n g o f fellowships f o r s t u d y a n d grants f o r e q u i p m e n t a n d m a t e r i a l s . T h e

f e l l o w s h i p s s u p p o r t e d g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s i n n u c l e a r s c i e n c e a n d e n g i n e e r i n g a n d i n

n u c l e a r a p p l i c a t i o n s t o t h e l i f e s c i e n c e s a n d p e r m i t t e d t h e u s e o f A E C l a b o r a t o r y

f a c i l i t i e s .

A-7.5.2. Existing Government programmes

I n t h e 1 9 5 0 s t h e t r a i n i n g l a b o r a t o r i e s a t A r g o n n e w e r e a f o c u s f o r a d o m e s t i c

t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e f o r U S c o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s i n t h e M i d w e s t , a n d t h e S p e c i a l

T r a i n i n g D i v i s i o n a t O a k R i d g e p r o v i d e d s h o r t c o u r s e s a n d s u m m e r i n s t i t u t e s f o r

c o l l e g e f a c u l t y a n d s t u d e n t s , a s w e l l a s t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s f o r i n d u s t r y p e r s o n n e l . T h e

p r e s e n t U n i v e r s i t y - L a b o r a t o r y C o o p e r a t i v e P r o g r a m , b e g u n i n 1 9 6 4 , g r e w o u t

o f s o m e o f t h e s e e a r l y e f f o r t s . T h i s p r o g r a m m e b r i n g s f a c u l t y , g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s

a n d u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t o s e v e r a l g o v e r n m e n t l a b o r a t o r i e s f o r t r a i n i n g a n d r e s e a r c h

i n n u c l e a r a n d o t h e r e n e r g y r e l a t e d t e c h n o l o g i e s . T h e p r o g r a m m e s i n n u c l e a r

s c i e n c e a n d e n g i n e e r i n g a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d a t O a k R i d g e , S a v a n n a h R i v e r a n d a t

A r g o n n e , w h e r e t h e l a r g e s t l a b o r a t o r y c o - o p e r a t i v e p r o g r a m m e i s a d m i n i s t e r e d

t h r o u g h t h e C e n t e r f o r E d u c a t i o n a l A f f a i r s .

336 APPENDIX A-l

ui 8 o I ui o

o < « s

P R O F E S S I O N A L E M P L O Y M E N T

« ."> m LU H U

Ü P Í

< s G = o o

UPPER D I V I S I O N S T U D Y T O BACCA-L A U R E A T E D E G R E E I N E N G I N E E R I N G OR SCIENCE

LOWER D I V I S I O N BACCA-L A U R E A T E D E G R E E S T U D I E S

T E C H N I C I A N E M P L O Y M E N T

4 - 4 -I N - P L A N T T R A I N I N G

, A N D E X P E R I E N C E

H I G H T E C H N O L O G Y O C C U P A T I O N S „ ( S T A R T I N G G R A D E S )

4 — 1 4

4 — 4 -2 - Y E A R S P E C I A L I Z E D

• O C C U P A T I O N A L T E C H N I C A L T R A I N I N G

„ P R O G R A M M E S _

C O L L E G E P R E P A R A T O R Y S T U D I E S

G E N E R A L S T U D I E S

C R A F T S M A N E M P L O Y M E N T

A P P R E N T I C E S H I P A N D L A B O U R POOL E M P L O Y E E S IN I N D U S T R Y

t , t t V O C A T I O N A L S T U D I E S

FIG. A-7.5. Education and training of personnel for professional technical and craft occupations in the USA*.

A l s o , A r g o n n e c o n t i n u e s t o u t i l i z e t h e f a c i l i t i e s o f t h e C e n t e r f o r E d u c a t i o n a l

A f f a i r s f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o g r a m m e s i n c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e I A E A . O r i g i n a l l y ,

t h e r e w e r e b r o a d - b a s e d 1 5 - w e e k c o u r s e s i n a l l p h a s e s o f n u c l e a r p l a n t o p e r a t i o n

a n d m a n a g e m e n t . M o r e r e c e n t l y , t h e p r o g r a m m e s h a v e c o n s i s t e d o f d e t a i l e d ,

4 - w e e k c o u r s e s o n s p e c i a l t o p i c s , s u c h a s t h e r e v i e w o f n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s a f e t y

a n a l y s i s , o r t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a n a t i o n a l r e g u l a t o r y p r o c e s s .

* Also appears as Fig. 3.3-6.

* Source: US Department of Energy.

FIG.A-7.6. Degrees granted in nuclear engineering 1966- 78.

In addition, the US Government supports IAEA fellowships for training in the peaceful applications of nuclear energy. These fellowships are awarded to foreign nationals for advanced study and training in nuclear power activities and in the medical and agricultural applications of radioisotopes at US universities, Government laboratories and research institutions, and in private industry.

A-7.5.3. How the USA develops its manpower today

The structure of the educational system for the training of engineering professionals, technicians and craftsmen in the USA is shown in Fig. A-7.5.

338 APPENDIX A-l

A-7.5.3.1. Professional manpower

S c i e n t i s t s , e n g i n e e r s , a c c o u n t a n t s , m a n a g e r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , a n d o t h e r

p r o f e s s i o n a l l e v e l e m p l o y e e s w o r k i n g i n t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s u s u a l l y

h a v e r e c e i v e d d e g r e e s f r o m o n e o r m o r e o f t h e 3 0 0 0 p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c c o l l e g e s

a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s i n t h e c o u n t r y . M o r e t h a n 2 0 0 o f t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h i g h e r

e d u c a t i o n h a v e s p e c i a l i z e d n u c l e a r c u r r i c u l a , i n c l u d i n g 6 0 o r m o r e w h i c h o f f e r

s p e c i f i c d e g r e e s i n n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r i n g , a n d a l m o s t a s m a n y w h i c h o f f e r d e g r e e s

i n s o m e a r e a o f r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n ( h e a l t h p h y s i c s ) .

F i g u r e A - 7 . 6 s h o w s t h e n u m b e r o f g r a d u a t e s a t a l l t h r e e d e g r e e l e v e l s i n

n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r i n g f r o m 1 9 6 6 t h r o u g h 1 9 7 8 . F o r 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 7 9 t h e n u m b e r o f

n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r i n g d e g r e e s g r a n t e d d e c l i n e d a t a l l l e v e l s . N u c l e a r e n g i n e e r s a r e

o n l y t h e t h i r d l a r g e s t e n g i n e e r i n g d i s c i p l i n e ( a f t e r m e c h a n i c a l a n d e l e c t r i c a l /

e l e c t r o n i c ) e m p l o y e d i n n u c l e a r a c t i v i t i e s . B u t , s i n c e t h e y a r e u n i q u e t o t h e

i n d u s t r y , t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a n d e m p l o y m e n t p a t t e r n s a r e a g o o d g a u g e o f w h a t i s

g o i n g o n i n t h e n u c l e a r c o m m u n i t y .

F a c i l i t i e s i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f f e r i n g n u c l e a r d e g r e e s v a r y , b u t 5 8 o f t h e m

h a v e r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r s , m a n y m o r e h a v e a c c e l e r a t o r s , a n d m o s t h a v e a n a l y s i n g

e q u i p m e n t , r a d i a t i o n s o u r c e s , c o m p u t e r s , a n d o t h e r s p e c i a l i z e d e q u i p m e n t . I n

a d d i t i o n , f o r t h o s e w h o s e f a c i l i t i e s a n d e q u i p m e n t m a y n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d

a d e q u a t e , a g r e e m e n t s e x i s t b e t w e e n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d u n i v e r s i t y c o n s o r t i a ,

g o v e r n m e n t l a b o r a t o r i e s , o r o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h i c h h a v e s o p h i s t i c a t e d f a c i l i t i e s ,

s o t h a t t h i s e q u i p m e n t m a y b e u s e d f o r t e a c h i n g o r s t u d e n t r e s e a r c h u n d e r

s p e c i f i e d c o n d i t i o n s .

V a r i o u s o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s a r e u s e d f o r e n r i c h i n g t h e e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g

o f n u c l e a r s c i e n t i s t s a n d e n g i n e e r s . O n e o f t h e s e i s a c o - o p e r a t i v e a g r e e m e n t i n

w h i c h s t u d e n t s a l t e r n a t e s e m e s t e r s o n c a m p u s w i t h s e m e s t e r s o f e m p l o y m e n t i n

t h e i r field o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n a n i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t , a t a g o v e r n m e n t l a b o r a t o r y , o r

a t a n o t h e r s i m i l a r a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t i t u t i o n . T h e s t u d e n t i s u s u a l l y g i v e n s o m e

c o u r s e c r e d i t f o r t h e s e m e s t e r s p e n t w o r k i n g , a n d a c l o s e l i a i s o n b e t w e e n t h e c o l l e g e

o r u n i v e r s i t y a n d t h e e m p l o y e r i s m a i n t a i n e d . U s u a l l y t h e r e a r e t e a m s o f e m p l o y e e /

s t u d e n t s w h o a l t e r n a t e t h e i r p e r i o d s o n a n d o f f c a m p u s . S u c h a n a r r a n g e m e n t

b e n e f i t s t h e s t u d e n t s e d u c a t i o n a l l y a s w e l l a s financially, a n d i t b e n e f i t s t h e

e m p l o y e r b y i n f u s i n g t h e r e g u l a r s t a f f w i t h f r e s h , i n q u i r i n g m i n d s a n d b y p r o v i d i n g

a c o n t i n u a l p o t e n t i a l s u p p l y o f e m p l o y e e s t r a i n e d i n t h e d i s c i p l i n e s n e e d e d .

A m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s p l a n o f f e r s o n l y s u m m e r e m p l o y m e n t , g i v i n g t h e s t u d e n t

e x p e r i e n c e a n d financial a s s i s t a n c e , a n d g i v i n g t h e e m p l o y e r e x t r a s t a f f w h i l e t h e

r e g u l a r s t a f f l e v e l i s l o w e r d u r i n g v a c a t i o n t i m e .

S m a l l e r c o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s u s e t h i s a n d o t h e r m e t h o d s t o g i v e s t u d e n t s

' h a n d s - o n ' e x p e r i e n c e w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o i n s t a l l a l l o f t h e e q u i p m e n t t h a t t h e

s t u d e n t s m a y n e e d i n o r d e r t o g e t a w e l l - r o u n d e d n u c l e a r e d u c a t i o n .

A-7.5.3.2. Technicians

T h e m a k e u p o f t h e w o r k f o r c e i n n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t o p e r a t i o n a n d

m a i n t e n a n c e h a s s h o w n a s t e a d y i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t e c h n i c i a n s o v e r

t h e y e a r s . T h i s p a t t e r n h a s e x i s t e d i n a l l p h a s e s o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r i n d u s t r y a s

p r o c e s s e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d , b e c o m e r o u t i n e , a n d c o u l d b e

d i v i d e d i n t o a n u m b e r o f v a r i o u s l y a s s i g n e d t a s k s . H o w e v e r , t h e l a r g e s t r e l a t i v e

c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f n u c l e a r - e m p l o y e d t e c h n i c i a n s i s i n n u c l e a r p o w e r r e a c t o r

o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e , w h e r e t h e y m a k e u p 3 0 % o f t h e w o r k f o r c e . T h e i r

t r a i n i n g i s s o m e w h a t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e t y p e s o f p r e p a r a t i o n a l l t e c h n i c i a n s

r e c e i v e .

T e c h n i c i a n s a r e p r o d u c e d i n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t w a y s , b u t g e n e r a l l y t h e y

( a ) c o m p l e t e a p r o g r a m m e a t a p o s t - s e c o n d a r y t e c h n i c a l s c h o o l , w h i c h u s u a l l y i s

a t w o - y e a r c o u r s e , ( b ) r e c e i v e t r a i n i n g o n t h e j o b d u r i n g a p e r i o d a n d o f a t y p e

p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e e m p l o y e r , o r ( c ) c o m b i n e f o r m a l t r a i n i n g w i t h w o r k e x p e r i e n c e .

T e c h n i c i a n s w o r k i n g i n n u c l e a r a c t i v i t i e s a r e r e c e i v i n g m o r e a n d m o r e t h e o r e t i c a l

e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g t h a n i s u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t e c h n i c i a n l e v e l t r a i n i n g .

A r e c e n t s u r v e y o f t e c h n i c i a n s e m p l o y e d i n n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s s h o w e d

t h a t o n l y 2 % h a d l e s s t h a n a h i g h s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n a n d a l m o s t 6 0 % h a d o n e o r

m o r e y e a r s o f c o l l e g e , i n c l u d i n g 5 % w h i c h h a d b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e s . I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n

a n d c o n t r o l t e c h n i c i a n s a l l h a d a h i g h - s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n o r b e t t e r ; 7 7 % h a d s o m e

c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g 8 % w i t h B . S . d e g r e e s . E v e n m o r e i m p r e s s i v e w e r e t h e

h e a l t h p h y s i c s t e c h n i c i a n s , 1 2 % o f w h o m h a d B . S . d e g r e e s .

I n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s o f n u c l e a r r e l a t e d t e c h n i c i a n s a r e g r a d u a t e s o f f o u r - y e a r

t e c h n o l o g y p r o g r a m m e s ; t h u s , t e c h n i c i a n s w h o h a v e g o n e t h e m o r e f o r m a l

r o u t e m a y h a v e a s s o c i a t e d e g r e e s ( 2 y e a r s ) o r b a c h e l o r o f t e c h n o l o g y d e g r e e s

( 4 y e a r s ) . S o m e e v e n h a v e e n g i n e e r i n g d e g r e e s , a s d i d 8 % o f t h e d e g r e e h o l d e r s i n

t h e s u r v e y c i t e d a b o v e . T h e h i g h e r - t h a n - n o r m a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r

s u c c e s s f u l t e c h n i c i a n s i n t h e n u c l e a r p r o g r a m m e i n t h e U S A a r e r e f l e c t e d i n t h e

e n t r y s a l a r i e s o f f e r e d t o t h e m a n d t h e p r o g r e s s t h e y c a n m a k e u p t h r o u g h t h e

r a n k s i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n .

U t i l i t i e s v a r y g r e a t l y i n t h e i r p r e f e r r e d r e c r u i t m e n t a n d t r a i n i n g t e c h n i q u e f o r

t e c h n i c i a n s . S o m e p r e f e r t o ' g r o w t h e i r o w n ' b y h i r i n g h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s w i t h

h i g h s c i e n c e a n d m a t h e m a t i c s s c o r e s , t h e n p l a c i n g t h e m i n t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s

d e s i g n e d t o m e e t t h e s p e c i f i c n e e d s o f t h e u t i l i t y . S o m e o f t h e s e u t i l i t i e s h a v e

e x t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s a n d h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d p r o g r a m m e s w h i c h m u s t b e

c o m p l e t e d s e q u e n t i a l l y i n o r d e r t o p r o g r e s s f r o m o n e l e v e l t o t h e n e x t . T h e

T e n n e s s e e V a l l e y A u t h o r i t y ( T V A ) i s o n e s u c h e x a m p l e .

F i g u r e A - 7 . 7 s h o w s a f l o w - c h a r t f o r t h e T V A N u c l e a r O p e r a t o r T r a i n i n g

P r o g r a m . A n e w T V A e m p l o y e e c a n e n t e r a s a n u c l e a r s t u d e n t g e n e r a t i n g

p l a n t o p e r a t o r ( N S G P O ) a n d , t h e o r e t i c a l l y , rise t o s h i f t e n g i n e e r i n five o r s i x

y e a r s . T o b e s e l e c t e d f o r t h e p r o g r a m m e , t h e a p p l i c a n t m u s t ( a ) b e a h i g h - s c h o o l

340 APPENDIX A-l

'"NUCLEAR STUDENT OPERATOR ALL TIMES ARE MINIMUM INGRADE TIME REQUIREMENTS

FIG.A-7.7. Nuclear operator training program. (Tennessee Valley Authority, January 1980).

g r a d u a t e , ( b ) s h o w a n a p t i t u d e f o r m a t h e m a t i c s , s c i e n c e a n d m e c h a n i c s , a n d ( c ) b e

i n g o o d p h y s i c a l h e a l t h .

T h e e m p l o y e e m u s t t h e n s p e n d 1 6 m o n t h s i n p a i d t r a i n i n g a t t h e U S $ 2 0 m i l l i o n

t r a i n i n g c e n t r e , d i v i d i n g h i s o r h e r t i m e b e t w e e n t h e c l a s s r o o m a n d p l a n t o b s e r v a t i o n

t r a i n i n g . A n a d d i t i o n a l 1 0 m o n t h s m u s t b e s p e n t i n t h e c l a s s r o o m a n d o n - t h e - j o b

t r a i n i n g a t a n u c l e a r p l a n t b e f o r e p r o m o t i o n t o a s s i s t a n t u n i t o p e r a t o r ( A U O ) . I n

t h a t p o s i t i o n , t h e A U O m u s t s p e n d a m i n i m u m o f 1 4 m o n t h s , d u r i n g w h i c h t i m e

h e o r s h e m u s t s a t i s f a c t o r i l y c o m p l e t e a p p l i c a b l e e l e c t r i c a l w o r k a n d s i m u l a t o r

p l a n t t r a i n i n g a t o n e o f T V A ' s t h r e e s i m u l a t o r s , p a s s t h e a c c r e d i t i n g e x a m i n a t i o n

f o r u n i t o p e r a t o r , a n d p a s s t h e N u c l e a r R e g u l a t o r y C o m m i s s i o n ( N R C ) R e a c t o r

O p e r a t o r e x a m i n a t i o n b e f o r e h e o r s h e c a n b e c o m e a u n i t o p e r a t o r ( U O ) .

I n o r d e r t o p r o g r e s s t o t h e l e v e l o f a s s i s t a n t s h i f t e n g i n e e r ( A S E ) , t h e U O m u s t

s e r v e i n t h a t c a p a c i t y f o r 1 2 m o n t h s a n d h a v e a m i n i m u m t o t a l o f f o u r y e a r s i n

p o w e r p l a n t o p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e U O m u s t c o m p l e t e e l e c t r i c a l

u p g r a d e t r a i n i n g a n d b e a c c r e d i t e d a s a n o p e r a t o r o f t h e c o n t r o l b o a r d f o r p o w e r

s w i t c h i n g , m u s t p a s s t h e a c c r e d i t i n g e x a m i n a t i o n f o r A S E a n d m u s t p a s s t h e N R C

S e n i o r O p e r a t o r e x a m i n a t i o n .

T o b e c o m e a s h i f t e n g i n e e r ( S E ) , t h e A S E m u s t s e r v e a m i n i m u m n u m b e r o f

fifteen m o n t h s a s a n A S E , m u s t h a v e a t o t a l o f f i v e y e a r s p o w e r p l a n t o p e r a t i n g

e x p e r i e n c e a n d m u s t s a t i s f a c t o r i l y p a s s t h e a c c r e d i t i n g e x a m i n a t i o n f o r S E .

T o a s s i s t t h e e m p l o y e e i n m e e t i n g t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e t r a i n i n g c e n t r e

e m p l o y s 3 6 i n s t r u c t o r s a n d 4 5 s u p p o r t , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a n d m a n a g e m e n t p e r s o n n e l .

O t h e r u t i l i t i e s p r e f e r t o h i r e t e c h n i c i a n s w h o h a v e a l r e a d y o b t a i n e d s o m e

n u c l e a r e x p e r i e n c e e l s e w h e r e , s u c h a s i n t h e N a v y o r a t a r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r , a n d

w h o w i l l n e e d a m i n i m u m o f a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g . F o r s u c h t r a i n i n g t h e e m p l o y e r

m i g h t c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e v e n d o r a n d / o r a n o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s p e c i a l i z i n g i n s u c h

s e r v i c e s .

S o m e u t i l i t i e s w h i c h a r e a d d i n g n u c l e a r p o w e r t o t h e i r c o n v e n t i o n a l p o w e r

n e t w o r k s r e c r u i t f r o m t h e i r h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d s t a f f s , a s s u r i n g t h a t t h e y r e c e i v e t h e

a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n n e e d e d d u r i n g t h e t i m e w h e n t h e n u c l e a r p l a n t

i s b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d . M a n y o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r r e t r a i n i n g a n d u p d a t i n g s k i l l s

u s u a l l y e x i s t . M a n y u t i l i t i e s h a v e b e g u n w o r k i n g s i x s h i f t s i n o r d e r t o p e r m i t

a m p l e t r a i n i n g t i m e .

A-7.5.3.3. Skilled craftsmen

M o s t c r a f t s m e n l e a r n t h e i r t r a d e t h r o u g h t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p r o g r a m m e s

o f t e n r u n b y t r a d e u n i o n s a n d f r e q u e n t l y l a s t i n g u p t o f o u r y e a r s . H o w e v e r ,

v o c a t i o n a l s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s o f t e n p r o v i d e s p e c i a l i z e d c o u r s e s d e s i g n e d t o s p e e d

s t u d e n t s ' a t t a i n m e n t o f j o u r n e y m a n l e v e l i n a s h o r t e r - t h a n - n o r m a l t i m e f r a m e ,

e s p e c i a l l y i n t h o s e c r a f t s w h e r e m a n p o w e r s h o r t a g e s e x i s t . I n s h o r t a g e s i t u a t i o n s ,

G o v e r n m e n t p r o g r a m m e s a r e s o m e t i m e s e s t a b l i s h e d t o t r a i n f o r c r i t i c a l n e e d s .

F o r e x a m p l e , t o h e l p e l i m i n a t e b o t t l e n e c k s i n n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n

i n t h e m i d - 1 9 7 0 s , t h e A E C a s s i s t e d i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a v e r y s u c c e s s f u l t r a i n i n g

p r o g r a m m e t o p r o d u c e n u c l e a r c e r t i f i e d w e l d e r s a m o n g f o r m e r l y c h r o n i c a l l y

u n e m p l o y e d p e r s o n s .

L a r g e , i n t e g r a t e d u t i l i t i e s o f t e n h a v e t h e i r o w n a p p r e n t i c e s h i p a n d t r a i n i n g

p r o g r a m m e s a l l o w i n g e m p l o y e e s t o a d v a n c e i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o

t h e i r o w n m o t i v a t i o n a n d a b i l i t y . S u c h o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a d v a n c e m e n t a n d

r e c o g n i t i o n i m p r o v e s m o r a l e a n d t h e o v e r a l l p e r f o r m a n c e a n d d e c r e a s e s a t t r i t i o n

a m o n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e d c r a f t s m e n i n t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n .

A-7.5.3.4. NSSS training

T h e n u c l e a r s t e a m s u p p l y s y s t e m ( N S S S ) v e n d o r s h a v e c o m p r e h e n s i v e

t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s f o r c u s t o m e r p e r s o n n e l d e s i g n e d t o m e e t t h e n e e d s o f a l l

p r i n c i p a l s t a f f i n v o l v e d i n p l a n t o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e . S p e c i a l t r a i n i n g

p r o g r a m m e s t o f i l l i n d i v i d u a l n e e d s o f t h e p l a n t o w n e r c a n u s u a l l y b e d e v e l o p e d .

C o u r s e s c a n b e d e s i g n e d t o b e o f f e r e d a t t h e c u s t o m e r ' s f a c i l i t y o r a t t h e s u p p l i e r ' s

f a c i l i t y .

342 APPENDIX A-l

A-7.5.3.5. Other industrial training

T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s c o m p a n i e s , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e N S S S v e n d o r s , w h i c h

p r o v i d e a f u l l s c o p e o f n u c l e a r t r a i n i n g s e r v i c e s r a n g i n g f r o m s i n g l e , h i g h l y

s p e c i a l i z e d c o u r s e s , s u c h a s s e i s m i c s h o c k a n a l y s i s , t o c o m p l e t e d e s i g n a n d s t a f f i n g

o f a u t i l i t y t r a i n i n g c e n t r e , i n c l u d i n g c u r r i c u l u m a n d c o u r s e m a t e r i a l s a n d r e c r u i t -

m e n t o f t r a i n e r s . T h e s e f i r m s m a y a r r a n g e h a n d s - o n t r a i n i n g a t t h e i r o w n f a c i l i t i e s

o r t h o s e b e l o n g i n g t o o t h e r u t i l i t i e s . T h e s e s e r v i c e s a r e v a l u a b l e t o c o m p a n i e s ,

s i n c e e m p l o y e e s c a n r e c e i v e s h o r t - t e r m c o n c e n t r a t e d t r a i n i n g t o u p d a t e o r t e a c h a

n e w s k i l l w i t h o u t u n d u e d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e i r w o r k s c h e d u l e s .

A - 7 . 6 . P R O B L E M S E N C O U N T E R E D

A-7.6.1. Licensing delays

D e l a y s i n t h e i s s u a n c e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r m i t s a n d o p e r a t i n g l i c e n c e s h a v e

e x t e n d e d t h e t i m e p e r i o d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f s i t i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n t o

i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n f o r n u c l e a r p l a n t s t o m o r e t h a n 1 0 y e a r s . T h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t

i s s e e k i n g t o r e d u c e t h e l e a d t i m e t h r o u g h i m p r o v e m e n t s i n t h e r e g u l a t o r y a n d

l i c e n s i n g p r o c e s s , i n c l u d i n g g r e a t e r e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s ,

t o i n c r e a s e t h e s t a b i l i t y a n d p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f t h e l i c e n s i n g s c h e d u l e .

A-7.6.2. Three Mile Island

T h e r e s p o n s e t o i s s u e s r a i s e d b y t h e a c c i d e n t a t T h r e e M i l e I s l a n d ( T M I ) i s

d i s c u s s e d e l s e w h e r e i n t h i s d o c u m e n t .

A-7.6.3. Utility financing

I n s t i t u t i o n a l u n c e r t a i n t y a f f e c t i n g t h e U S e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y i n d u s t r y h a s

i n c r e a s e d t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n o b t a i n i n g financing f o r n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s . S o u r c e s

o f t h i s u n c e r t a i n t y a r e d e c l i n i n g g r o w t h p r o j e c t i o n s , i n c r e a s i n g c a p i t a l c o s t s f o r

p o w e r p l a n t s a n d p u b l i c c o n c e r n s o v e r s a f e t y , w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t a n d p r o l i f e r a t i o n .

D e l a y s i n c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d l i c e n s i n g b e c a u s e o f t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l

a n d s a f e t y i s s u e s h a v e c r e a t e d i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t c a s h f l o w p r o b l e m s . T h e s e

u n c e r t a i n t i e s a r e f u r t h e r a g g r a v a t e d b y t h e c u r r e n t h i g h c o s t o f b o r r o w i n g m o n e y ,

g e n e r a l l y , a n d b y a r e l a t i v e l y l o w r a t e o f c a p i t a l g e n e r a t i o n .

A-7.6.4. Professional manpower

T h e g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a s e d o u t p u t o f b a c h e l o r ' s a n d m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e s i n n u c l e a r

e n g i n e e r i n g b e f o r e 1 9 7 8 a n d t h e l e v e l l i n g o f f o f d o c t o r a t e s i s a p a t t e r n w h i c h w o u l d

UNITED STATES O F AMERICA 343

b e e x p e c t e d i n a m a t u r i n g i n d u s t r y i n w h i c h e m p h a s i s i s s h i f t i n g f r o m r e s e a r c h a n d

d e v e l o p m e n t t o c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e p a t t e r n h a s b e e n m u c h t o o

a b r u p t , a n d r e c e n t d a t a s h o w t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f d e g r e e s g r a n t e d i n 1 9 7 8 - 7 9

d e c l i n e d a t a l l d e g r e e l e v e l s , a n d t h e r e i s n o f o r e s e e a b l e c h a n g e i n t h i s t r e n d .

E n r o l m e n t s i n t h e f a l l o f 1 9 7 9 w e r e d o w n 1 0 % o r m o r e a t b o t h t h e b a c h e l o r ' s a n d

m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e p r o g r a m m e s , a n d t h e i n c r e a s e a t t h e d o c t o r a t e l e v e l w a s n o t

s i g n i f i c a n t e n o u g h t o o f f s e t t h e g e n e r a l d o w n w a r d s p i r a l w h i c h h a s e x i s t e d s i n c e

1 9 7 0 . T h i s p a t t e r n o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l m e n t s i s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e t r e n d i n e n g i n e e r i n g

e n r o l m e n t s i n g e n e r a l , w h i c h w a s t h e h i g h e s t i n h i s t o r y a t t h e u n d e r g r a d u a t e l e v e l

i n t h e f a l l o f 1 9 7 9 .

B e c a u s e o f t h e o v e r a l l d e c l i n e i n P h . D . p r o d u c t i o n s i n c e 1 9 7 0 , b r o u g h t o n i n

p a r t b y t h e i n d u s t r y ' s a c t i v e r e c r u i t m e n t o f n e w r e c i p i e n t s o f B . S . a n d M . S . d e g r e e s ,

s o m e o f t h e n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r i n g d e p a r t m e n t s a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g s t a f f i n g s h o r t a g e s .

I n r e c e n t y e a r s , n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r i n g p r o g r a m m e s i n s i x u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e b e c o m e

i n a c t i v e , a n d a n o t h e r h a s b e e n d i s c o n t i n u e d c o m p l e t e l y . A n u m b e r o f f a c u l t y

p o s i t i o n s r e m a i n u n f i l l e d a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y , a n d , w i t h o u t s u f f i c i e n t f a c u l t y , t h e

p r o g r a m m e s c a n n o t f u n c t i o n . T h i s c o u l d r e d u c e t h e U S r e s o u r c e s f o r t r a i n i n g t h e

p e r s o n s n e e d e d i n a v a r i e t y o f n u c l e a r a c t i v i t i e s .

Chapter 3

MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT FOR A NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME

3.1. GENERAL ASPECTS OF A MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME FOR NUCLEAR POWER

T h e u n i q u e s a f e t y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s a s w e l l a s t h e n a t i o n a l

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s d e m a n d e d b y a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e m a k e i t e s s e n t i a l t h a t

h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d a n d p r o p e r l y m o t i v a t e d m a n p o w e r b e a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g

o f a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a c o m p r e h e n s i v e

m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e m u s t b e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r

p r o g r a m m e a n d c o n s i s t e n t w i t h n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n p o l i c i e s .

T h e n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s h o u l d , i f p o s s i b l e , b e

o r g a n i z e d , c o - o r d i n a t e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d b y o n e s p e c i a l l y c r e a t e d g r o u p r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r t h e p l a n n i n g a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a l m u l t i d i s c i p l i -

n a r y e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d t o m e e t t h e m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e

n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

I t m u s t b e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t :

— T h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e i s n o t f e a s i b l e w i t h o u t

s u f f i c i e n t n a t i o n a l m a n p o w e r .

— O n l y p r o p e r l y q u a l i f i e d m a n p o w e r c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r m e e t i n g t h e

m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

— M a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t i s a l o n g - t e r m a c t i v i t y a n d m u s t b e p r o g r a m m e -

o r i e n t e d r a t h e r t h a n p r o j e c t - o r i e n t e d . A s m a n y a s 1 0 t o 1 5 y e a r s m a y b e

r e q u i r e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i n d e p e n d e n t , n a t i o n a l m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t

c a p a b i l i t y n e c e s s a r y t o p r o d u c e h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d m a n p o w e r f o r a n u c l e a r

p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

— A l t h o u g h m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t w i l l r e q u i r e w h a t s e e m s t o b e a l a r g e

i n v e s t m e n t , i t s c o s t i s v e r y s m a l l w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e i n v e s t m e n t

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e o v e r a l l n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

3.1.1. Programme goals

A m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e h a s t o p r o v i d e , a s a m i n i m u m , t h e

m a n p o w e r n e c e s s a r y t o p e r f o r m t h o s e e s s e n t i a l a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r

p r o g r a m m e w h i c h t h e c o u n t r y m u s t d o f o r i t s e l f i f i t i s t o h a v e a v i a b l e n u c l e a r

p o w e r p r o g r a m m e , i . e . t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s f o r w h i c h f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y h a s t o b e

b o r n e b y n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d w h i c h m u s t b e p e r f o r m e d l a r g e l y b y l o c a l

q u a l i f i e d m a n p o w e r . ( S e e S e c t i o n 2 . 3 . 2 . )

T h e m a i n o v e r a l l g o a l s o f a n e f f e c t i v e a n d e f f i c i e n t m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t

p r o g r a m m e s h o u l d b e :

( a ) T o d e v e l o p a n a d e q u a t e a m o u n t o f q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l n e c e s s a r y f o r

t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

348 SECTION 3.2.

It is absolutely necessary to have sufficient qualified manpower to ensure the safety and reliability of nuclear power .

Insufficient qualified manpower reduces nat ional part icipat ion and could even prevent the performing of essential activities. Surplus manpower needlessly increases costs and promotes poor work habits, j ob dissatisfaction and at t r i t ion.

Manpower qualified t o pe r fo rm a certain task cannot be replaced by a larger number of less qualif ied personnel.

(b) To ensure manpower availability at the proper t ime.

Manpower development must be scheduled so tha t the educat ion and /or training produces qualified personnel ready to per form their tasks and func t ions at the p roper t ime in terms of the nuclear power programme schedule. Delays in the development of properly trained personnel will cause delays in the nuclear power programme and will usually increase costs, while persons qualified too early to take up their tasks or funct ions may lose professional or technical expertise or leave for another posit ion.

As nuclear power programme schedules have o f t en been delayed for many reasons, including manpower , the manpower development activities mus t be able to be adjusted accordingly. Thus, there mus t be a coupling between the manpower development and nuclear power programme schedules. Nuclear power mus t be considered in relation to the educat ional and scientific/technological infrastructures as well as the industrial base and overall industrial development schedule.

(c) To ensure suff icient t ime for proper training.

T o be effective, t he training t ime must be sufficient fo r impart ing a thorough knowledge of and /o r capability in the technology necessary for performing correctly the task or func t ion for which a person is being prepared. Rushed training produces manpower incapable of good judgement and lacking an adequate grasp of the interfaces between their technical areas and other areas with which they must interact .

(d) To use selection techniques which ensure an overall balance of man-power with respect t o age, matur i ty , initiative, judgement etc.

Proper balancing of manpower is essential to p romote : innovations which are practical; long-term stability of the organization; dedicat ion to proven principles and p roper execut ion of tasks. I t should also prevent such problems as the s imultaneous loss of senior management when the first generation of managers retire, and should ensure the cont inuous turnover of responsibility t o those who, by experience and proven competence , are judged wor thy of p romot ion .

G E N E R A L ASPECTS . 349

(e) To ensure that the programme promotes the improvement of the overall nat ional educational , technological and industrial infrastructures .

Manpower development for the activities of a nuclear power programme must be considered within the broader con tex t of the overall nat ional development programme.

(f) To make effective and efficient use of all available national training opportuni t ies .

Foreign training should be given only af te r all local possibilities have been utilized. While training abroad may be necessary in certain specialized and advanced nuclear technology areas, a goal of a manpower development programme should be upgrading nat ional training and educat ion, n o t only for increased self-sufficiency, bu t also fo r the associated benefi ts (cost effectiveness, improving infrastructures , etc.).

(g) To ensure manpower re tent ion.

Development of manpower requires more than the training.and educat ion of suff icient qualified personnel. An equally impor tan t aspect is t he re tent ion of manpower , which could be achieved through economic incentives and through the creation of a professional, economic and social environment conducive to recognition and career development .

A particular diff icul ty is the case of technicians, where re tent ion problems arise owing t o a lack of social and economic recognition of their work . If it were suff iciently realized h o w essential qualified technicians are fo r a safe and reliable nuclear power programme, then effective measures would more likely be taken to retain them.

3.1.2. Categories of manpower — Definitions

The manpower requirements of a nuclear power programme are substantial and varied. Generally speaking, however, the type of manpower which is most diff icult t o train and which in the long run will mos t a f fec t the eff iciency, safety and reliability of t he under taking is the technical manpower . Technical manpower in this sense includes the technical managers, engineers, scientists, technicians, technologists and skilled craf tsmen. This chapte r is in tended to t reat primarily the development of such technical manpower and will no t , therefore , go in to detail on the development of non-technical manpower which, while also necessary for the overall programme, is generally more readily available and considerably easier t o train, except fo r the highest level positions.

Experience has shown tha t the most serious problems which the developing or industrializing countr ies have had, have not been of the type which require scientists

350 SECTION 3.2.

w i t h a d v a n c e d a c a d e m i c t r a i n i n g a n d r e s e a r c h e x p e r i e n c e i n n u c l e a r s c i e n c e a n d

t e c h n o l o g y , b u t r a t h e r o f t h e t y p e w h i c h r e q u i r e :

— P r o f e s s i o n a l s w i t h p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e a n d t r a i n i n g i n t h e t e c h n i c a l ,

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l , c o n t r a c t u a l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a s p e c t s o f l a r g e p r o j e c t s

— T e c h n i c i a n s

— S k i l l e d c r a f t s m e n

F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s G u i d e b o o k , t h e t e c h n i c a l m a n p o w e r h a s b e e n d i v i d e d

i n t o t h r e e p r i m a r y c a t e g o r i e s o f d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s :

— P r o f e s s i o n a l s

— T e c h n i c i a n s

— C r a f t s m e n

Professional p e r s o n n e l a s u s e d i n t h i s G u i d e b o o k r e f e r s t o a l l m a n a g e r i a l

a n d t e c h n i c a l p e r s o n n e l w h o s e n o r m a l m i n i m u m f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t

i s a B . S . d e g r e e o r e q u i v a l e n t f r o m a r e c o g n i z e d o r a c c r e d i t e d i n s t i t u t i o n o f h i g h e r

l e a r n i n g ( i . e . u n i v e r s i t y o r c o l l e g e ) . ( S e e S e c t i o n 3 . 3 . 1 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f d e g r e e s

a n d e q u i v a l e n t s . )

Technician p e r s o n n e l a s u s e d i n t h i s G u i d e b o o k r e f e r s t o a l l s u b - p r o f e s s i o n a l -

l e v e l p e r s o n n e l w h o h a v e s c i e n t i f i c a n d t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g a t a n a p p r e c i a b l e l e v e l

b e y o n d t h e 1 2 t h y e a r o f s c h o o l b u t l e s s t h a n t h e m i n i m u m e d u c a t i o n a l r e q u i r e -

m e n t o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l l e v e l . T e c h n i c i a n s a r e t r a i n e d p e r s o n s w h o a r e b r o a d l y

k n o w l e d g e a b l e i n s u c h d i s c i p l i n e s a s m e c h a n i c a l , c h e m i c a l , e l e c t r i c a l , e l e c t r o n i c s

t e c h n o l o g y , o r w h o h a v e s p e c i a l i z e d k n o w l e d g e a n d c a p a b i l i t y i n s p e c i f i c f i e l d s

s u c h a s r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n , i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , m a t e r i a l s t e s t i n g , q u a l i t y c o n t r o l ,

p r o c e s s c o n t r o l .

Craftsman p e r s o n n e l a s u s e d i n t h i s G u i d e b o o k r e f e r s t o t h o s e s k i l l e d w o r k e r s

w h o , b y a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t r a i n i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e ( u s u a l l y t h r o u g h a n a p p r e n t i c e s h i p ) ,

a r e w e l l q u a l i f i e d t o p e r f o r m s p e c i f i c t y p e s o f t a s k s , o p e r a t e s p e c i f i c c l a s s e s o f

e q u i p m e n t o r p e r f o r m s p e c i f i c o p e r a t i o n s . E x a m p l e s o f t h i s t y p e o f w o r k e r w o u l d

i n c l u d e w e l d e r s , e l e c t r i c i a n s , p i p e f i t t e r s , h e a v y e q u i p m e n t o p e r a t o r s , e t c .

T h e u s e o f t h e s e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s i s f o r c o n v e n i e n c e o n l y . I t i s n o t m e a n t t o

i m p l y t h a t s u c h c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s a r e u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t e d , a r e s t r i c t l y d i v i d e d w i t h

n o o v e r l a p p i n g o f q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , o r c o n s t i t u t e a s t a n d a r d n o r m . I n f a c t , n a t i o n a l

p r a c t i c e s r e g a r d i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s a n d d e f i n i t i o n s v a r y , s o m e t i m e s w i d e l y , a n d a

c e r t a i n t e r m m a y h a v e d i f f e r e n t a c c e p t e d m e a n i n g s i n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s .

I t h a s , h o w e v e r , b e e n f o u n d c o n v e n i e n t t o u s e t h e s e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s w h e n

d i s c u s s i n g m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t , s i n c e t h e g r a d u a t i o n o f l e v e l s f r o m p r o f e s s i o n a l

t o t e c h n i c i a n t o c r a f t s m a n i s p r i m a r i l y a g r a d u a t i o n f r o m h i g h t e c h n i c a l a n d

s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e , u s u a l l y w i t h l o w m a n u a l a b i l i t y , t o h i g h m a n u a l a b i l i t y w i t h

n a r r o w t e c h n i c a l a n d s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

3.1.3. Procedures and methods

O n e r e s p o n s i b l e g r o u p a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l s h o u l d b e c r e a t e d t o :

— P l a n a n d c o - o r d i n a t e t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r

d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e .

— A s s e s s n a t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e e d u c a t i o n a l , s c i e n t i f i c /

t e c h n o l o g i c a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s ) f o r m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t .

— D e f i n e a n y n e c e s s a r y m o d i f i c a t i o n s a n d i n n o v a t i o n s t o t h e n a t i o n a l i n f r a -

s t r u c t u r e s ( i n c l u d i n g g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , l a w s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s ) .

— E n s u r e q u a l i t y a n d c o n s i s t e n c y i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g s t a n d a r d s .

— M o n i t o r t h e m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e t o e n s u r e t h a t :

• T h e r e q u i r e d q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i t y o f p e r s o n n e l a r e e f f i c i e n t l y t r a i n e d

a n d e f f e c t i v e l y u s e d i n t h e a r e a s a n d a c t i v i t i e s f o r w h i c h t h e y h a v e b e e n

t r a i n e d .

• T r a i n i n g h a s o c c u r r e d o n s c h e d u l e s o t h a t w h e n a p e r s o n i s q u a l i f i e d ,

t h e t a s k i s r e a d y f o r h i m .

T h i s g r o u p , o w i n g t o t h e n a t u r e o f i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d f u n c t i o n s , s h o u l d

b e g i v e n a c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o s i t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n t h e o v e r a l l n a t i o n a l o r g a n i -

z a t i o n f o r t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e . T h i s i s n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e t h e g r o u p m u s t

i n t e r a c t w i t h m a n a g e r s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t s e c t o r s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n v o l v e d t o g a t h e r

i n f o r m a t i o n o n m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s , t r a i n e e s ' p e r f o r m a n c e , e t c . i n o r d e r t o

e v a l u a t e a n d m o d i f y ( w h e n n e c e s s a r y ) t h e m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s

f o r e a c h a c t i v i t y i n w h i c h n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s i n v o l v e d . T h e m e m b e r s o f t h i s

g r o u p m u s t b e s e n i o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s w i t h a t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t e c h -

n o l o g i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

M a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t i n v o l v e s f u n d a m e n t a l l y t h r e e t y p e s o f a c t i v i t i e s :

— P l a n n i n g ( S e c t i o n 3 . 2 )

— I m p l e m e n t a t i o n ( S e c t i o n s 3 . 3 a n d 3 . 4 )

— P e r s o n n e l M a n a g e m e n t ( S e c t i o n 3 . 5 )

T h e s e c o n s t i t u t e c o n s e c u t i v e s t a g e s , w h e r e p l a n n i n g h a s t o p r e c e d e i m p l e -

m e n t a t i o n , a n d w h e r e p e r s o n n e l m a n a g e m e n t b e c o m e s t h e p r i n c i p a l t o o l t o

r e t a i n a n d e f f i c i e n t l y u t i l i z e t h e m a n p o w e r t h a t h a s b e e n t r a i n e d . D u r i n g a n o n -

g o i n g p r o g r a m m e , h o w e v e r , t h e s e t h r e e t y p e s o f a c t i v i t i e s a r e p e r f o r m e d

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y : p l a n n i n g i s c o n t i n u a l l y u p d a t e d a n d a d j u s t e d t o t h e c h a n g i n g

r e q u i r e m e n t s ; i m p l e m e n t a t i o n p r o v i d e s n e w a n d a d d i t i o n a l m a n p o w e r ; p e r s o n n e l

m a n a g e m e n t i s c a r r i e d o n f o r r e t a i n i n g e x i s t i n g a n d r e c r u i t i n g n e w p e r s o n n e l f o r

t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

352 SECTION 3.2.

T h e p l a n n i n g o f a n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e d i f f e r s i n

s c o p e f r o m s u c h p l a n n i n g i n o t h e r f i e l d s a n d w i l l h a v e t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e

s p e c i a l a s p e c t s o f n u c l e a r p o w e r . H o w e v e r , t h e b a s i c p r o c e d u r e s a n d m e t h o d s

d o n o t d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y f r o m t h o s e u s u a l l y u s e d . T h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e s

w o u l d c o n s i s t o f :

— D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e n u c l e a r

p o w e r p r o g r a m m e a n d t h e n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s ( S e c t i o n 3 . 2 . 1 ) .

— D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d

p o t e n t i a l ( S e c t i o n s 3 . 2 . 2 a n d 3 . 4 ) .

— A s s e s s m e n t o f n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s a n d o f f o r e i g n t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s

( S e c t i o n s 3 . 2 . 3 a n d 3 . 2 . 4 ) .

— S c h e d u l i n g o f t h e m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e a n d d e f i n i t i o n o f

t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s ( S e c t i o n s 3 . 2 . 5 a n d 3 . 2 . 6 ) .

E x p e r i e n c e h a s s h o w n t h a t , w i t h v e r y f e w e x c e p t i o n s , t h e p r o b l e m s o f

p r o v i d i n g s u f f i c i e n t a n d a p p r o p r i a t e l y t r a i n e d m a n p o w e r t o p l a n a n d i m p l e m e n t

a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a r e i n a d e q u a t e l y a p p r e c i a t e d .

B o t h t h e q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i t y o f m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e d i s g e n e r a l l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e d ,

w h i l e t h e c a p a b i l i t y o f e x i s t i n g m a n p o w e r a n d t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s i s o v e r e s t i m a t e d ,

u n t i l a s o m e w h a t l a t e s t a g e i n t h e p r o g r a m m e . O n e r e a s o n f o r t h i s m i g h t b e t h a t

t h e h i g h c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t m a k e t h e

p r o g r a m m e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s r e l u c t a n t t o d e v o t e a d d i t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t s t o m a n p o w e r

d e v e l o p m e n t . M o r e o v e r , o n c e t h e p r o g r a m m e h a s b e e n d e c i d e d , t h e g o a l o f

c o m p l e t i n g t h e first p r o j e c t i n t h e s h o r t e s t t i m e p o s s i b l e m a y r e s u l t i n s h o r t -

s i g h t e d p o l i c i e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o m a n p o w e r .

C o n s e q u e n t l y , c o r r e c t i v e m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s w i l l b e u n d e r t a k e n

o n a ' c r a s h p r o g r a m m e ' b a s i s . S u c h c r a s h p r o g r a m m e s m a y p r o v i d e s o m e o f t h e

m a n p o w e r w h e n n e e d e d , b u t w o u l d a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y n o t l e a d t o a c h i e v i n g t h e

o t h e r g o a l s o f a m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e , m e n t i o n e d i n S e c t i o n 3 . 1 . 1 .

O c c a s i o n a l l y i t m a y b e n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r t a k e e l e m e n t s o f t h e m a n p o w e r d e v e -

l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e o n a ' c r a s h ' b a s i s , b u t t h i s s h o u l d b e k e p t t o a m i n i m u m a n d

b e q u i c k l y a b a n d o n e d a s s o o n a s a p r o p e r p r o g r a m m e c a n b e i n s t i t u t e d .

T o i m p l e m e n t t h e m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e , s p e c i a l e f f o r t s w i l l

h a v e t o b e m a d e t o p r o v i d e m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s w i t h i n t h e

c o u n t r y ' s e d u c a t i o n a l , s c i e n t i f i c , t e c h n i c a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d t o

d e f i n e a n d i n t r o d u c e n e w c u r r i c u l a , i n d u s t r i a l t e c h n i q u e s a n d f a c i l i t i e s t o f u l f i l

t h e m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r a n d n a t i o n a l

p a r t i c i p a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s . T h i s w i l l r e q u i r e c l o s e c o - o p e r a t i o n a m o n g : t h e o r g a n i -

z a t i o n ( g r o u p ) r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e ,

t h e g o v e r n m e n t , t h e u t i l i t y / o w n e r , a n d t h e c o u n t r y ' s e d u c a t i o n a l , s c i e n t i f i c a n d

t e c h n o l o g i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d i n d u s t r i a l f a c i l i t i e s .

Manpower development will require no t only scientific and technical edu-cation bu t also, and especially, practical and on-the-job training. Manpower for the higher-level professional tasks in the nuclear power programme must have related j o b experience with actual responsibilities.

An adequate personnel management system is required to ensure the effectiveness of the manpower development e f for t s and thus the long-term viability of the nuclear power programme (see Section 3.5). I t also mus t co-ordinate the personnel management policies of the various national organizations involved in the nuclear power programme to ensure compatibi l i ty and the mos t effective use of resources.

3.2. MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME PLANNING

It must be clearly appreciated that a nuclear power programme cannot exist in isolation in a count ry whose governmental , industrial, science/technology and educational infrastructures are not developed to a reasonably high degree. Without adequate infrastructures , long-term political commi tmen t s and national policies, any a t t emp t to implement a nuclear power programme is highly impractical and may in fact be impossible, since a programme in such circumstances may be doomed to failure before it begins.

F r o m the s tandpoint of manpower development, it is crucial to review carefully the goals and plans for national part icipation in the nuclear power programme (in particular fo r those activities which the count ry must do for itself) and to determine at the earliest stages by candid, in-depth assessment what are the real prospects for involvement of local manpower , what are the limitations, and what are the hidden deficiencies in the existing manpower base and manpower development resources, which will require correction. Such a review will require extensive analysis and clear determinat ion of: the nuclear and non-nuclear manpower needed to achieve the nat ional part icipation objectives; the actual amoun t and quality of existing technical manpower ; and the actual quality and capacity of the existing educational , scientific/technological and industrial infras t ructures t o develop the required manpower , Only af te r these resources have been assessed can a count ry proceed effectively t o the task of defining the objectives and formulat ing the schedule of the manpower development programme.

In connect ion with this, it should be emphasized tha t no t all func t ions and tasks can be filled th rough manpower development consisting entirely of educat ion and training. Certain func t ions and tasks can only be per formed by and assigned to experienced people who have already held jobs with a certain significant level of responsibilities in such areas as project engineering, heavy componen t s manufac tu re and (thermal) power plants. The availability of such people depends on the level of development of the national industrial, technological and educat ional infrastructures. Examples of func t ions and tasks particularly requiring professional experience would be: t op management and technical specialists; engineering and manufactur ing designers, stat ion and shift super intendents ; mechanical maintenance specialists.

The experience required for these and o ther critical func t ions and tasks is far d i f ferent f r o m knowledge acquired during training, even on-the-job training, and canno t be taught .

Thus it is essential to make a careful assessment of t he experienced manpower available in the count ry , because it would be nearly impossible to embark on a nuclear power programme until the t ime tha t such experienced personnel are available.

MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT . 355

Manpower development must therefore have a larger scope than may generally be supposed, and must begin with the national education and training system. A minimum level o f national self-sufficiency in this is necessary to provide the professionals, technicians and craftsmen who have not only the necessary education and training but also the experience required for the nuclear power programme.

3.2.1. Determination of manpower requirements

The manpower requirements for nuclear power programme activities have been analysed and presented in Chapter 1.

For a particular country, the national nuclear manpower requirements will be defined by the activities to be performed within the country with national manpower and will fundamentally depend on:

— The scope and schedule of the nuclear power programme.

— The scope and schedule of national participation in this programme.

— The constraints and limitations on the scope and schedule imposed by national industrial, educational and technological infrastructures and manpower resources.

— National conditions and characteristics affecting the labour market such as productivity, efficiency, competition from other large industrial undertakings, employment policies, labour costs, customs, rules and legislation.

The above factors are interrelated and thus should be considered together. It is recognized that the nuclear power programme as well as the formulation of the policies and goals for national participation should already have included the effects of all relevant constraints and limitations including those of manpower. For the determination of national manpower requirements, however, which is the first stage of manpower development planning, in-depth analysis and review of the constraints and limitations pertaining to manpower, and to the education and training resources are necessary. While the number of people required to perform certain functions or tasks depends on national labour practices and conditions, their qualifications depend only on the nature of the function or task and not on any conditions prevailing in the country.

Manpower productivity is the result of both the traditions and the environment of a country. For a developing country the industrialization process, particularly industrialization connected with high technology, may represent a rather recent experience, so that careful analysis must be made with respect to local manpower productivity as compared with the standards reported by highly industrialized countries. This problem must be seriously

356 SECTION 3.2.

considered and adequately factored into any assessment of manpower require-ments and national capabilities.

Manpower requirements for nuclear power projects in developed countries are determined on the basis that a reasonable supply of trained manpower is always available from the industrial labour market. If a trained person leaves, he can usually be replaced in a relatively short time. Further, manpower requirements in developed countries do not generally reflect the fact that the nuclear power project receives substantial technical and maintenance support from a central group within the utility or from a mature nuclear industry.

In developing countries, however, there is usually a shortage of qualified manpower and consequently a high demand for qualified professionals, technicians and craftsmen. Such a situation would normally lead to higher attrition rates and major difficulties in providing replacements. Therefore, in assessing manpower requirements, care should be taken to include, in addition to those people who actually will be needed to perform the tasks and functions, an adequate number of reserve and replacement personnel. A policy of a reasonable degree of over-staffing, especially in critical areas, is thus advisable.

In general, the minimum national manpower requirements would correspond to the manpower needed to perform the 'essential' activities discussed in Section 2.3.2, and will grow as the nuclear power programme develops and national participation activities increase.

3.2.1.1. Professional manpower requirements

Professional-level personnel are obviously the primary component of the manpower required to plan, supervise the implementation of and, in the final analysis, assume responsibility for all activities within the nuclear power programme. They also require the longest lead times for their development.

Table 3.2—1 shows an approximate distribution of the level of education requirements of professional manpower for the main activities involved in a nuclear power programme, based on the Brazilian experience. It can be observed that most activities need a relatively high number of mechanical and chemical engineers. This is to be expected in a technology involving power plants with large high-technology equipment requirements and a fuel cycle with complex chemical processes. It is also to be noted that the requirements for manpower having the highest academic degree (Ph.D.) are in general significantly less than for those having bachelor's (B.S.) or master's (M.S.) degrees (or the equivalent).

This table should be used with caution. It offers only general indications of relative magnitudes and cannot be applied directly to any particular country's nuclear power programme.

It should be pointed out that for nuclear power programmes in developing countries the need for scientists and research-oriented engineering personnel,

T A B L E 3 . 2 - 1 . A P P R O X I M A T E D I S T R I B U T I O N O F P R O F E S S I O N A L

M A N P O W E R B Y E D U C A T I O N R E Q U I R E M E N T S ( i n % )

(Example: Brazil)

Activity (summarized) B.S. a M.S. a P h . D . 3

Pre-project activities 60 35 5

Project management 60 35 5

Project engineering 60 35 5

Quali ty cont ro l and assurance 6 0 35 5

Procurement of equ ipmen t and materials 75 25 -

Safety, safeguards and physical p ro tec t ion 60 35 5

Equ ipmen t manufac tu r ing 75 20 5

Cons t ruc t ion management 60 35 5

Site prepara t ion 95 5 -

Erect ion of buildings and s t ructures 95 5 -

Equipmen t and system installation 95 5 -

Plant commissioning 60 35 5

Plant opera t ion and main tenance 85 15 -

Fuel cycle management 50 40 10

Explora t ion , mining and milling 55 35 10

Fuel enr ichment 65 25 10

Fuel fabr ica t ion 65 25 10

Fuel cycle back-end activities 65 25 10

Licensing and regulat ion 40 4 0 20

Research and development 20 45 35

Manpower development implementa t ion 30 60 10

a Or equivalent.

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e n u c l e a r f i e l d , i s o f t e n o v e r e s t i m a t e d , w h i l e t h e n e e d f o r

h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d , p r a c t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d e n g i n e e r s , t e c h n i c i a n s a n d c r a f t s m e n i s

v e r y m u c h u n d e r e s t i m a t e d .

A d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y b e g i n n i n g i t s f i r s t n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t m i g h t b e

t e m p t e d t o t h i n k t h a t t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s c o u l d b e

s a t i s f i e d b y t h e u s e o f f o r e i g n c o n s u l t a n t s . E x p e r i e n c e h a s s h o w n t h a t t h i s

358 SECTION 3.2.

a p p r o a c h d o e s n o t p r o d u c e s u c c e s s f u l r e s u l t s . A l t h o u g h c o n s u l t a n t s c a n b e

e m p l o y e d t o p e r f o r m a l m o s t a n y t a s k r e q u i r e d i n t h e p r o g r a m m e , t h e y c a n n o t

m a k e t h e final d e c i s i o n s n o r t a k e t h e f i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e

e x t e n s i v e u s e o f a n d d e p e n d e n c e o n f o r e i g n c o n s u l t a n t s w i l l s l o w d o w n t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f n a t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t y f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

T o o l a r g e a u s e o f f o r e i g n c o n s u l t a n t s t o p e r f o r m a c t i v i t i e s f o r w h i c h t h e

c o u n t r y m u s t b e a r t h e f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w o u l d b e a s t r o n g i n d i c a t i o n t h a t

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s h o u l d b e d e l a y e d u n t i l

s u f f i c i e n t q u a l i f i e d l o c a l m a n p o w e r c a n b e d e v e l o p e d .

3.2.1.2. Technician manpower requirements

S o m e o f t h e m o s t c r i t i c a l a n d e s s e n t i a l m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a

n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e a r e f o r h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d m i d d l e - l e v e l p e r s o n n e l . I n

a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s , t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f q u a l i f i e d t e c h n i c i a n s i s a n e c e s s a r y

c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e p r o g r a m m e a n d f o r

t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f e r .

I n m a n y c o u n t r i e s , t h e t r a i n i n g a n d r e t e n t i o n o f q u a l i f i e d t e c h n i c i a n s

p r e s e n t s g r e a t p r o b l e m s b e c a u s e o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e i n s o c i a l a n d

e c o n o m i c s t a t u s e n j o y e d b y p r o f e s s i o n a l s v e r s u s t h a t o f t e c h n i c i a n s . T h u s , a

f i r s t - c l a s s e x p e r i e n c e d t e c h n i c i a n w i l l o f t e n w o r k h a r d t o b e c o m e a n o t - s o

f i r s t - c l a s s e n g i n e e r , t o e v e r y o n e ' s l o s s . B e c a u s e s u c h t e c h n i c i a n s a r e e s s e n t i a l

f o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l c o m p l e t i o n o f a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t a n d f o r t h e s a f e a n d

r e l i a b l e o p e r a t i o n o f a n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t , e f f e c t i v e m e a s u r e s m u s t b e t a k e n

t o t r a i n a n d r e t a i n t h e m .

A t y p i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n b y s p e c i a l i t i e s o f t h e t e c h n i c i a n - l e v e l w o r k f o r c e

f o r a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e m i g h t b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y a s f o l l o w s :

C i v i l c o n s t r u c t i o n 3 %

E l e c t r i c a l 9 %

E l e c t r o n i c s 6 %

M e c h a n i c a l 4 0 %

C h e m i c a l 1 1 %

D r a f t s m e n 1 0 %

O p e r a t i o n s 4 %

R a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n 2 %

O t h e r s 1 5 %

T h e a c t u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a p a r t i c u l a r c o u n t r y w i l l v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

d e g r e e o f n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d t h e s c o p e a n d s p e c i f i c p h a s e o f t h e n u c l e a r

p o w e r p r o g r a m m e . U p t o t h e c o m m i s s i o n i n g s t a g e o f t h e f i r s t p r o j e c t , t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n w o r k w o u l d f o r m t h e m a i n b u l k o f r e q u i r e m e n t s .

I f s i g n i f i c a n t n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e f a b r i c a t i o n o f e q u i p m e n t a n d c o m p o n e n t s

i s u n d e r t a k e n , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y t e c h n i c i a n s w o u l d i n c r e a s e .

A s t h e f i r s t p r o j e c t a p p r o a c h e s t h e o p e r a t i o n p h a s e , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r r a d i a t i o n

p r o t e c t i o n a n d p l a n t o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e t e c h n i c i a n s w i l l g r o w .

I n t h e l o n g t e r m , t h e n e e d f o r o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e t e c h n i c i a n s w i l l

i n c r e a s e i n a s t e p w i s e f a s h i o n a s e a c h s u c c e s s i v e n u c l e a r u n i t i s b r o u g h t o n l i n e ,

w h e r e a s t h e n e e d f o r t h e t e c h n i c i a n s i n v o l v e d i n t h e d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d

c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f n u c l e a r u n i t s w i l l i n c r e a s e s t e p w i s e o n l y i f t h e r e i s a n i n c r e a s e

i n t h e n u m b e r o f n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n .

I n g e n e r a l , t h e o v e r a l l t e c h n i c i a n m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s s h o u l d e x c e e d

t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s b y 5 0 t o 1 0 0 % f o r e f f i c i e n t w o r k

l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n . F o r d i f f e r e n t a c t i v i t i e s , h o w e v e r , t h i s p r o p o r t i o n w i l l v a r y .

F o r e x a m p l e , p l a n n i n g , p r e - p r o j e c t a n d r e g u l a t o r y a c t i v i t i e s a r e ' p r o f e s s i o n a l -

i n t e n s i v e ' w h i l e c o n s t r u c t i o n , e q u i p m e n t m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d p l a n t m a i n t e n a n c e

a r e ' t e c h n i c i a n - i n t e n s i v e ' .

3.2.1.3. Craftsmen manpower requirements

M a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s e x p e r i e n c e o f a l l m a j o r U S u t i l i t i e s , e n g i n e e r i n g

a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m p a n i e s i s r e p o r t e d i n R e f . [ 1 9 1 ] . T h i s r e p o r t i n d i c a t e s t h a t

n u c l e a r p o w e r u n i t s w i t h 1 9 7 9 c o n s t r u c t i o n s t a r t s a r e e x p e c t e d t o r e q u i r e

1 5 . 1 w o r k - h o u r s p e r k W ( e ) f o r a 9 0 0 M W ( e ) u n i t i n t h e S o u t h o f t h e U S A . I n

t h e N o r t h , c o n s t r u c t i o n h o u r s w o u l d b e c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e . I n d e v e l o p i n g

c o u n t r i e s , d i f f e r e n c e s d u e t o s u b s t i t u t i o n o f l a b o u r f o r c a p i t a l , c o n s t r u c t i o n

t i m e , w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s a n d m a n p o w e r p r o d u c t i v i t y m u s t b e i n c l u d e d i n t o

s u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , c r a f t s m e n l a b o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s m a y b e

m o r e ( b y a f a c t o r o f a b o u t 1 . 5 — 2 ) o r l e s s t h a n t h e U S e x p e r i e n c e , d e p e n d i n g

o n t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g i n t h e c o u n t r y a n d o n t h e s t a g e o f t h e

n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t q u a l i f i e d p i p e f i t t e r s a n d

w e l d e r s e a c h r e p r e s e n t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 t o 2 0 % o f t h e t o t a l c r a f t s m e n w o r k

f o r c e d u r i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s t a g e s . T o m e e t t h e s e n e e d s a n d t h e n e e d s f o r

o t h e r q u a l i f i e d c r a f t s m e n s p e c i a l e f f o r t s m u s t b e m a d e t o d e v e l o p s u c h m a n p o w e r

t h r o u g h a n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r i a l t r a i n i n g a p p r e n t i c e s h i p s y s t e m .

A c a r e f u l a s s e s s m e n t s h o u l d b e m a d e o f t h e m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e d f o r e a c h

c r a f t . A t y p i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , b y t r a d e s , o f t h e c r a f t s m e n - l e v e l w o r k f o r c e

d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 . 1 2 - 6 . I t c a n b e s e e n t h a t c r a f t s m e n

a r e m a i n l y r e q u i r e d f o r p l a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d f o r m a n u f a c t u r e o f e q u i p m e n t

a n d c o m p o n e n t s .

B e c a u s e c r a f t s m e n a r e , i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , t h e o n e s w h o w i l l b u i l d t h e

q u a l i t y i n t o t h e i t e m s c o n s t r u c t e d , f a b r i c a t e d a n d i n s t a l l e d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y

a l w a y s t o b e a w a r e o f t h e n e e d f o r p r o p e r t r a i n i n g o f t h i s m a n p o w e r a n d t h e

d e s i r a b i l i t y o f p r o p e r l y m o t i v a t i n g s u c h c r a f t s m e n t o p e r f o r m t h e i r t a s k s

c o m p e t e n t l y a n d s k i l l f u l l y .

360 SECTION 3.2.

3.2.2. National education and training requirements and potential

3.2.2.1. Potential of national education and training infrastructures

To supply the manpower necessary for the national nuclear power programme, the existing educational and training infrastructure will probably have to be modified and upgraded in most countries, and in particular in developing countries.

Educational, vocational training and industrial organizations must, to the extent practicable, develop and implement their curricula and/or training programmes to meet the nuclear manpower development requirements. Education and training will be necessary in a wide spectrum of disciplines and will require efficient integration of educational, vocational and on-the-job training. As this will very likely place a strain on the national educational and training resources, the ways and means to make the necessary infrastructure changes and improvements should be carefully analysed and planned at the earliest stages, i.e. when the nuclear power programme and national participation programme are being planned.

Educational and training institutions may suffer from insufficient support from the government and local industry. Focusing renewed attention on their importance to developing manpower for important national undertakings such as the nuclear power programme can be highly beneficial to their continued and increased viability through modernization, improvement, and fuller utilization. Many educational systems of developing countries are dedicated primarily if not almost exclusively to the major task of eliminating illiteracy and improving the general level of education. Focusing attention on the need to provide also specialized and advanced training to a relatively small number of already educated individuals will call attention to the need for producing such persons as well as to their importance in promoting the overall development of the society.

In every country there is normally an ultimate national authority and co-ordination organization for the national educational system (the Ministry or Department of Education). It is, however, usually inadequate to rely solely on the educational co-ordinating body for developing and introducing programme curricula changes required for nuclear manpower development into secondary and higher level institutions, for two reasons. Firstly, there may be additional schools and colleges, supported by non-government-related private organizations, whose curricula are not closely followed by the co-ordinating body and, secondly, the ministry itself, which is generally composed of educators rather than technically trained persons, may not always grasp the technical requirements of the curricula required.

3.2.2.2. Professional-level education and training

Academic quality in the professional disciplines is normally assumed to be defined by an academic degree from an educational institution whose curricula

have been accredited by an appropria te body. Providing qualified manpower for nuclear power will place new demands on the educat ional system. The curricula mus t be carefully examined and formula ted so that there is a coupling of scientific and technical knowledge with the needs of technology, including a func t iona l balance between theoret ical knowledge and practical training and experience. Otherwise, it cannot be assumed tha t an academic degree is a reliable measure of quali ty with respect t o the ability of an individual t o pe r fo rm a specific task in the nuclear power programme.

The educat ional system at t he university level may be inadequate for this purpose and will therefore require a thorough assessment of its capabilities and of any upgrading required.

Of ten , t h e standards of d i f ferent universities in the same count ry are much t o o uneven. This provokes a progressive decay of the poorer quali ty universities and too large an increase in the s tudent applications and enrolment in those with higher standards. Consequent ly , the bet ter universities become crowded and their facilities and staff become taxed to the point of inadequacy. Thus, general upgrading of t he academic level and standardizing educational qualif icat ions and facilities th roughout a count ry ' s higher level educat ion system will in t he long t e rm prove to be most beneficial.

In addi t ion, one or several universities should be developed in to centres for specialized and advanced training in nuclear technology. Development of a f ew ra ther than a large number of such facilities will improve control of t he manpower development effor ts , make it easier t o establish and enforce the high standards required and generally prove to be much more cost-effective.

Of general impor tance in the assessment and upgrading of university-level training are the mechanical, chemical, civil, electrical and metallurgical engineering curricula. If the nuclear power programme includes a significant e f for t in u ran ium explorat ion, geology and mining engineering must also be included.

A master 's degree programme in nuclear engineering (see Section 3.3.1.2) provides, in comparison with the usual B.S. educat ion, higher qualifications in the scope and depth of b o t h theoret ical knowledge and practical (applied) capabilities with the aim of using more advanced knowledge and scientific methods in performing professional tasks and solving technological problems.

It should be emphasized tha t in a nuclear power programme a suff icient por t ion of staff with M.S. degrees must be available fo r activities such as regulatory and licensing, safety, nuclear engineering, nuclear fuel cycle, teaching and research and development (R&D) (see Section 3.2.1.1).

Training in science and engineering at the doc tora te level is usually research-oriented and generally n o t t oo relevant for nuclear power programmes. The assessment need not be overly concerned with such training, unless t he nuclear power programme includes a very strong commi tmen t t o research and development , and to nat ional part icipation.

362 SECTION 3.2.

The doc tora te syndrome, generally qui te wisespread, tends to induce planners and s tudents t o believe that high-level theoret ical training is most suitable fo r adapting and utilizing sophisticated technology. But , qui te to the contrary, experience has largely demons t ra ted that this is no t the case. F r o m Table 3 . 2 - 1 it can be seen that t he p ropor t ion of Ph.D. to B.S. and M.S. degrees is qui te small fo r t he industrial sectors and almost negligible fo r the construct ion, opera t ion and maintenance of a nuclear power plant.

Management training, usually provided in business schools or schools of publ ic administrat ion, should also be available f o r b o t h the technical and non-technical management personnel involved in the nuclear power programme. Industrial engineering is the discipline which deals with problems of technical management , which will be of particular impor tance to bo th the programme and t h e industrial organizations involved in nat ional part icipation.

F o r the higher level engineering and management positions, an essential requi rement fo r qualified manpower is actual j o b experience with t h e con-comi tant responsibilities. There can be no subst i tute for this experience, which can be gained in the plants and projects of many conventional heavy industries, power plants, and in particular in nuclear power projects. The success of t he entire nuclear power programme depends on having people who have already worked and acquired the necessary experience (and made the mistakes) which qualifies t hem to manage and make decisions for an impor tan t national undertaking.

A great amoun t of published informat ion is readily available on the subjects of university-level technical educat ion, comparison of standards for t he awarding of university degrees, admission standards to universities of various countries, etc. Such informat ion should be reviewed by the manpower development planners (see especially Re f s [100—104]).

3.2.2.3. Technician-level education and training

It is essential tha t , when needed, existing educational and industrial training centres and programmes be modif ied, upgraded or established f r o m the outse t of t h e manpower development programme, t o develop effectively and efficiently the most able craf t apprent ices and other likely candidates into qualified technicians. Close co-operat ion will be necessary between the manpower development planning group and participating training centres and technical schools. As much of t h e practical training as is compat ible with the training centres ' facilities should be carried ou t there. Special training courses with nuclear emphasis and on-the-job training under nuclear clean condit ions will he lp t o eradicate the negative image of manual work which o f t e n contr ibutes to technicians ' recrui tment difficulties, especially in the developing countries (see also Section 3.2.1.2).

The defini t ion of technician personnel (see Section 3.1.2) covers a wide range of activities and levels of employment . At the highest technician level are the nuclear technicians who, because of the quali ty s tandards required, should be awarded certif icates by the nat ional educat ion au thor i ty which clearly recognize this fact . However, t he educat ion and training leading to the award of such a certif icate does not , of itself, make a qualified nuclear technician; practical experience is also an indispensable factor . There are no universally applicable s tandards which have been defined as necessary fo r the academic training of technicians. In industrialized countries t h e standards fo r nuclear technicians have evolved over long (20 to 30 years) periods of nuclear development , and such trained personnel have cont r ibuted significantly to the establishment of the nuclear power programme and industry of those countries.

Three fundamenta l deficiencies may usually be identif ied in the training at the technician and craf tsman levels of a developing count ry :

— The practical training given is inadequate in dep th and obsolete in content . The workshops and laboratories in the technical schools are in general inadequate and of poor quali ty, relative t o the latest state of technology and of training methods .

— The capabilities acquired in the schools are no t immediately applicable in practical situations.

— Compensat ions provided to and /o r s tatus of technicians and craf tsmen are inadequate t o a t t ract and motivate the desired type and quali ty of individuals into the training programmes.

Upgrading technician training will probably be the largest e f for t in a meaningful manpower development programme, so the suppor t and assistance of all participating organizations are needed. Al though the educat ion system (schools, training centres) will have the primary responsibility for formal educat ion, the utilities and the count ry ' s industries should assume a leading role in providing the necessary practical vocational and on-the-job training. This involvement of utilit ies and industries may need to be backed u p by government subsidies, particularly during the initial stage.

As a general rule, the aim of t he educat ion and training of technicians should include:

— A good grasp of t he basic sciences which are the founda t ion of t he special area of technology in which they will be working.

— In-depth theory and practice in their specific technology.

— An overview t h a t describes and defines the interfaces be tween their specific field of technology and o ther technologies with which it interacts.

364 SECTION 3.2.

— The capability t o communicate , which includes oral, writ ten and technical communica t ion (e.g. mechanical drawing, electrical current diagramming, electronic circuit representat ion) .

As the technician progresses to positions of increased supervisory responsibility, supplementary training in repor t writing, technical organization and administrat ion and supervisory techniques etc. should be provided and be manda tory for such advancement . Al though technicians need no t be highly trained in the craf tsmen manual tasks such as welding, machining, draft ing, electrical installation, etc., they should be sufficiently familiar with such procedures, particularly the procedures used in their field, t o be able t o pe r fo rm the normal tasks tha t they will encounter in their work. In some fields such as electronics, technicians have to be able t o pe r fo rm complex tasks that require specialized knowledge.

Technician training usually starts at the secondary level and cont inues in technical inst i tutes and technical colleges at t he post-secondary level. The educational and training infras t ructure assessment should definitely include these facilities as well. The secondary schools should be assessed primarily, however, fo r their courses in physics, chemistry, mathematics , biology, electricity, mechanics, engineering drawing etc., all of which provide the required foundat ions for b o t h professionals and technicians.

3.2.2.4. Craftsman-level education and training

Craf t smen already exist in a country embarking on a nuclear power programme, but t h e problem of securing and /or training enough such workers competen t t o work at the high standards of quality required to pe r fo rm their tasks in the nuclear power programme might be significant.

Training abroad is generally not practical fo r craf tsmen. Therefore , the national training capabilities must be sufficiently developed in scope and size to provide the necessary level of training.

Most of t he craf tsmen needed are for constructing the power plants and fo r equipment and componen t manufac ture ; only a limited number are regularly employed fo r plant operations, where t hey are used most ly as part of t he maintenance staff .

The training of craftsmen-level personnel is usually done initially at vocational schools, which should be specially equipped t o give hands-on-training, or th rough apprenticeship programmes. Electricians, welders, pipe fitters, machinists and mechanics are typical examples of t he skilled workers who, a f te r t he regular course of training at an appropria te vocational school, or an apprenticeship, should be given additional on-the-job training.

Craf t smen in the nuclear field will require more theoretical instruct ion than is normally provided in the vocational schools. The aim of such addit ional training should be t o give increased understanding of : the propert ies of materials

a n d t h e m e t h o d s o f w o r k i n g t h e m t o p r o d u c e h i g h - q u a l i t y p r o d u c t s ; t h e

i m p o r t a n c e o f q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l ; a n d n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g

t e c h n i q u e s . I n s t r u c t i o n s h o u l d a l s o b e g i v e n t o t h e c r a f t s m e n - l e v e l o p e r a t i o n s

p e r s o n n e l i n p r o c e d u r e s f o r w o r k i n g w i t h r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s , t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s

o f r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n a n d s h i e l d i n g , d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s , c l e a n -

c o n d i t i o n p r o c e d ù r e s a n d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f m a t e r i a l s .

3.2.2.5. On-the-job training

Q u a l i f i e d n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r c a n n o t b e p r o v i d e d b y t r a i n i n g o n l y i n

e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u e s ; f o r m o s t s p e c i a l i z e d s k i l l s a n d c o m p e t e n c i e s o n - t h e - j o b

t r a i n i n g i s n e c e s s a r y f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s , t e c h n i c i a n s a n d c r a f t s m e n . T h e b e s t

o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s c a n b e p r o v i d e d b y :

— C o n v e n t i o n a l a n d n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n o r i n

o p e r a t i o n

— N a t i o n a l i n d u s t r y

T h e e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y m u s t a l r e a d y h a v e i n o p e r a t i o n s e v e r a l t h e r m a l o r

h y d r o - e l e c t r i c p l a n t s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e c a p a c i t y b y t h e t i m e a n u c l e a r p o w e r

p r o g r a m m e b e c o m e s f e a s i b l e , s o o n - g o i n g t r a i n i n g i n c l u d i n g o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g

s h o u l d a l r e a d y e x i s t . T h e s e e x i s t i n g t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s c a n s e r v e a s t h e b a s i s

f o r m u c h o f t h e i n - h o u s e t r a i n i n g t o b e d o n e b y t h e u t i l i t y f o r t h e n u c l e a r

p o w e r p l a n t s . M a n y n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t p e r s o n n e l h a v e h a d v a l u a b l e o n - t h e - j o b

t r a i n i n g i n c o n v e n t i o n a l t h e r m a l p o w e r p l a n t s a n d , i n f a c t , t h i s t r a i n i n g m a y b e

c o n s i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l f o r m a n y t a s k s i n a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t .

T h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e i t s e l f c a n p r o v i d e i m p o r t a n t o n - t h e - j o b

t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s a t a l l l e v e l s . T h e s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s s h o u l d b e u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y ,

a s t h e y w i l l b e o f g r e a t a d v a n t a g e t o t h e n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t

p r o g r a m m e . T h e c o m m i s s i o n i n g p h a s e s o f e a c h p o w e r p r o j e c t a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y

v a l u a b l e f o r t h e t r a i n i n g o f o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e p e r s o n n e l .

D u r i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p h a s e i n p a r t i c u l a r , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o i d e n t i f y

a c c u r a t e l y t h e s o u r c e s o f t r a i n i n g f o r v o c a t i o n a l s k i l l s . S i n c e m u c h o f t h e r e q u i r e d

s k i l l s c a n b e o b t a i n e d o n l y t h r o u g h o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g ( w h i c h m a y b e h a r d t o

l o c a t e b e c a u s e o f t h e r e q u i r e d q u a l i t y ) , o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s u c h t r a i n i n g w i l l

h a v e t o b e f o u n d t o f u l f i l t h e p r o g r a m m e ' s m a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s .

O n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t r a d e s ( i . e . s t e e l w o r k e r s ,

c o n c r e t e w o r k e r s , w e l d e r s , p i p e f i t t e r s , e l e c t r i c i a n s , e t c . ) c a n b e h i g h l y u s e f u l

i n p r o v i d i n g q u a l i f i e d c r a f t s m e n .

R e l e v a n t o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g m a y a l s o e x i s t i n m a n y o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l

m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t s a s w e l l a s i n e n g i n e e r i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n f i r m s . I f n o t ,

s u c h i n d u s t r i a l t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d s y s t e m s s h o u l d b e d e v e l o p e d a n d

u s e d t o t h e f u l l e s t e x t e n t .

366 SECTION 3.2.

N u c l e a r r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s c o u l d a n d s h o u l d a l s o p r o v i d e

o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g , e s p e c i a l l y i n f i e l d s i n v o l v i n g t h e h a n d l i n g a n d u s e o f

r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s a n d r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n ( s e e a l s o S e c t i o n 3 . 2 . 2 . 6 ) .

T h o s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h i c h p r o v i d e t r a i n i n g m a y l i m i t i t t o t h e i r o w n

e m p l o y e e s ; i t m a y p r o v e d i f f i c u l t a n d v e r y t i m e - c o n s u m i n g t o l o c a t e t h e m a n d

t o c o n c l u d e a g r e e m e n t s f o r u s i n g t h e i r f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r

d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e . G o v e r n m e n t a l a n d o t h e r i n c e n t i v e s m a y h e l p t o

o v e r c o m e s o m e o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s .

T h e m a j o r i t y o f e n g i n e e r s a n d t e c h n i c i a n s w o r k i n g o n n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o j e c t s

h a v e g a i n e d m o s t o f t h e i r n u c l e a r e x p e r t i s e t h r o u g h o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g a n d

first-hand f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e . T h e p r o b l e m i s , h o w e v e r , t h a t i n s p e c i a l i z e d n u c l e a r

f i e l d s t h e r e a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t a n d i n s o m e a r e a s n o l o c a l o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g

o p p o r t u n i t i e s a t a l l f o r e n g i n e e r s a n d t e c h n i c i a n s i n c o u n t r i e s w h i c h a r e j u s t

s t a r t i n g t h e i r n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s . U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , f o r e i g n

o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s m u s t b e s e c u r e d , m a i n l y t h r o u g h b i l a t e r a l a n d

c o n t r a c t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h e c o n t r a c t s w i t h f o r e i g n s u p p l i e r s o f n u c l e a r

p o w e r p l a n t s a n d e q u i p m e n t s h o u l d i n c l u d e c o n d i t i o n s f o r s u p p l y i n g o n - t h e - j o b

t r a i n i n g , a t l e a s t i n a l l t h o s e e s s e n t i a l a r e a s t h a t c a n n o t b e c o v e r e d b y n a t i o n a l

s o u r c e s ( s e e a l s o S e c t i o n 3 . 2 . 4 ) .

O b t a i n i n g o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s i s a l w a y s d i f f i c u l t , w i t h i n t h e

c o u n t r y a s w e l l a s o v e r s e a s . I t m u s t b e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e

o f a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n w h i c h c a n p r o v i d e s u c h t r a i n i n g i s t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f i t s

p r o d u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s a n d n o t t r a i n i n g . H a v i n g t r a i n e e s i n a p r o d u c t i o n u n i t

d e t r a c t s f r o m p r o d u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s u n t i l t h e t r a i n e e l e a r n s e n o u g h t o b e a b l e

e f f e c t i v e l y t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s . W h i l e h e i s l e a r n i n g , a r e g u l a r

e m p l o y e e m u s t t e a c h h i m . T h u s , t h e t r a i n e e w i l l p r o b a b l y b e m o r e a b u r d e n

t h a n a n a s s e t t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n p r o v i d i n g t h e t r a i n i n g . A s o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g

i s e s s e n t i a l , c l e a r g o v e r n m e n t a l p o l i c y , i n c e n t i v e s a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n m e a s u r e s

o n t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l s w i l l b e r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p s u c h t r a i n i n g

o p p o r t u n i t i e s o n a n a t i o n a l b a s i s .

F o r s u c c e s s f u l o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g m a i n c o n d i t i o n s a p p l y :

— P r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e t r a i n i n g .

— W e l l - d e f i n e d t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e .

— A v a i l a b i l i t y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d t r a i n e r s a b l e a n d w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t

t r a i n e e s a n d p r o v i d e t h e t r a i n i n g .

— P r e c i s e s t i p u l a t i o n o f t h e m u t u a l l y a g r e e d c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e t r a i n i n g

t o b e p r o v i d e d .

— P r o v i s i o n o f a d e q u a t e p r e l i m i n a r y t r a i n i n g t o t h e t r a i n e e s , i n c l u d i n g

l a n g u a g e i f n e c e s s a r y .

— C o n t r o l l e d a n d s u p e r v i s e d t r a i n i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r o g r a m m e o b j e c t i v e s

( t h e p r o g r a m m e m i g h t b e s u b j e c t t o r e v i s i o n a n d a d j u s t m e n t ) .

— C l e a r l y d e f i n e d a n d m e a s u r a b l e g o a l s a n d m i l e s t o n e s b y w h i c h t o j u d g e

t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e t r a i n i n g .

— I m m e d i a t e s u b s e q u e n t p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e t r a i n i n g r e c e i v e d b y

t h e t r a i n e e s .

U n l e s s t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e r e a s o n a b l y s a t i s f i e d , o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g w i l l

g e n e r a l l y b e u n s u c c e s s f u l , r e s u l t i n g i n a l o s s o f t i m e a n d e f f o r t t o a l l c o n c e r n e d .

C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d p r o g r a m m e s

m u s t i n c l u d e a n e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m e e t i n g t h e a b o v e c o n d i t i o n s .

3.2.2.6. Research and development institutes

M a n p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t i n b a s i c a n d s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d s a p p l i c a b l e t o n u c l e a r

p o w e r s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d f u n c t i o n s o f t h e r e s e a r c h

a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s w h i c h a r e p a r t o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l

i n f r a s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o u n t r y ( s e e a l s o S e c t i o n s 1 . 1 0 a n d 2 . 2 . 3 ) . T h e s e i n s t i t u t e s

h a v e u n i q u e e q u i p m e n t a n d f a c i l i t i e s w h i c h s h o u l d b e a s s e s s e d i n o r d e r t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e y c o u l d b e u s e d f o r t r a i n i n g .

N u c l e a r r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t ,

o w i n g t o t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . A r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r , f o r e x a m p l e ,

s h o u l d b e a s s e s s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t r a i n i n g c o u l d b e i n t e g r a t e d

i n t o i t s p r o g r a m m e s .

H i s t o r i c a l l y , a l l c o u n t r i e s w h i c h n o w h a v e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s h a v e

h a d a r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r p r i o r t o u n d e r t a k i n g t h e i r p r o g r a m m e s ; a n d m a n y o f t h e

e x i s t i n g s t a f f w o r k i n g i n t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s h a v e r e c e i v e d v a l u a b l e

t r a i n i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e o n r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r s .

T e m p o r a r y a s s i g n m e n t t o s u c h a r e a c t o r c a n , f o r e x a m p l e , p r o v i d e a n

e f f e c t i v e o p p o r t u n i t y t o t e s t t h e a b i l i t i e s a n d i n t e r e s t s o f p r o s p e c t i v e n u c l e a r

p o w e r p l a n t o p e r a t i o n s p e r s o n n e l b e f o r e i n c u r r i n g e x p e n s i v e c o m m i t m e n t s f o r

a d v a n c e d a c a d e m i c a n d p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g a b r o a d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a d o m e s t i c

r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r a l l o w s e x p a n s i o n o f t r a i n i n g t i m e s a n d s c o p e b e y o n d t h a t

w h i c h w o u l d n o r m a l l y b e a v a i l a b l e o n a f o r e i g n r e a c t o r a n d a l s o f a c i l i t a t e s

e x p a n s i o n o f t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o a w i d e r r a n g e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d

t e c h n i c i a n p e r s o n n e l .

T h e s p e c i f i c n u c l e a r p o w e r p e r s o n n e l w h o c o u l d m o s t b e n e f i t b y b e i n g

t r a i n e d a t a r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r f a c i l i t y a r e t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n : r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n ,

r e g u l a t o r y a c t i v i t i e s , f u e l m a n a g e m e n t , r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n .

B y o p e r a t i n g a n d w o r k i n g w i t h a r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r o r , b e t t e r y e t , b y d e s i g n i n g

a n d c o n s t r u c t i n g o n e , s u c h i n d i v i d u a l s c a n g a i n v a l u a b l e k n o w l e d g e , i n s i g h t ,

e x p e r i e n c e a n d , m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , c o n f i d e n c e t o a s s u m e t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

i n t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

368 SECTION 3.2.

T h e n u c l e a r r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s , h a v i n g a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e

n u m b e r o f h i g h - l e v e l s p e c i a l i s t s i n n u c l e a r s c i e n c e , c o u l d a l s o p r o v i d e , t h r o u g h

c o u r s e s a n d s e m i n a r s , b a s i c n u c l e a r t r a i n i n g t o p r o f e s s i o n a l s a n d t e c h n i c i a n s w i t h

o n l y c o n v e n t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e a n d e x p e r i e n c e . I n t h e p l a n n i n g o f s u c h t r a i n i n g

p r o g r a m m e s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e s h o u l d b e a d o m i n a n t p r a c t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s

n u c l e a r p o w e r a c t i v i t i e s , a n d n o t t o w a r d s s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h .

3 . 2 . 3 . A s s e s s m e n t o f n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s

3.2.3.1. Manpower resources

T h e p u r p o s e o f a n a s s e s s m e n t o f n a t i o n a l m a n p o w e r r e s o u r c e s i s t o i d e n t i f y

t h e n a t i o n a l l a b o u r p o o l w h i c h c a n s u p p l y t h e m a n p o w e r f o r t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r

p r o g r a m m e . T o m e e t t h e n e e d s o f t h i s p r o g r a m m e , o n e c a n s e l e c t a n d s p e c i a l l y

t r a i n m a n p o w e r o n l y f r o m t h e e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l m a n p o w e r p o o l . T h e n a t i o n a l

n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r p o o l c a n n o t a n d s h o u l d n o t b e t h o u g h t c a p a b l e o f e x i s t i n g

s e p a r a t e l y f r o m t h e o v e r a l l n a t i o n a l m a n p o w e r p o o l , o f w h i c h i t i s a s p e c i a l i z e d

s u b - g r o u p .

F o r e a c h c a t e g o r y o f m a n p o w e r ( p r o f e s s i o n a l s , t e c h n i c i a n s , c r a f t s m e n )

a n d e a c h r e l e v a n t o c c u p a t i o n a l s e c t o r , t h e e x i s t i n g s i t u a t i o n s h o u l d b e s u r v e y e d

a n d t h e r e s u l t s e v a l u a t e d , e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r m s o f :

— N u m b e r o f p e r s o n s a c t i v e i n t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s e c t o r

— A v e r a g e q u a l i t y l e v e l a n d a d e q u a c y f o r m e e t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s t o

w o r k i n t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e a c t i v i t i e s

— N u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s o r t r a i n e e s i n t h e c o u n t r y w i t h i n t h e s e c t o r

— Y e a r l y p r o d u c t i o n r a t e o f g r a d u a t e s o r t r a i n e d p e o p l e

— N a t i o n a l d e m a n d f o r m a n p o w e r i n t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s e c t o r

S u c h a s u r v e y a n d e v a l u a t i o n w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p o s s i b l e

p r o b l e m a r e a s , w h e r e n a t i o n a l m a n p o w e r r e s o u r c e s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t o r i n a d e q u a t e

t o m e e t t h e n u c l e a r m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y w h e r e e f f o r t s

s h o u l d b e c o n c e n t r a t e d t o i m p r o v e t h e s i t u a t i o n .

O n e o f t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r m o s t n u c l e a r a c t i v i t i e s i s p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e .

I n a c o u n t r y s t a r t i n g i t s n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e , t h e r e i s n o m a n p o w e r

w i t h p r e v i o u s n u c l e a r p o w e r e x p e r i e n c e , e x c e p t p o s s i b l y f o r a f e w w h o r e t u r n

t o t h e i r h o m e c o u n t r y a f t e r w o r k i n g a b r o a d i n t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y .

E x p e r i e n c e i n c o n v e n t i o n a l p o w e r p l a n t s a n d i n d u s t r y , h o w e v e r , i s a l s o

n e c e s s a r y a n d r e l e v a n t f o r m a n y t a s k s a n d c a n b e p e r f e c t l y a d e q u a t e a s a

b a s i c q u a l i f i c a t i o n . A l s o , t h e r e w i l l l i k e l y b e p e o p l e w h o h a v e w o r k e d i n

n u c l e a r r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s , w h i c h c a n p r o v i d e r e l e v a n t

e x p e r i e n c e i n s o m e s p e c i f i c f i e l d s r e l a t e d t o n u c l e a r p o w e r .

The usual nat ional sources of experienced manpower for t he nuclear power programme activities consist of those people who have worked in:

— Electric utilities — Engineering f i rms — Const ruct ion companies — Manufactur ing industries — Nuclear research and development inst i tutes

There is a t endency to consider nuclear experience as a basic requirement and to select people f r o m nuclear research and development insti tutes o r universities to start t he nuclear power activities. Nuclear power activities, however, are fundamenta l ly application- and industry-oriented, and people with research experience, and what is more impor t an t with research-oriented mentalities, usually f ind it diff icult t o adjust t o a different t ype of requi rement . National armed forces have sometimes been f o u n d to be a manpower resource; this is generally in those countr ies where the armed forces are engaged in the relevant activities which provide good basic knowledge and sufficient experience to prepare t h e m fo r tasks in the nuclear power programme.

In assessing t h e experienced manpower resources care should be t aken no t t o disrupt on-going activities by drawing t o o heavily on experienced s taff . The acceptable a t t r i t ion rates (around 10 to 15% per year) const i tu te the correct measure of these resources.

3.2.3.2. Education and training resources

The national educat ion and training resources const i tute the pr imary basis fo r training manpower for t he nuclear power programme. Consequent ly they have to be assessed, t o be able t o def ine what modificat ions, ad jus tments and addit ions are needed for effective manpower development implementa t ion and what training should be provided f r o m foreign sources.

The coun t ry ' s existing educat ional and training system (schools, technical institutes, universities, etc.) can usually provide much of t he basic technical training required by nuclear power programme personnel. A careful survey and assessment of t he national educat ion and training opportuni t ies are required to ident i fy ful ly t h e possibilities fo r local training; such a survey will undoub ted ly reveal unexpec ted oppor tuni t ies as well as h idden deficiencies. National training is much less costly than equivalent training abroad, and bo th the savings in foreign exchange as well as t he overall improvement of the national educational and training inf ras t ruc ture are strong incentives t o develop national training oppor tuni t ies whenever feasible.

Nuclear manpower development cannot be altogether provided by existing educational , training and research institutes, as some skills and competence are

370 SECTION 3.2.

TABLE 3 . 2 - 2 . ASSESSMENT O F EDUCATION AND TRAINING RESOURCES

I. Superior-level training (professionals)

(1) Are university curricula only science-oriented or do they provide also an engineering educat ion which meets industrial requirements?

(2) Are there adequa te links between universities and indus t ry by which university curricula are adapted to industrial requirements?

(3) Are theoret ical training and practical work (e.g. at laboratories and o ther experi-menta l facilities) appropria te ly combined in order to prepare s tudents to apply scientific m e t h o d s to the solution of technological and engineering problems?

(4) Are there interdisciplinary links between the subjects of a curriculum or does each professor see only 'his discipline'?

(5 ) Are the teaching m e t h o d s appropr ia te t o allow s tudents to part icipate actively and practically in the process of learning so as to enable t h e m to work methodical ly and to pe r fo rm effect ively and on their own initiative?

(6) Are the professors qualified enough and are adequate equ ipmen t and facilities available (l ibrary, compute r , laboratories, etc.)?

(7 ) H o w do f inal examinat ions and graduat ion qualif icat ions compare with corresponding university degrees in industrialized countries, e.g. B.S., M.S., Ph .D?

(8) Do universities provide training in nuclear, mechanical , electrical, electronic, metallurgical, chemical, civil and mining engineering, in physics and in chemistry?

(9 ) Is a t t en t ion devoted to special non-nuclear disciplines impor t an t for nuclear activities such as hea t t ransfer , fluid mechanics, materials technology, destructive and non-destruct ive testing, welding techniques, quali ty assurance, power stat ions c o m p o n e n t design, ins t rumenta t ion and control , corrosion and water chemistry, and some nuclear disciplines, e.g. reactor physics, nuclear engineering, radioprotec t ion?

(10) What are the j o b s pe r fo rmed by previous s tudents , in the count ry or abroad?

(11) What is the r epu ta t ion of the school compared with the o thers in the count ry?

(12) Does this universi ty carry on retraining for its previous s tudents?

II. Medium-level training (technicians)

( 1 ) What technical schools o r any regular courses are available to train technicians?

(2) Are skilled c ra f t s qual i f icat ion and practical experience a prerequisi te or does technician training fo l low directly general educat ion (pr imary or secondary level)?

(3) Are there adequa te links be tween technical schools and industry?

(4) Are the curricula, t he s tandards of theoret ical knowledge, practical skills acquired and prof ic iency tests in accordance with industr ial requirements?

(5) Is theore t ica l and practical training balanced; is there practical training 'by doing ' (with small groups of trainees headed by one instructor , in workshops, machine shops, laboratories , e tc . ) for at least abou t 1/3 of to ta l training t ime, or is it ra ther restr icted t o demons t ra t ions by the ins t ructor? Are theoret ical courses fol lowed by practical work demonst ra t ing theoret ical concepts?

(6) Are t he technical schools s ta f fed wi th adequate ly trained teaching staff and are equ ipment and o ther facilities ( laboratories, machine shops, e tc . ) up-to-date and appropr ia te for training?

(7) Is training provided for mechanical , electrical, electronic; civil, p roduc t ion and chemical technicians, for c ra f t smen and laboratory assistants, and opera t ions technicians? Is a t t en t ion devoted to special disciplines impor t an t fo r nuclear activities such as welding, materials testing, qual i ty control , ins t rumenta t ion and control , heal th physics, equ ipmen t and systems?

(8) Is there fol low-up of previous s tudents?

III. Lower-level vocational training (craftsmen)

Training in a given skill can be provided e i ther in vocat ional schools, t rade schools and o t h e r training centres o r at a workplace in industr ial o r t rade companies , e.g. unde r a fo rmal apprent iceship. Whether school or in-plant training is bet ter , depends mainly on the na tu re of tha t skill and o n t he training facilities available at schools and workplaces.

Vocat ional schools, t rade schools, t raining centres

(1) Are curricula in accordance wi th industr ial requi rements with respect t o theoret ical knowledge and practical skills or are t hey too theoret ical and too general?

(2 ) Is there adequate training 'by doing ' and n o t only by demons t ra t ion?

(3) Are t he teachers adequate ly qualif ied and is the equ ipmen t up- to-date and appropr ia te fo r ins t ruct ion?

(4) Are there adequate links with indus t ry?

(5 ) Are suff ic ient training facilities available for meta l working, pipe f i t t ing, qual if ied welding, electrical installation, ins t rumenta t ion , electronics?

Training a t the workplace

( 1 ) Is this training given unde r a f o r m a l apprent iceship?

(2 ) Does it provide skill training in adequa te dep th or is it t o o narrow in scope and t o o specialized so tha t only ' t r icks of the t rade ' o r a special t y p e of industr ial p roduc t ion is learned?

(3) Are t he ins t ructors adequate ly t rained pedagogically and is teaching material adequa te?

(4) Is related theoret ical ins t ruct ion given, which is n o t only impor t an t fo r the qualifica-t ion immedia te ly required but also as a prepara t ion fo r f u r t h e r training and retraining required by technological changes?

372 SECTION 3.2.

t o o specialized. Indust ry , together with power plants under construct ion or in operat ion, can also provide training and experience to qual ify manpower for tasks in nuclear power projects. This will usually involve the need for upgrading industrial quali ty s tandards t o meet the higher requi rements of the nuclear power programme. Government laboratories and a tomic energy commission facilities could also provide some of the required technical training, while large companies are a source of training in the more conventional technical areas.

The assessment of t h e nat ional educat ion and training resources starts with an inventory o r survey of all relevant educational , science/technology and industrial training facilities. Much of t he informat ion on the curricula of universities and colleges can be obtained f r o m their catalogues or bulletins, which most of these inst i tut ions publish. These documents usually list the various courses, seminars, laboratories, diploma or degree requirements, requirements fo r admission as a s tudent , as well as prerequisites for each course. A collection of the current catalogues and bulletins of the colleges and universities should be a part of t he initial survey. F r o m them a substantial f rac t ion of the desired in format ion abou t colleges and universities can be extracted.

A thorough, in-depth verification of in format ion on the quali ty, descriptions and scope of the programme, facilities and courses, and of the level and abilities of the students, instructors, trainers and administrators should be independent ly per formed by those responsible for planning nuclear manpower development, since an accurate unders tanding of existing condit ions is essential.

In performing the assessment, Table 3 . 2 - 2 could be a useful tool .

3.2.4. Assessment of foreign training

As a general rule, educat ion and training should be done within the h o m e count ry to the ex ten t possible. However, particularly in the early stages of a nuclear power programme, training abroad will be required, mainly fo r professionals and also for some technicians.

3.2.4.1. Foreign training sources

One of t he available publicat ions listing foreign training opportuni t ies is t he IAEA's ' In terna t ional Inventory of Training Facilities in Nuclear Power and its Fuel C y c l e ' ( R e f . [2]).

The listing has been arranged according to t h e fol lowing principal subject areas:

— Nuclear Power Plant Engineering — Nuclear Safe ty — Quali ty Assurance — Nuclear Power Plant Operat ions and Maintenance

— N u c l e a r P l a n t I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d C o n t r o l

— N u c l e a r F u e l M a n a g e m e n t

— N u c l e a r M a t e r i a l s C o n t r o l

T r a i n i n g i n e a c h s u b j e c t a r e a h a s b e e n f u r t h e r c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o

t h e s o u r c e s :

— A c a d e m i c I n s t i t u t i o n s

— G o v e r n m e n t I n s t i t u t i o n s

— C o n s u l t a n t s o r C o n t r a c t o r s

— R e a c t o r V e n d o r s o r M a n u f a c t u r e r s

— O t h e r I n s t i t u t i o n s

T h e r e i s a w i d e v a r i e t y o f t r a i n i n g a v a i l a b l e a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l i n m a n y

c o u n t r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h o s e w h i c h h a v e o n - g o i n g n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s .

T h e r e a r e d e g r e e a n d n o n - d e g r e e c o u r s e s a t t h e g r a d u a t e o r u n d e r g r a d u a t e

l e v e l s f o r a l m o s t a n y s p e c i f i c s u b j e c t . T h e r e i s a l s o g r e a t d i v e r s i t y a m o n g

u n i v e r s i t y s y s t e m s a n d u n i v e r s i t y - l e v e l t e c h n i c a l i n s t i t u t e s . W h e n a s s e s s i n g

p o s s i b l e f o r e i g n a c a d e m i c t r a i n i n g s o u r c e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s s h o u l d b e

t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t :

— C u r r i c u l a

— A c a d e m i c s t a n d a r d s

— L a n g u a g e

— O r i e n t a t i o n ( r e s e a r c h o r i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s )

— E q u i p m e n t a n d t e a c h i n g f a c i l i t i e s

— O p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p r a c t i c a l w o r k

— C o s t s

M o s t c o u n t r i e s w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e s h a v e w e l l -

d e v e l o p e d s p e c i a l i z e d g o v e r n m e n t a l r e s e a r c h a n d / o r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h e

t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n t h e s e c e n t r e s a r e u s u a l l y a v a i l a b l e t o a l i m i t e d n u m b e r

o f f o r e i g n t r a i n e e s t h r o u g h b i l a t e r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h e s e c e n t r e s n o r m a l l y

c o n d u c t r e g u l a r c o u r s e s o n t h e v a r i o u s s u b j e c t s r e l a t e d t o n u c l e a r s c i e n c e a n d

t e c h n o l o g y a n d s o m e m a y e v e n a r r a n g e s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g t o m e e t p a r t i c u l a r n e e d s .

A l a r g e n u m b e r o f i n d u s t r i a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d a n d

a r e m a r k e t e d b y c o m m e r c i a l t r a i n i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s , c o n s u l t a n t s , a r c h i t e c t -

e n g i n e e r i n g f i r m s , e t c . S p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g f o r p r a c t i c a l l y a n y l e v e l ( m a n a g e r s

t o c r a f t s m e n ) a n d a n y s u b j e c t c a n g e n e r a l l y b e p u r c h a s e d .

A s p a r t o f t h e c o n t r a c t t o s u p p l y t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t , o r t h e n u c l e a r

s t e a m s u p p l y s y s t e m , t h e t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r e t c . , t h e s u p p l i e r s ) w i l l n o r m a l l y

p r o v i d e a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f t r a i n i n g f o r t h e p e r s o n n e l w h o w i l l b e r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e p l a n t o r e q u i p m e n t . T h i s t r a i n i n g i s

v e r y v a l u a b l e . I t i s u s u a l l y d o n e b y t h e s u p p l i e r ( s ) a t a t r a i n i n g s i t e n e a r t h e

T A B L E 3 . 2 - 3 . I A E A N U C L E A R P O W E R T R A I N I N G C O U R S E S

(As of January 1980)

Type Course 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 a

Overview Nuclear power project planning and implementation K" a K K S A K - -

Overview Nuclear power project construction and operations management - A a K K S A K -

Overview Nuclear power project planning, development and construction - - - M - -

Overview Role of nuclear energy within a national energy plan - - - S S S

Specialized Electric system expansion planning - - - A A A

Specialized Safety analysis review - - - A K K

Specialized Quality assurance - - - A M K

Specialized Nuclear manpower development - - - K - -

Specialized Siting for nuclear power plants - - - - A -

Specialized Safety and reliability in operations - - - - A -

Specialized Environmental impact - - - - - A

Specialized Regulation - - - - - A

Specialized Inspection - - - - - A

Specialized Fuel cycle — - - - - S

Uranium Uranium geochemical prospecting methods Au Yu - — -

Uranium Exploration and evaluation of uranium ore deposits - - Go - Bo

Safeguards State systems of accounting for and control of nuclear materials - V: Vi Ya Ri Lo

Protection Physical protection of nuclear facilities and materials - - - Al Al Al

Regulatory Methods and technical bases of nuclear energy regulation Be - - - - -

Safety Occupational and environmental safety in the utilization of radioactive material Bo Bo _

Physics Application of nuclear theory to nuclear data calculations for reactor design - - - - - Tr

I w so o w < w r o "9 S w Z H

Notes: a Planned courses. b Courses offered at: A - Argonne National Laboratory (USA)

K - Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe (FRG) S — Institut National des Sciences et Techniques Nucléaires, Saclay (France) M — Junta de Energia Nuclear Madrid (Spain)

Au — Austria Yu — Yugoslavia Go - Golden, Colorado, USA Bo — Bolivia Vi — Vienna, Austria Ya - Yalta, USSR Ri - Richland, Washington, USA

Lo — Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA Al — Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA Be - Bethesda, Maryland, USA Bo — Boston, Massachusetts, USA Se — Seoul, Korea Tr - Trieste, Italy OJ

376 SECTION 3.2.

manufactur ing facilities, as well as at the power plant itself during construct ion and commissioning. Such training is practical and it is related t o the specific equipment which the trainers, namely the supplier 's personnel, k n o w best.

Training of t h e opera t ion and maintenance staff of a nuclear power plant by the supplier may involve the use of a highly sophisticated simulator to provide realistic operating experience tha t would not be available f r o m any o ther source (see Section 3.4.7.4). The supplier may also be able to arrange for on-the-job opera tor training at the reference plant .

In general, foreign training opportuni t ies are abundant and readily available f r o m many sources in practically any relevant subject as far as academic courses in educat ional or training inst i tutes are concerned. For on-the-job training, however, the possibilities are much more restricted.

IAEA manpower development activities

The IAEA is one of t he foreign training sources; it of fers training courses in a n u m b e r of the impor tan t activities of nuclear power programme and also a general fellowship programme. The IAEA nuclear power project training courses were init iated in 1975, and the IAEA n o w organizes annually about eight interregional courses. In addit ion to these, o ther training courses are regularly o f fe red in areas relevant t o nuclear power and its fuel cycle (see Table 3 . 2 - 3 ) .

The nuclear power projec t training courses are planned and organized on an annual programme basis, ànd courses have so far been given at fou r hos t inst i tut ions in France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Spain and t h e United States of America.

T h e IAEA Fellowship Programme provides training oppor tuni t ies each year for more than a hundred fellows in fields related to nuclear power. Much of this is on-the-job training at government agencies, industrial and engineering firms, and electric utilities.

In addi t ion t o the training courses and fellowships programmes, t h e IAEA also arranges scientific visits, provides experts and co-ordinates and administers Uni ted Nat ions Development Programme (UNDP) programmes fo r manpower development .

3.2.4.2. Procedures and conditions for obtaining and implementing foreign training

F o r nuclear power programmes, foreign training is generally arranged through multilateral or bilateral co-operat ion agreements:

— Multilateral co-operat ion can be arranged through international organizations such as the IAEA.

MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTATION 377

— Bilateral co-operat ion involves arrangements between the countr ies concerned and usually proceeds through the three phases out l ined below:

Phase 1. General intergovernmental agreements are concluded between countries fo r co-operation in scientific research and technological development . Such co-operation enables the part icipants of b o t h countries to acquire the existing scientific and technological knowledge in the o ther count ry (wi th the except ion of certain sensitive technologies or proprietary in format ion) and to become familiar with the management practices used in the o the r count ry .

Phase 2. Within the general f r amework of t he intergovernmental agree-ments, special agreements are concluded between the government-owned or government-f inanced nuclear research centres, a tomic energy commis-sions, universities, nuclear regulatory bodies, etc., fo r co-operat ion in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Usually the principal purposes of such agreements are the implementa t ion of training and of application-oriented research and development projects t o p romote and strengthen t h e scientific and technical infras t ructure in the less-developed countries.

Phase 3. Commercial arrangements as expressed in the fo rm of :

• Supply contracts fo r nuclear power plants or facilities, materials, components , systems, services and training.

• Industrial arrangements including technology transfer th rough licensing agreements and joint ventures. Industrial co-operation would involve construct ion of nuclear power plants or facilities, including training of personnel during the design, const ruct ion and commissioning phases.

• Utilities agreements fo r co-operat ion in planning, operations, manage-ment and maintenance of nuclear power plants.

• Special technology t ransfer and training agreements associated with supply contracts t o increase nat ional part icipation.

To date, mos t of the nuclear manpower development using foreign training has been achieved through bilateral co-operation, especially through t h e above-ment ioned phase 3 arrangements.

Substantial nuclear power training, however, has also been achieved through multilateral arrangements, especially for countr ies at the initial stages of their nuclear power programmes. Some Member States have trained hundreds of their personnel th rough the IAEA technical assistance programme, or th rough UNDP projects co-ordinated and administered by the IAEA. There are also o ther internat ional organizations providing training but , concerning nuclear power, their role is minor.

378 SECTION 3.2.

For training to be provided through or by the IAEA, the procedure t o be fol lowed by a Member State is t o make an official request . As a general requirement for fellowships, applications must describe in some detail the training sought and, whenever possible, should indicate proposed host inst i tut ions for the training. Satisfactory evidence must be provided that the trainee is qualified f o r and will use the training desired and that he has an adequate working knowledge of t he language of the count ry in which the training will be provided. On-the-job training requests must be very specific and precise in the fo rmula t ion of the training requirements , condit ions, objectives and programmes. For IAEA training courses, the candidates must be technically qualified, have a working knowledge of the course language, and the training should be relevant t o their particular jobs, h o m e count ry and organizations. Major training programmes, such as a UNDP project , require a national priori ty rating and a detailed just if icat ion. The IAEA can also be requested by a Member State t o provide expert assistance for manpower development planning.

Conditions and limitations

Foreign training should be carefully planned and implemented, involving as it does the temporary absence of personnel and possibly significant expendi tures of foreign currency. But even if such training is obtained at low cost or through foreign assistance programmes, all foreign training has intrinsic problems, condit ions and limitations which must be taken in to account , in addi t ion to those applicable t o training within the count ry itself. These are:

Language requirements. Trainees should be fluent in the language used for t he training. Frequent ly , this language will no t be the mother tongue or even the second language of the trainee. It can be assumed that the degree to which knowledge is t ransferred is directly propor t ional to the recipient 's knowledge and ability in the language of training, all o ther factors being equal. In general, all technical personnel involved in the nuclear power programme and in particular those for whom advanced specialized training is considered should have a reasonable working knowledge of at least one of t he major languages used in the nuclear power industry. Once a particular foreign count ry has been chosen as a source of supply, knowledge of t he language spoken in tha t country becomes especially impor tan t .

Cultural difficulties. The culture of t he country where the training is to be provided may be significantly d i f ferent f r o m tha t of t h e trainee's h o m e country . A long-term training assignment to a markedly different cultural setting, particularly if t he training site is located in a rural or semi-rural area, can be qui te t raumat ic fo r the trainee and, consequent ly , counter-product ive t o effective manpower development and transfer of technology.

I t is thus advisable for trainees to receive some background on the culture of the count ry in which they are to be trained. There is also the reverse problem, namely, if the trainee becomes t o o culturally adapted t o the trainer 's count ry , he may be more likely t o remain there if there is an oppor tun i ty .

Personal ambitions. Those selected for foreign training are generally persons possessing higher-than-average ambi t ion , drive and ability. Consequent ly , if their training has been successfully completed , they will become a higher marketable resource for nuclear power programmes in many countries and in particular in the count ry where the training has been per formed. Selection of personnel fo r foreign training and their re ten t ion requires a constant awareness of this fac tor and of the implications t o the programme resulting f r o m the loss of such personnel, particularly if the person is t o be trained at a high cost fo r an essential activity.

Length of assignment. Short training assignments of married personnel wi thout their families or longer training assignments of unmarried personnel usually do no t cause difficulties, bu t very long training assignments, particulary for married personnel who are separated f r o m their families, can be qui te intolerable. Serious considerat ion must therefore be given to the personali ty, strength of family ties, cultural commi tmen t etc., if max imum benefi t is t o be derived by the individual. Generally speaking, an unhappy or maladjusted trainee will be a very poor foreign training investment. The o p t i m u m t ime for foreign training and subsequent reintegrat ion in to activities of t he national nuclear power programme seems to be one to two years, this being the period which gives suff icient training t ime while posing fewest problems for maintaining contacts wi th the h o m e country .

Restrictions on information. Owing to non-prol iferat ion concerns, in format ion and foreign training related to sensitive technologies are not available. The host (trainer) count ry and organization may also be concerned about the uncont ro l led dissemination of in format ion which it considers t o be of a propr ie tary nature . Thus, it is o f t en required that training (in particular on-the-job training) be pe r fo rmed within rigidly planned programmes and under precisely defined agreements between the parties involved.

Cost of training. Foreign training may involve relatively high costs compared with training in the h o m e count ry , and it always involves expendi tures in foreign currency, except in the case of full fellowships. On-the-job training in general, as well as the training of power plant operat ions personnel, is especially expensive.

380 SECTION 3.2.

3.2.5. Scheduling of the manpower development programme

Scheduling the manpower development p rogramme can be per formed only af te r defining the:

— National nuclear power programme

— Schedule of nuclear power project and programme activities

— Schedule and scope of the nat ional part ic ipat ion programme

— Manpower requi rements for these projects and programmes

— Educa t ion and training needed to provide the qualif icat ions necessary to fill these manpower requirements

In adjust ing the manpower development schedule t o the schedule of t he nuclear power programme, the appropria te lead-time needed to produce t h e qualified manpower fo r each task and activity must be defined. Regarding these lead-times, there are fundamenta l ly three kinds t o be considered:

(a) The t ime required for formal or basic educat ion and training in a university, technical or craf ts school for a certain kind and level of manpower ( for example, mechanical engineer, electronic technician, welder), in the nat ional educat ion and training system.

(b) The t ime required fo r additional specialized training (academic, on-the-job or usually bo th ) t o qualify a person to pe r fo rm the task ( for example power plant operator , radiation protec t ion technician, etc.) in t he nuclear power programme for which he is being trained.

(c) The t ime required to develop or adjust the educat ion and training systems (courses, laboratories, workshops, insti tutes or organizations), which will provide the required educat ion and training.

Typical lead-times for basic educat ion are presented in Section 3.3. Educa-t ional systems, s tandards and nomencla ture vary in d i f ferent countries, bu t the overall t ime required to obtain comparable basic degrees and qualifications is similar.

In general, the basic educat ion of professionals requires about 12 years of pr imary and secondary school, fol lowed by about four t o five years at a university, f o r t he first (B.S.) degree. An additional t w o years are required for an M.S. degree or equivalent and usually three or more years for a Ph.D. F o r technicians, about eight t o nine years of pr imary educat ion is followed by five t o seven years of training in vocational schools and in industry. Craf tsmen usually receive about eight t o nine years of pr imary educat ion and two to three years of vocational training plus on-the-job training. In most countries schooling starts at six years of age.

F o r specialized training, lead-times vary f r o m a few mon ths to several years according t o the level and the task for which the trainee is t o be qualified. This subject is t rea ted in more detail in Sections 3.3 and 3.4.

There is no generalization possible for defining lead-times for the develop-ment or ad jus tments of the educat ion and training systems or institutes. These have to be analysed on a case-by-case basis, and might require several years t o be implemented .

Experience is usually included as a qualification fo r posts involving higher responsibility ( three t o five years and sometimes as much as 10 to 15 years of relevant experience may be required fo r certain funct ions) . Experience, however, is n o t acquired through training bu t through actual employment , i.e. per forming a j o b with full responsibility. On-the-job training can, up to a certain point , subst i tute f o r experience, bu t it cannot replace it completely. On-the-job training is regarded mainly as a complement t o academic training and should always be considered wi th in the training lead-times. The t ime needed for acquisition of experience may be included in the manpower development schedule for some specific cases bu t , as a rule, it should n o t be added t o the various lead-times which have been considered f o r training.

Scheduling of the manpower development programme should be done by grouping together people by levels, disciplines and func t ions wherever feasible. For higher-level specializations and responsibilities, individual training programmes and schedules might be required. Major project-oriented activities such as projec t engineering, plant construct ion, commissioning, opera t ion and maintenance will require specific manpower development schedules, which should be combined with the schedules fo r the programme-oriented support ing activities t o fo rm the overall manpower development schedule. A scheduling example for an activity (commissioning) is given in Fig.3.2—1. This example corresponds t o the experience in France and indicates specialized training and arrival on-site for the commis-sioning staff of E D F .

The manpower development schedule is essential t o indicate when training should begin fo r each task and func t ion in the nuclear power project and programme, what training is required and the number of persons which should be trained. Expec ted at t r i t ion of personnel bo th during and af te r training should be carefully fac tored in.

Project activities will usually start about 10 to 11 years before a nuclear power plant is p u t in to operat ion. Pre-project activities will precede these by about three years (see Schedule of Fig.l .1—1). The training of those involved in project activities should normally begin during the pre-project phase, bu t training the personnel who will pe r fo rm pre-project activities will have to start earlier, wi th lead-times of u p to several years. This means that manpower development fo r a first nuclear power project should be started 15 to 20 years before the project is expected to be completed.

Years before connection to grid

11 < LU

->- X to

u- ? < < < U J X t/5 X Q_ UJ >-o I - Z :

Si [—y C/3

FUNCTIONS

Superintendent, deputy

• Production superintendent Operation supervisor and assistant Shift supervisor and assistant Control room operator and assistant Field technician and operator

Technical sections supervisor and assistant Engineer, assistant and foreman (chemistry, testing and reactor physics sections) Technician

Engineer Assistant, foreman Technician

Engineer Foreman

< ^Maintenance superintendent, mechanical supervisor Maintenance and design engineer, maintenance designer Drafting office head, draftsman Mechanical and planning engineer and assistant Mechanical and pipe fitting assistant and foreman Mechanical and pipe fitting technician Skilled worker Planning foreman Planning technician and store foreman and technician Miscellaneous foreman and technician

i fih •llllll-

Electrical supervisor and assistant Electrical relays computer, measurement - control engineer and assistant Electrical relays computer, measurement - control foreman Electrical relays computer, measurement - control technician Electrical relays computer, measurement - control skilled worker v Engineer in charge of liaison with EDF engineering project office Commissioning engineers

Basic nuclear courses

• I I On-site

Le Pugey PWR Centre — I Grenoble Nuclear Institute

^ Arrival on-site

FIG.3.2-1. Schedule for specialized training and arrival on-site for the commissioning staff of EDF nuclear power plants. (Example: France.)

t l l l l l l -

•llllllll-« II

4II—

J L 4 m m -

^ S h i f t w o r k

U) 00 to

co M n H N4 O z w k>

3.2.6. Defining of the implementation procedures

Planning the manpower development programme includes defining the implementa t ion procedures. This means:

— Proposing the s t ructure of an organization (see Section 3.1.3) to co-ordinate and moni to r the implementa t ion of the manpower development programme. This would include: developing a system for distr ibution of responsibilities; defining the lines of au thor i ty within the organizational s t ructure; defining its place within the nat ional organization for the nuclear power programme; and defining the staffing requirements .

This organization could be the same as tha t which plans the manpower development programme.

— Preparing the budget fo r the manpower development programme and providing the means to assure the availability of funds.

— Developing a legal and administrative f ramework intended to ensure the effective co-operat ion of all par tners involved in the manpower development e f fo r t .

3.3. MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTATION

A well-planned and implemented manpower development programme not only benefi ts the count ry by producing the necessary skills and capabilities to pe r fo rm the tasks required for the nuclear power programme, bu t also has the ef fec t of raising the general level of the educational , scientific/technological and industrial infrastructures, which provide the basis for the implementa t ion of the nuclear manpower development programme. In general, basic training can be provided by the existing educat ional and training facilities, probably with some modif icat ions t o the existing curricula and standards.

Examples of overall educat ion and training systems which are used for developing technical manpower are shown in Figs 3 . 3 - 1 to 3 . 3 - 6 for Brazil, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, India, Spain and the United States of America, respectively. (See also the Appendix to Chapter 2.) A comparison of educat ion and training systems is presented in Fig.3.3—7.

There are several ways t o develop the qualified manpower required for the nuclear power programme, starting f rom the existing level of the educat ion and training infras t ructure (see Fig.3.3—8).

If the existing level is fundamenta l ly adequate , only specialized training in nuclear power technology has to be developed and added whenever required. Should the level of the existing basic educational and training infras t ructure be inadequate , it must be upgraded before the specialized training stage. An alter-native way would be t o set u p a nuclear training centre which would provide b o t h upgraded basic training and specialized training. Finally, 'crash' pro-grammes could serve to provide the necessary addi t ional training, b u t such programmes should no t and cannot const i tute a standard and permanent man-power development me thod .

The procedure of upgrading the existing educat ional and training system is the mos t reliable and is likely to yield the max imum benefi t t o the coun t ry . If it is n o t feasible to in t roduce the needed improvements within a reasonable t ime, then the development of a nuclear training centre should be considered as the preferable solution, even fo r upgraded basic training. Such centres const i tute , in general, very good solutions for supplying specialized training needs, if they aie oriented to practical engineering applications ra ther than to R & D, and should thus have good working relationships with the uti l i ty and industry.

3.3.1. Training of professionals

Since suff icient experienced personnel fo r nuclear power programmes is n o t generally available, especially in the developing countries, a significant number of f resh university graduates must be recruited and undergo additional training. The quali ty of the universities is thus decisive fo r the feasibility of a manpower development programme and determines the scope and nature of the addit ional training and specialized programmes required.

M A N P O W E R D E V E L O P M E N T IMPLEMENTATION 385

CRAFTSMAN

INDUSTRY

VOCATIONAL SCHOOL

UNI-VERSITY

SECOND-ARY SCHOOL

TECHNICIAN

INDUSTRY

TECHNICAL SCHOOL

PRIMARY SCHOOL

NUCLEAR TECHNICIAN TRAINING PROGRAMME

TECHNICIAN

CRAFTSMAN

• PRACTICAL

THEORY (LECTURES, DEMONSTRATION)

FIG.3.3—1. Technical education and training system in Brazil.

386 SECTION 3.2.

FIG.3.3-2. Technical education and training system in France.

COMMENT AR Y TO F JG. 3.3-2

I. CRAFTSMEN

(A) Very specialized steel workers in one specialist field: • Power station electrician • Power station mechanic • Network electrician • Electromechanics • Fitting • Welding • etc.

(B) Craftsmen able to apply a wide range of skills in one of the fields mentioned below: • Electricity • Mechanics • Electronics • etc.

TECHNICIANS

(C) Technicians with good basic knowledge able to apply a wide range of skills in one of the fields mentioned below: • Electricity • Mechanics • Electronics • Chemistry • etc.

(D) Technicians able to work as assistant engineers in specialist fields such as: • Electric energy operation • Electric energy transmission and distributions • Electric instrumentation • Chemistry • Industrial drawings • etc.

(E) Technicians with good general and technological knowledge in a wide range of skills in one of the fields mentioned below, and able to supervise work of others: • Electricity • Mechanics • Chemistry • Thermal installations • Physical measurements • etc.

III. PROFESSIONAL

(F) Bachelor of Science

• Physical sciences

(G) (H) Master of Science • Molecular chemistry • Electricity; electronics; instrumentation and control • Physical sciences • etc.

(I) Engineer • Electricity • Telecommunications • Elec tronics • Chemistry • etc.

(J) (K) (L) Doctorates • Electricity • Mechanics • Physics

- nuclear — gases, liquids, solids

• Chemistry • etc.

388 S E C T I O N 3.2.

•I^TECHNICIANS-jí-CRAFTSMEf+l

* Parallel to work in industry attending foremen courses during 3 years, 12 h/week.

Work in industry

Industrial training

Apprenticeship in industry

HECHNICIANS^CRAFTSMENH

FIG.3.3-3. Technical education and training system in the Federal Republic of Germany.

Professional manpower for t he nuclear power programme requires mainly good engineering preparat ion; therefore it is necessary for tlje manpower develop-men t p rogramme to concentra te on reinforcing and perhaps upgrading the conventional engineering educat ion. This is one of the most critical reasons for improving the overall quali ty of t he universities. Courses and training in nuclear subjects could be in t roduced in to the university curricula for the scientific and theoret ical aspects of nuclear training, bu t nuclear power technology and engineering is usually part of the specialized training t o be provided to post-graduates.

It may sometimes n o t be feasible to in t roduce courses in nuclear engineering and o ther nuclear subjects in to the universities. An alternative approach would then be t o set up a nuclear training centre (see Section 3.3.3). Such a training centre should have the necessary flexibility and interdisciplinary approach required of training in nuclear power technology.

3.3.1.1. Nuclear education at universities

Experience has shown tha t , while educat ion in areas required by the nuclear power programme is needed in the universities, it is n o t easily initiated and assimilated. There appear to be several reasons for this:

(a) The subject mat te r cuts across the boundaries of existing disciplines. Nuclear engineering as required by the nuclear power programme involves detailed knowledge of a wide range of equally impor tan t disciplines such as physics, chemistry and metallurgy. As a result , the subjects of nuclear science and engineering are o f t en split u p among di f ferent faculties and depar tments in universities. However, a more unif ied approach would be necessary. F o r instance, inadequate in format ion on fue l cladding design is obta ined unless the physics of radiat ion damage, chemical compatibi l i ty of coolants and the propert ies of metals are each unders tood .

Moving away f r o m the tradit ional disciplinary approach to a more project-oriented educat ional programme would appear more effective, a l though over-specialization should be avoided.

(b) The development of a nuclear power programme in a count ry tends t o emphasize d i f ferent disciplines at d i f ferent times. For example, t he early development of reactor designs may require primarily the services of highly trained R & D-oriented personnel. When reactors are operating, however, chemistry and chemical engineering of coolant circuits and fue l t r ea tment are ma jo r areas in which skills and knowledge are necessary. Environmental protec t ion is now a major concern, and its emphasis is on the biological and medical areas. The t ime scales of these changes can be one or t w o decades, which is a shor ter period than the working life of university professors.

390 SECTION 3.2.

< azO uiz X O O Ü 1 — UJ. X« '

PROFESSIONALS

ENGINEERS SCIENTISTS

M.S. PHYSICS MATHE-MATICS CHEMISTRY

B.S. PHYSICS MATHE-MATICS CHEMISTRY

ENGINEERS DEGREE MECHANI-CAL

« ELECTRI-E C A L > CHEMICAL-z ELEC-

TRONICS INSTRU-MENTATION

'TECHNICIANS' • CRAFTSMEN-

cnpcMcw rto INSTRUC- I FORE-T M r H P R Ç I T 0 R I MAN I TBi rwiuV- . ITRAIN- I TRAIN-TRAINING , INGJ^ j ^ N G j

ADVANCED I SKILLS i TRAINING*

DIPLOMA • MECHANI-•CAL

X ELECTRICAL ¡¿CHEMISTRY !-ELEC-T R O N I C S O INSTRU-

MENTATION

¿ MACHINIST Sjw RADIO & TV

ELECTRICIANS 2 DIESEL MECHANICS

5 < K AUTOMOBILE o 5 1 - AI RCONDITI ONI NG

- i WELDER Î3<o TURNER

í l g FITTER î z p CARPENTER o: « 3 Wl REMAN p S h -

Limited facilities

-PROFESSIONALS •L'TECHNICIANS»)«- -CRAFTSMEN-

FIG.3.3—4. Technical education and training system in India.

(c) Many di f ferent specialized disciplines are required in the nuclear industry and the number of people in some of them is relatively low. Fur ther , the demand for qualified personnel in these disciplines would undergo f luctuat ions if there were changes in government policy on nuclear power.

However, while the regular training of a few students , whose numbers may fluctuate yearly, may present certain problems, the fact that education in nuclear power technology is interdisciplinary means that their fluctuations in specific courses would be small relative to the total number of s tudents in other disciplines who are taking these same courses.

(d) Teaching personnel, for the most part , acquire their expertise in the local universities. This consti tutes a closed system so that experience in the use of a new technology can usually only be in t roduced f rom outside. This generally necessitates an exchange of people between industry and university, bu t the demands of industry are usually such that it is re luctant t o release experienced staff fo r teaching. (There are, of course, cases where universities and industries have co-operative arrangements for educating and training s tudents and for the teaching staff who work in bo th . )

(e) Universities may not have the necessary means and funds to operate nuclear training facilities or t o under take experimental work with large amount s of radioactivity. This is mainly due to the relatively high costs for all training installations which contain radioactive materials in more than tracer quantit ies.

In spite of these difficulties it is considered advantageous that curricula and courses in nuclear technology as required by the nuclear power programme be in t roduced into technical colleges and universities. Nuclear subjects play an impor tan t part in the programme of most engineering schools and universities in developed countries with ongoing nuclear power programmes.

New educational and training curricula can be integrated in to universities only gradually. In fact , while nuclear physics f requent ly ranks as a complete advanced s tudy programme, the same does not apply to other essential subjects which are only treated as parts of the standard scientific and engineering disciplines.

Typical curricula should include courses in:

— Reactor Engineering Technology — Design and Construct ion of Nuclear Reactors — Reactor Safety

392 SECTION 3.2.

-PROFESSIONALS- S-4+5-J t s

PRELIMINARY

DIPLOMAED ENGINEER

TECHNICAL ENGINEER

UNIVERSITY, COLLEGE

THIRD DEGREE VOCA-TIONAL SCHOOL

(EQUIVALENT TO B.S. ENGINEERING)

COMPIE MENTARY

5 THEORY 0 1 ^ SECOND DEGREE < VOCATIONAL O SCHOOL

> COMPLEMENTARY THEORY

TECHNICIAN

CRAFTSMAN

FIRST DEGREE VOCATIONAL SCHOOL

-PROFESSIONALS -

FIG.3.3-3. Technical education and training system in Spain.

— Reactor Operat ion — Reactor Materials — Reactor Kinetics and Thermodynamics — Nuclear Fuel Cycle — Use of Computers etc.

Special facilities available for practical ( laboratory) courses should include:

— Training Reactor — Testing Stand of Material — Neut ron Source — Digital Computer

Nuclear educat ion at universities would greatly benef i t f rom a high degree of industrial part icipation and suppor t . Also, effective co-operation of the universities with a nuclear research centre, if one exists in the count ry , would allow the s tudents t o be trained using special facilities generally available only in such centres.

Nuclear engineering programmes have developed some distinctive charac-teristics. Because of the complex systems involved, curricula for nuclear engineers usually include the use of b o t h small and large computers . As a result, the classical f o r m of mathemat ical analysis and calculations is gradually shift ing towards techniques of numerical or compute r analysis and calculations.

The great emphasis on safety and reliability in nuclear power systems has also produced demands for personnel with specialized, al though sometimes no t clearly def ined, backgrounds. Notable among these is quali ty assurance. University educat ion will be needed, bu t it would not provide the high standard of specialization required.

In addi t ion to offer ing training in the usual technical fields, which was typical of engineering in the past, nuclear engineering should also include appropriate me thods to involve s tudents in areas that deal with the broader technical, social and political considerations and implications. Fur ther , nuclear educat ion in universities should assist in developing in the general public more objective and informed a t t i tudes towards nuclear technology and nuclear power .

3.3.1.2. Master's degree in nuclear engineering practice

A good case can be made fo r establishing a Master 's degree programme in nuclear engineering practice at one of the engineering faculties of a university within the count ry . This programme would require close co-operation be tween the electric uti l i ty, the nuclear energy commission, the engineering facul ty and relevant industries t o assure tha t t he programme does, in fact , emphasize current engineering pract ice in the nuclear field and meets the requirements of the nuclear power programme. There is a danger tha t , if such a master 's degree programme is

394 SECTION 3.2.

PROFESSIONAL EMPLOYMENT

> a • S o 3 Í U1 F- < Q if> t/j m ui tr i -h Ul < < t - £ 3 S? o < s u c o o O h- Q

TECHNICIAN EMPLOYMENT

CRAFTSMAN EMPLOYMENT

4-4 22

8 s DC E o £

o uj o (J I

UPPER D I V I S I O N S T U D Y T O B A C C A -L A U R E A T E D E G R E E I N E N G I N E E R I N G O R S C I E N C E

L O W E R D I V I S I O N B A C C A -L A U R E A T E D E G R E E S T U D I E S

I N - P L A N T T R A I N I N G

A N D E X P E R I E N C E "

4 — 1 4

H I G H T E C H N O L O G Y O C C U P A T I O N S ^ ( S T A R T I N G G R A D E S )

t t 2 - Y E A R S P E C I A L I Z E D

^ - O C C U P A T I O N A L T E C H N I C A L T R A I N I N G

^ P R O G R A M M E S

A P P R E N T I C E S H I P A N D

L A B O U R P O O L

E M P L O Y E E S IN I N D U S T R Y

t , t t

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FIG.3.3-6. Technical education and training system in the United States of America.

left only to the engineering facul ty, it will become excessively theoretical and analytical, emphasizing research and development . There must be a strong impact f rom and involvement of experienced engineers in the electric uti l i ty, the nuclear energy commission and industry; in fact , many of the lectures should be given by such engineers. Each of the organizations co-operating in this programme would have much to gain f rom the others participating in it.

The programme herein outlined would accept as candidates fo r the Master's degree in nuclear engineering practice engineers and scientists with a B.S. degree or the equivalent. Experience has shown that most of the engineering for the planning, construct ion and operat ion of a nuclear power project requires educat ional backgrounds in mechanical, electrical, chemical, civil, metallurgical or nuclear engineering.

The curriculum for this Master's degree programme could be designed for complet ion in one to two years. A very effective programme could be designed for the equivalent of one year 's full-t ime s tudy. There would be basic required courses as well as specialized courses. No thesis would be required, as the degree would no t be a research degree. The mathemat ics level would be modest and compute r applications would be emphasized. It would be assumed tha t additional specialized training would be available in several fields to provide the specialization required in those fields.

An example of the Master's degree programme as shown in Table 3.3—1 would consist of six modules . Within each module there may be several courses and each module would be designed to stand by itself as much as possible with respect to the other modules. Thus, an individual who only needs one or two modules of training would not have to complete the degree programme, but would take only those modules required for his immediate needs. This makes the pro-gramme much more flexible. The engineering facul ty, however, must be provided with incentives to part icipate in non-degree programmes, because there is usually a t endency to be interested only in degree programmes. The six modules need not have equal weight, bu t on the average they would each represent about two months of full-time s tudy. There would be some advantage in teaching each module on a full-time basis, one af te r the other , t o make it possible for some part icipants t o a t tend full-t ime only one or two modules .

If the country has already selected a specific reactor type, module 2 should go in to great detail abou t this reactor type. If not , it should concentra te on the commercially available proven types. The s tudents would learn every reactor componen t and system, its name, purpose and how it works.

The modules should be organized in to courses, exercises, laboratory work and actual training experience which are related to nuclear engineering practice. There are many ways to do this and usually the local condit ions and the availability of equipment such as a research reactor, counting equipment , training and teaching aids will greatly influence how the courses and training are organized.

3 9 6 SECTION 3.2.

• P R O F E S S I O N A L

D O C T O R A T E

— T E C H N I C I A N -

L I C E N C I A T E

O D O C T O R A T E

t • Q -

2 Y E A R S U N I V E R S I T Y

5 Y E A R S U N I V E R S I T Y

DIPL. El

5 Y E A R S UNI-V E R S I T Y PLUS i T O 1 Y E A R I N D U S T R I A L P R A C T I C E

E N G I N E E R

E N G I N E E R ' O : i

3 - 5 Y E A R S U N I V E R S I T Y

3 Y E A R S E N G I N E E R I N G T E C H N I C I A N SCHOOL PLUS 2 - 3 Y E A R S I N D U S T R I A L T R A I N I N G

? 2 - 4 Y E A R S OF T E C H N I C A L S C H O O L A N D I N D U S T R I A L P R A C T I C E

S E C O N D A R Y S C H O O L 3 - 9 Y E A R S

R A j e r i e

• C R A F T S M A N -

A G E (years)

2 5 - 2 8

2 3 - 2 5

2 1 - 2 3

C R A F T S M A N 1 7 - 1 9

P R I M A R Y S C H O O L 4 - 8 Y E A R S

T 2 - 4 Y E A R S OF V O C A T I O N A L SCHOOL A N D I N D U S T R I A L PRACTICE J 1 0 - 1 5

FIG.3.3-7. Technical education and training systems, o Denotes degree/certificate/diploma. * The qualification of an engineer varies considerably from country to country.

Foreign suppliers could also assist with training aids, equipment , on-the-job training and instructors.

Another example of a Master's degree programme in nuclear engineering is given in Table 3 . 3 - 2 , where the general objectives of the programme and a list of courses according to di f ferent orientat ions are given. Two years should be adequate for this programme.

The laboratories for radiation measurement and safe ty and for radiation ins t ruments may be considered as a unit because of their similar requirements (radiation sources, counting equipment ; power supplies and components such as preamplifiers, single-channel analysers, timers, oscilloscopes, rate meters, mult ichannel analysers). The nuclear reactor laboratory course should be taught at a research or training reactor. In addit ion, a reactor simulator would be very valuable. The nuclear reactor materials laboratory should be equipped with facilities to give s tudents hands-on experience in techniques of measuring materials parameters.

For each or ientat ion, a nuclear reactor systems design project should be included in the last semester, in which all of the components are pulled together and the interrelationships among them become apparent to the s tudent in a realistic way.

3.3.1.3. Specialized training

Manpower development of professionals includes specialized nuclear training which generally consists of bo th formal and on-the-job training.

The formal specialized training, consisting of basic and specialized courses as well as laboratory practice, could be offered at the universities by either the engineering or science faculties, or could be given by nuclear energy commissions, nuclear research and development inst i tutes or nuclear training centres. Wherever it is held, its level and contents must be oriented to industrial practices and standards.

The specialized training usually begins with a basic course in nuclear power. This course is given no t only t o graduates in engineering or in the physical sciences, but also to o ther kinds of fu tu re professional manpower fo r the nuclear power programme. This course serves t o give a general background in nuclear power, and also serves to put those proceeding to fu r the r specialized courses at approximately the same level. This first phase of specialized training generally lasts two to three months and could be extended up to six mon ths or shortened to about one mon th , depending on the level of the part icipants and on the activities for which they are being trained (see Table 3 . 3 - 3 ) .

The second phase of specialized training will involve specialized courses and practical work, the nature of which is determined by the professional task or func t ion for which the person is being trained (see Table 3 . 3 - 4 ) . This phase of

FIG.3.3—8. Possible paths for education and training.

TABLE 3 . 3 - 1 . MASTER'S D E G R E E COURSE IN NUCLEAR ENGINEERING PRACTICE: BASIC MODULES (Example)

1. Radiation physics and reactor physics

(a) Radiat ion and its characteristics (b) Radia t ion detect ion and measurement (c) Ins t rumenta t ion labora tory (d) Reac tor physics

2. Nuclear reactor engineering

(a) Nuclear reactor configurat ion (b) Nuclear steam supply system (c) Fuel cycle (d) Research reactor exper iments and opera t ion (if available) (e) On-the-job experience at operat ing nuclear (if available) or thermal power stat ion

3. Nuclear safety and radiation protection

(a) Shielding (b) Envi ronmenta l ef fec ts and p ro tec t ion (c) Monitor ing (d) Safety systems engineering (e) Waste management

4. Engineering management

(a) Project planning and management (b) Scheduling (c) The compu te r as a management tool

5. Quality assurance

(a) Quali ty control (b) Quali ty assurance techniques (c) Non-destruct ive examinat ion

6. Information and communication

(a) Engineering drawing familiarizat ion (b) Repor t writing (c) Public in fo rmat ion for nuclear power programmes

400 SECTION 3.2.

T A B L E 3 . 3 - 2 . M A S T E R ' S D E G R E E P R O G R A M M E I N N U C L E A R

E N G I N E E R I N G (Example)

I. General objectives of the programme:

— The scope must be broad so that graduates will have the knowledge necessary to part icipate in the nuclear industry with full unders tanding of its impact on o ther segments of technology and society.

— The dep th and detail must be suff icient to give graduates a t rue unders tanding of the principles involved in nuclear engineering.

— Practical applicat ions fo r the nuclear indust ry mus t be emphasized, ra ther than research. Graduates mus t be prepared to apply knowledge and scientific m e t h o d s to the solution of technology-oriented problems.

— Suff icient laboratory training must be included so that the graduate will be experienced in the func t i ons and ut i l izat ion of experimental facilities and the ins t rumenta t ion currently in use in the field.

— Fundamenta l s must be included, which the graduate will need to cont inue life-long learning in the field.

II. Courses of the programme

Studen t s admit ted t o the master ' s degree p rogramme are expected to have B.S. degrees (or the equivalent), usually in mechanical , electrical, chemical, materials or nuclear engineering.

F o u r main or ienta t ions should be provided:

— Nuclear /mechanical engineering — Nuclear/electrical engineering — Nuclear/chemical engineering — Nuclear/mater ials engineering

t h e s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d a n d c a r r i e d o u t w i t h c l o s e c o - o p e r a t i o n

b e t w e e n u t i l i t i e s , i n d u s t r y a n d t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s .

T h e l a s t p h a s e is u s u a l l y o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g , p e r f o r m e d a s p a r t o f a n

o r g a n i z e d p r o g r a m m e . T h e s p e c i a l i z e d c o u r s e s o f t h e s e c o n d p h a s e t o g e t h e r w i t h

o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g w o u l d l a s t f r o m o n e t o t w o y e a r s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e b a c k -

g r o u n d o f t h e t r a i n e e a n d t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e t a s k t o b e p e r f o r m e d .

O n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g i n v o l v e s m a i n l y i n d u s t r y a n d u t i l i t i e s , a n d m u s t b e p e r f o r m e d

u n d e r s p e c i f i e d c o n d i t i o n s t o m e e t w e l l - d e f i n e d o b j e c t i v e s . ( S e e S e c t i o n 3 . 2 . 2 . 5 . )

S e c t i o n 3 . 4 c o n t a i n s a m o r e d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d t o

q u a l i f y p r o f e s s i o n a l s f o r t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f a n u c l e a r p o w e r p r o g r a m m e .

TABLE 3 . 3 - 2 (cont.)

Orienta t ions

Nuclear/ Nuclear/ Nuclear/ Nuclear / mechanical electrical chemical materials

Courses engineering engineering engineering engineering

(1) Nuclear physics for engineering

I I I I

(2) Radia t ion measurement and safety a

I I I I

(3) Reac tor physics I I R R

(4) Compu te r programming' 5 I I I I

(5) Reactor engineering I - - R

(6) Radia t ion i n s t r u m e n t s 3 I I I I

(7) In t roduc t ion to qual i ty assurance and quali ty control

I I I I

(8) Thermohydrau l ics I - - -

(9) Nuclear fuels and wastes

R — I I

(10 ) Reac tor l a b o r a t o r y 3 I I I I

(11) Nuclear reactor core m a n a g e m e n t

I R R R

(12) Nuclear reactor materials a

I R I I

(13) Reac tor design project b

I I I I

(14) Reac tor systems design project b

I I I I

Note: I = Indispensable. R = R e c o m m e n d e d . a Courses involving measurement laboratories, b Courses involving computa t iona l pract ice.

4 0 2 SECTION 3.2.

TABLE 3 . 3 - 3 . BASIC COURSES IN NUCLEAR POWER

Basic course for professionals

— This course should generally have a duration of 2—3 months. It could be extended up to 6 months or compressed into a 3 - 4 week Seminar depending on the initial level of the participants and the activities they will be involved in. Subjects such as those listed should be included.

1. Atomic and nuclear physics 2. Reactor physics 3. Radiochemistry 4. Radiation protection - Shielding 5. Nuclear engineering 6. Instrumentat ion and control - Fundamentals 7. Quality assurance/quality control — Fundamentals 8. Nuclear power systems and fuel cycles 9. Nuclear safety - Emergency safety systems - Emergency procedures

10. Computer systems 11. Reactor materials and metallurgy 12. Nuclear fuel materials 13. NSSS description and layout 14. BOP description and layout 15. Heat transfer — Thermodynamics 16. Waste management 17. Environmental impact.

Basic course for technicians

— This course should have a duration of 1 - 3 months. — Theoretical training should be complemented by some practical training.

1. Radiation protection — Shielding 2. Radiation detect ion and measurement — Monitoring 3. Radiological emergencies - Decontamination 4. Nuclear power plants and fuel cycles 5. Instrumentat ion and control — Fundamentals 6. Introduction to quality assurance/quality control 7. Material compatibility — Clean conditions 8. Heat transfer and thermodynamics 9. Plant layout

10. Plant components — Plant systems 11. Safety — Engineered safety systems.

Basic course for craftsmen

— This course should have a durat ion of 2—3 weeks. — Elementary theoretical training should be complemented by practical training.

1. Radiation protect ion and shielding — Fundamentals 2. Radiation monitoring techniques 3. Radiological emergencies — Decontamination 4. Introduct ion to nuclear systems — Fundamentals 5. Int roduct ion to power plant and general layout 6. Introduct ion to instrumentat ion and control — Fundamentals 7. Introduct ion to quality assurance/quality control 8. Clean conditions.

Various countr ies have developed and adopted dif ferent training schemes (see Appendix to Chapter 2). Tables 3.3—5 and 3.3—6(a)—(e) present the basic scheme which is being used in Brazil since 1975 to provide specialized training for pro-fessional manpower for their nuclear power programme (nuclear power projects and industries). This training, presented as an illustrative example, is directed towards recent graduates, enhancing their professional preparat ion and exposing them to the industrial environment . It is per formed through four training modules. The first three (preparatory, basic and specialization, Table 3.3—5) are given at the university and the four th (part- t ime on-the-job training) at the industrial facility where the trainee is employed.

The initial preparatory period ensures that s tudents f rom dif ferent universi-ties all have the basic minimum level of the necessary mathematics , engineering and scientific subjects, and provides an in t roduct ion to specifically nuclear subjects. In the basic course which follows, the s tudents take subjects of general application in the nuclear industry mainly related t o the discipline of the s tudent ' s first degree, e.g. fluid mechanics, heat transfer for mechanical engineers; s tructural mechanics, soil propert ies for civil engineers; etc.

Towards the end of the basic course, a f te r six mon ths of training, the place of the trainee's fu tu re employment is determined through interviews with the heads of several sectors of the nuclear industries and by analysing the trainee's achievements. During the first part of the course the s tudents have been suppor ted by a fellowship; successful s tudents now become employees of one of the companies of the industry. This arrangement ensures that only suitable candidates become employees.

The specialization part of the training at the university occupies the second half of the course — at this stage it is known where each trainee is going to work , and the subjects of-study are determined by the needs of his fu tu re activity. The problem here is to of fe r a sufficient range of courses to match the large number of tasks in the nuclear industry, wi thou t providing an excessive number of subject combinat ions. In addit ion to the training at the university, during this part of the course the trainees must per form some work in the relevant sections of their fu tu re employees ' organizations, becoming familiar with the environment and infras t ructure of their place of employment . The work in the section is directed to a particular problem; the s tudent spends the final period of the course writing a repor t (monograph) and presenting his conclusions in discussion wi th his leader and colleagues.

This arrangement eases the transit ion f rom university s tudent to industrial employee, so that upon complet ion of the course the trainees are already effectively working employees.

The courses permit receiving academic credits at the M.S. level on those subjects taken at the university. At the end of the course, the trainee has a sufficient number of credits t o be able to cont inue his studies towards an M.S.

404 SECTION 3.2.

TABLE 3 . 3 - 4 . SPECIALIZED TRAINING IN NUCLEAR POWER TECHNOLOGY

— The training should have a dura t ion of 1—2 years for professionals, including periods of on- the- job training; for technicians, it should have a durat ion of abou t 2 years with a larger practical training componen t ; for c raf t smen 6 to 12 m o n t h s should be adequate with mainly manual skills or ienta t ion.

— The overall training should consist of a balanced combinat ion of such courses as those listed below, with depth varying according to the specialization required for the fu tu r e activities of the part icipants.

— The courses listed are only indicative of the type of training required. Some courses should preferably be held with the involvement of industry. In general, training facilities, equ ipment , workshops and laboratories can be shared, but t he training of professionals, technicians and craf t smen mus t be organized and conduc ted in a separate way by d i f fe rent teaching staff and management .

Courses for professionals

1. Nuclear legislation — Civil liability 2. Scheduling (PERT, CPM), and cost cont ro l 3. P rocurement - Contract ing - Expedit ing 4. Heavy c o m p o n e n t handling and t ranspor t 5. Technical specifications — Design review 6. Plant operabil i ty and maintainabil i ty 7. Compu te r techniques 8. Reac tor technology 9. Reac tor systems

10. Fuel cycle — Fuel chemistry and metallurgy 11. Nuclear special materials and metal lurgy — Radiat ion damages 12. Nuclear civil engineering — Civil s t ructures 13. Nuclear ins t rumenta t ion and cont ro l 14. Electrical systems 15. Electronics 16. Nuclear power stat ion opera t ion and main tenance 17. Chemistry of special fluids and materials — Water chemistry 18. Pre-operat ional testing and commissioning 19. Simulator training 20. Piping 21. Stress analysis — Vibrat ion 22. Safety codes and s tandards 23. Engineered safety systems 24. Safety analysis review 25. Quali ty assurance/quali ty cont ro l practices 26. QA inspect ions and repor t s 27. Testing techniques (destruct ive and non-destruct ive) 28. Metrology 29. S tandardiza t ion 30. Documen ta t ion 31. Licensing - Regulatory func t ions

TABLE 3 . 3 - 2 (cont.)

32. In-service inspect ions 33. Geology - Se ismology-- Hydrology 34. Site qual i f icat ion and envi ronmenta l repor t 35. Nuclear emergencies and emergency plans and procedures 36. Safeguards 37. Physical p ro tec t ion

Courses for technicians

1. Reactor opera t ion 2. Reactor safety systems 3. Reactor auxiliary systems 4. Simulator training 5. Radioactive materials handling and disposal 6. Power p lant chemistry 7. Metallurgy and metal proper t ies 8. Nuclear chemical processes 9. Electronics

10. Mechanical componen t s 11. Electrical componen t s 12. Ins t rumenta t ion layout 13. Mechanical equ ipment layout 14. Electrical equ ipment layout 15. Quali ty assurance/quali ty cont ro l techniques and audit ing 16. Documen ta t i on 17. Testing techniques (destruct ive and non-destruct ive) 18. Metrology 19. Welding inspect ions 20. Civil/structural inspect ions 21. Mechanical inspect ions 22. Electrical inspect ions 23. Inspect ion repor ts 24. Civil main tenance 25. Electric main tenance 26. Mechanical main tenance 27. Ins t rumenta t ion main tenance

Courses for craftsmen

1. Special materials handling 2. Radioactive materials handling techniques 3. Power p lant chemistry 4. Metrology — Fundamenta l s 5. Documen ta t ion — Fundamen ta l s 6. Welding 7. Mechanical equ ipments and layout 8. Electric equ ipments and layout 9. Ins t rumenta t ion layout

10. Cabling layout

406 SECTION 3.2.

degree with minor academic ef for t , through the preparat ion of a suitable thesis. Some trainees can be allowed to cont inue their work to obtain the M.S.

Requirements for the implementat ion of this scheme are: a well-developed university s t ructure in terms of teaching at high quality standards in a wide range of engineering and science disciplines and the availability of industrial facilities for effective on-the-job training.

Fur ther examples of the specialized training of professionals (India, Argentina) are presented in Section 3.3.3 (Nuclear Training Centres), and in Tables 3 . 3 - 8 and 3 . 3 - 9 .

3.3.2. Training of technicians and craf tsmen

Possibly one of the most critical aspects of the manpower development programme in many developing countries is the training of technicians and craf tsmen.

Their formal training is o f ten of such low priority that it is for practical purposes non-existent . Graduate engineers must o f t en do the jobs tha t trained technicians would ordinarily do. The lack of qualified technicians and craftsmen may const i tu te a major constraint to a nuclear power programme.

There is a close relationship between the level of overall industrial develop-ment of a count ry and the level of the training and quality of its technicians and craf tsmen. Thus, upgrading the vocational training system and establishing high-quality technician training insti tutes should have priority in developing countries in particular. This will no t only provide the technicians and craftsmen needed for the nuclear power programme, but will also benefi t the country 's industrial development in general, through its catalytic and spin-off effects. A high-quality technical inst i tute or college which provides technicians with specialized training in nuclear power technology could serve as a model for technical educat ion th roughout the country , and raise the overall standards of technical training and manpower .

Obviously the basic sciences, i.e. mathematics , physics and chemistry are required for all technicians. The basic science courses have to be carefully planned and taught so that they are no t just abbreviated versions of university courses. They should not involve sophisticated mathematics , and what mathematics is used should be very practical. Engineering drawing should include familiarization with symbols used in wiring diagrams, piping diagrams and welding. It may be necessary to include, along with engineering drawing, instruction in report writing. Among nuclear subjects, radiation physics should emphasize the use of radiation detectors and radiation instruments . Instruction in nuclear technology should include familiarization with the kind of reactor t o be constructed, its nuclear steam supply system, controls etc.

In highly industrialized countries, the basic training of technicians and craf tsmen usually includes an impor tan t componen t of practical training b o t h in the vocational schools and in industry through formal apprenticeships. This procedure should be adopted for the nuclear technician training programme as a general rule.

Thus, wherever possible, hands-on experience should be provided. This requires technical equipment such as computers , nuclear counting and measuring inst ruments , and (if available) a research reactor, all of which are costly and hard to jus t i fy for technician training only. As the technical training programme fo r technicians is in many respects similar to that of the professionals ' training in nuclear engineering practice (see Section 3.3.1), a l though at a different level, it is no t only possible bu t advantageous to use some of t he same classrooms, laboratories and o ther training facilities for bo th programmes. This can be done by careful scheduling, keeping in mind that it is necessary to keep the programmes otherwise completely separate (separate teachers, administrat ion, classes, courses and curricula). The cost effectiveness of b o t h programmes is increased by such a sharing of facilities.

The initial qualif ications to enter the technicians or craf tsmen specialized training programmes vary considerably f rom country t o country , as do the training t ime and a m o u n t of practical or on-the-job training.

The specialized training t imes for technicians may vary f rom a min imum of two months for highly experienced technicians working in non-nuclear specialities, who need only addit ional specific nuclear-oriented training, to a six-year regular training programme to graduate a full-fledged highly qualified technician start ing f rom primary school. For craf tsmen, training times may vary f rom a few mon ths for experienced people to about three years starting f r o m primary school.

In the Federal Republ ic of Germany, for example, craf tsmen training lasts two to three and a half years, depending on the vocat ion, three years being the approximate average. There, the practical training, which consti tutes 70% of the to ta l time, is divided almost equally in to two categories: practical training in the training ins t i tu te or centre (vocational school) and on-the-job training. This training system is skill-oriented. Also, the general educational level for ent ry in to skilled craf tsman training is relatively high, and such manpower can generally be bet ter and more easily trained (see Fig..3.3—3).

In some other countries the vocational schools provide training for a period of two years only, no t including on-the-job training. Initial entrance educat ional qualif ication requirements are also lower. The craf tsmen trained in such di f ferent systems cannot be expected to have equivalent skills.

Technicians and craf tsmen should preferably be trained within the count ry . In except ional cases, at the initial phase of a nuclear power programme and fo r highly specialized tasks, training abroad could be considered for a first group who could later serve as instructors within the nat ional training programme, a f te r they have acquired experience and if they show teaching ability.

SECTION 3 . 3

TABLE 3 . 3 - 5 . STRUCTURE OF SPECIALIZATION COURSES (Example: Brazil)

Period Objectives Subjects Duration

Preparatory

(a) To complement graduate subjects relevant to future specialization. Example:

— Mathematical analysis (all engineering areas)

— Introduction to heat transfer (mech. eng.)

— Introduction to reactor physics (physics)

— Radiation detection (electronics eng., physics)

(b) To introduce nuclear subjects relevant to all graduation areas. Example:

— Radiological protection — Introduction to nuclear power — Quality assurance and control

For each student, 5 subjects from a list of 10, in each graduate area

2 months

To provide, at post-graduate level, basic subjects relevant to a specialization to be complemented in the following period.

Example: - Mechanical

engineering: Fluid mechanics Reactor technology, etc.

- Civil engineering: Structural mechanics

Elasticity theory, etc.

3 months

Specialization

(a) To provide subjects, at post-graduate level, leading to specialization in a specific industrial sector. Example: (i) Power plant engineering

— Mechanical engineering: • Introduction to NPP design • Machine dynamics etc.

- Civil engineering: (ii) Fuel element fabrication

- Mech. eng.: - Heat transfer — Fuel materials, etc.

— Civil eng.: — ...

(iii) -(b) To provide part-time on-the-job training (c) To train personnel in preparing technical

reports through a monograph on a j subject selected by the future employer.

7 months

As with professionals, the training of technicians must be carefully phased with the nuclear power programme. A delay in starting appropria te training may seriously hinder achieving the programme's objectives, while training too early may result in trained staff wi thout suitable work to do, with the consequent f rustra t ion and eventual migration to o ther jobs. Ineffective use of trained staff always leads to losses. These may be partial when a person trained for the nuclear power programme quits and joins the conventional sector, or total when he emigrates abroad.

The particular me thods and training systems developed by d i f ferent countries t o fill the technician and craftsman requirements of their nuclear power programmes vary.

Similar t o the approach discussed in Section 3.3.1.3 for the specialized training of professionals, Tables 3.3—3 and 3.3—4 also contain outlines of basic courses in nuclear power and specialized training in nuclear technology for technicians and craf tsmen.

Table 3.3—7 presents an example of curricula of specialized courses for training nuclear technicians. These two-year curricula were developed in the USA (see Ref . [106]) and were designed to be given at post-secondary-school inst i tut ions for the training of:

— Nuclear Power Plant Operators (Trainees) — Radiat ion Protect ion Technicians/Radiat ion Chemistry Technicians — Nuclear Materials Processing Technicians — Nuclear Quality Assurance/Quali ty Control Technicians — Nuclear Ins t rumenta t ion and Contro l Technicians.

These training curricula consist of a series of courses for each occupat ion, each course having several modules with descriptions and instruction materials. In addit ion to these five curricula, twelve instruct ion modules with 'hands-on' training have been developed for the radiation physics and radiation pro tec t ion courses.

The courses were designed to be highly job-oriented. A national steering commit tee — drawn f r o m industry, government , research and development facilities, universities, utilities and a labour union — assisted in the preparat ion of guidelines for each curriculum and reviewed the subject modules and courses.

3.3.3. Nuclear training centres

Raising the level of the national educational infras t ructure , especially in the engineering disciplines, physical sciences and technical insti tutions, will be one of the impor tan t advantages of introducing higher standards and nuclear tech-nology courses in to the general technical educat ion curricula. But there are also

Text continued on p.415.

TABLE 3 . 3 - 6 (a). TRAINING OF PROFESSIONALS FOR SAFETY AND SITING O F NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

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many advantages in establishing nuclear training centres, preferably near nuclear power plants or industries. The purpose of such a centre would be to provide specialized training for professionals, technicians and craf tsmen in those technical areas needed for a nuclear power programme. The nuclear training centre may also be associated with a nuclear research and development inst i tute, b u t its activities and facilities must be oriented to training manpower for the nuclear power programme.

It is essential to maintain a cont inuous exchange of personnel be tween the nuclear training centre, nuclear power plants and industries, to ensure tha t the training remains practice-oriented and at the required high standards.

The teaching staff of the training centres should preferably be selected f rom personnel wi th experience in nuclear power programme activities. If such people are not available, the initial core of instructors should be trained with the first group of trainees, and then assigned to building up the staff of the training centre. A procedure of periodically assigning training centre teaching staff t o nuclear power activities should be established and implemented , despite the fact that this may cause temporary dislocations in the training programme.

Practically every country with a nuclear power programme has found it necessary t o set u p nuclear training centres. India is one example where a training school (BARC - Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Bombay) was set up as early as 1957 to meet t he requirements for scientific and engineering personnel fo r its nuclear power programme (see Appendix A-3).

On an average, 150 science and engineering graduates are recruited for training annually and are given a course with orientat ion towards nuclear science and technology. The period of training is one year and the training consists of advanced courses primarily in physics, chemistry and engineering (metallurgical, mechanical, chemical, electrical, electronics, ins t rumenta t ion) .

The principal objectives of this training are: to provide technical professional personnel with a broad interdisciplinary background in nuclear technology and to give specialized training in nuclear subjects required to pe r fo rm professional tasks in the design, construct ion and operat ion of nuclear power plants and in research. This approach also facilitates switching f rom one branch to another af ter some years of experience, t o suit the individual's apt i tudes and the organization's needs.

F o r specialized disciplines involving reactor operat ion and maintenance, the above training is followed by specific nuclear-power-plant-oriented training, t o give t h e trainee detailed background knowledge of nuclear power plant equip-ment , systems and processes. This is then followed by in-plant experience. For specialized disciplines in o ther nuclear power activities, corresponding specialized training is required and given.

Table 3.3—8 contains a summary of the curricula for training scientific and engineering professionals at the BARC Training School.

TABLE 3 . 3 - 7 . SPECIALIZED COURSES FOR TRAINING NUCLEAR TECHNICIANS (developed in the USA) ^

Course No.

Technical course title Number of modules

Nuclear power plant operator trainees

Radiation protection technicians

Nuclear materials processing technicians

Nuclear quality assurance/quality control technicians

Nuclear instrumentation and control technicians

1 Radiation physics 8 X X X X X

2 Radiation protection I 6 X X X X X

3 Principles of project implementation 8 X X X X X

4 Heat transfer & fluid flow 9 X X

5 Introduction to nuclear systems 6 X X X X

6 Instrumentation and control of reactors & plant systems 6 X X X

7 Reactor operations 7 X

8 Reactor safety S X

9 Reactor auxiliary systems 4 X \

10 Power plant systems 9 X

11 Radiation detection & measurement 8 X X X X X

12 Reactor physics 8 X X

13 Power plant chemistry 7 X ,

14 Introduction to quality assurance/quality control 9 X X X X X

15 Metallurgy & metals properties 8 X X X

16 Mechanical component characteristics & specifications 8 X X

17 Radiation protection II 5 X X

18 Radiological emergencies 7 X

19 Radiation shielding 6 X

20 Radiation monitoring techniques 7 X X

21 Radioactive materials disposal and management 7 X

22 Advanced radionuclide analysis 7 X

23 Nuclear chemical processes 6 X

24 Nuclear systems & safety 7 X

25 Radioactive material handling techniques 8 X

26 Non-destructive examination (NDE) techniques I 7 X

27 Metrology 8 X X

28 Welding inspection 11 X

29 Civil/structural inspection 8 X

30 Mechanical inspection 9 X

31 Quality assurance practices 8 X

32 Non-destructive examination (NDE) techniques II 6 X

33 Control systems 5 X

34 Control systems (advanced) 8 X

35 Systems and components 7 X

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TABLE 3 . 3 - 8 . TRAINING OF PROFESSIONALS IN INDIA Period of training — 1 year

Serial No.

Course title

Physics Chemistry

Serial No.

Course title

Physics Chemistry Metallurgy Mechanical

Chemical Electrical Electronics Instrumentation technology

1 Mathematics/mathematical models V V V V V V V V

2 Statistical physics V 3 Atomic/nuclear physics V V V V V V V

4 Reactor physics V V V V V V V 5 Laser physics V 6 Plasma physics V 7 Health physics/radiobiology V V V V V V V V

8 Quantum mechanics v/

9 Solid state science V 10 Electronics/advanced electronics V V V V V V V 11 Reactor engineering & radiation

shielding/nuclear engineering V V V V V V V 12 Numerical methods including

computer programming V V 13 Project work in physics laboratory

techniques V 14 Fundamentals of chemistry V

15 Thermodynamics/chemical thermodynamics V V

16 Material science V 17 Chemical kinetics V .

18 Analytical chemistry V 19 Chemical instrumentation V 20 Chemistry in nuclear technology V V V V V 21 Nuclear & radiochemistry V 22 Radiation & photochemistry/

radiochemistry V V V 23 Reactors & reactor fuels/

power reactors V V V V V V V 24 Physical metallurgy V 25 Mechanical metallurgy V 26 Nuclear metallurgy V 27 Extractive metallurgy V 28 Ceramics V 29 Corrosion of metals V 30 Passage of radiation through

matter & radiation detectors V V V V V V 31 Consolidation & fabrication

techniques V

s > Z O

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TABLE 3 .3 -8 (cont.) t o o

Serial No.

Course title

Physics Chemistry

Serial No.

Course title

Physics Chemistry

Metallurgy Mechanical Chemical Electrical Electronics Instrumentation . technology

32 Critical path programming V V V V V V 33 Operation research V 34 Reliability engineering V V V V V V 35 Fundamentals of engineering

design V V V y/ V

36 Fundamentals of fluid mechanics/heat transfer V V V

37 Single phase fluid flow & heat transfer/advanced fluid mechanics/ heat transfer V V

38 Process instrumentation & control V V V V V

39 Chemical engineering V 40 Engineering metallurgy y/ V v/ V V

41 Reactor control engineering y/ V V V

42 Advanced engineering design V 43 Vibrations V 44 Nuclear chemical

engineering V

45 Applied electrical engineering system design V

46 Power plant engineering V V V V V 47 Applied process

instrumentation V 48 Laboratory work V V V V V V V V

ta 73 O M < W r O TS S M Z H M S r w S w Z H

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422 SECTION 3.2.

TABLE 3 . 3 - 9 . SPECIALIZED TRAINING O F PROFESSIONALS AND TECHNICIANS (Example: Argentina)

Duration (weeks)

ial Subjects Subjects

Upgrading in mathematics, physics, mechanics and thermodynamics

to 1 2

12 5 5 2

Nuclear and reactor physics Health physics and nuclear safety Overview of nuclear power plants and fuel cycle

Nuclear plant chemistry Instrumentation and control Materials and components Quality assurance and quality control Electrical systems and protections

3 o <D O. WJ >. «

Thermodynamics and fluid mechanics Scheduling, cost control and planning Special aspects of civil works and structures

Health physics Documentation Metrology Non-destructive testing

2 Description of the country's nuclear power plant in operation and practical layout instruction

6 Detailed description of components, systems and operations of the nuclear power plants in operation and construction within the country

On-the-job training, preferably 10 months as assistant shift supervisor

On-the-job training until qualified to fill in position (average 6 months)

Notes: - Training is performed at the 'Training Centre for Nuclear Power Plants' at the country's first operating nuclear power plant (Atucha).

- The professionals to be trained are mostly recent graduates; some might have a few years' experience.

Table 3.3—9 contains an out l ine of the specialized training given to pro-fessionals and technicians in Argentina at the training centre for nuclear power plants, which is located at the site of the country ' s first operating nuclear power plant (Atucha) .

Figure 3.3—1 shows the training scheme being in t roduced to provide the high quality technicians needed fo r the Brazilian nuclear power programme. The approach adopted there has been to establish training courses close to the relevant nuclear industries, to make it easier to of fe r realistic practical training in an industrial environment and to maintain high academic standards (see Appendix A- l ) . The objective is t o produce broadly based, qualified adaptable technicians and craf tsmen with a good understanding of the special requirements of the nuclear industry.

Young people are recruited af te r complet ion of eight years of schooling. Af te r two years of theoretical and practical training a review of their progress is made which mus t include a thorough wri t ten examinat ion. Some are selected for training as technicians; the remainder are given a fu r the r year of practical training to qual ify them as craf tsmen. The potent ia l technicians are given two fur ther years of theoret ical and practical instruct ion and, if they pass a wri t ten examinat ion and the assessment of their practical work is satisfactory, they are awarded the Technician Certif icate. An appropria te number of the most capable are then given a fu r ther two years of theoret ical and practical training and, a f te r wri t ten examinat ions and an assessment of achievements, are awarded the Nuclear Technician Certificate.

The key features of the scheme are:

— All trainees receive the same training for the first two years.

— During the third and fou r th years the practical training of the potent ia l technicians is widened to include erection, testing, commissioning, maintenance work etc. and t ime is spent on on-the-job training in manufac tur ing industries and on-site construct ion and operat ions work.

— In the f i f th and sixth years the potential technicians are fu r the r trained by instruct ion in management techniques and by additional on-the-job training and project work.

— The s tandards for the awards of the certificates are nationally recognized and are set and maintained at a very high level. Written examinat ions are essential.

The academic standards of some impor tan t subjects in the curricula fo r technicians are given in Table 3.3—10.

An eff icient implementa t ion of the training schemes calls for careful planning and administrat ion. In particular, maintaining the necessary standards

TABLE 3 . 3 - 1 0 . ACADEMIC STANDARDS F O R NUCLEAR TECHNICIANS 3

(Example: Brazil)

Mathematics

Geometric properties of the triangle and circle Trigonometrical functions Graphs of trigonometric ratios Quadratic functions Graphs of linear equations and quadratic functions Diagrammatic representation of relationships Gradients, turning points Derivatives, derivative at a given point Areas under graphs Differentiation

Integration of simple functions Graphical integration Simultaneous equations Solving of simultaneous equations by matrix methods Binomial theorem Series Statistics, graphs, histograms, probability Gaussian distribution Logarithms Centroids, first moment of area Vectors

Physics

Reflection, refraction Lenses, mirrors, prisms Linear and angular velocity and acceleration Work and energy Potential and kinetic energy Simple harmonic motion, pendulum, spring Resonance Vectors Equilibrium Moments, centre of gravity Electric charges, forces Amperes' law Electrical components and circuits Magnetic fields DC motors and generators AC motors and generators

Mechanics

Frames and beams, forces Tensile compressive and shear forces Stress, shear strain, Young's modulus Deformation of materials, load extension diagram Friction: static, dynamic, rolling friction Bernoulli's law Pressure drop Heat transfer Heat capacity Boyles' and Charles' law Changes of state, enthalpy Thermal expansion Thermal conductivity Water steam tables Thermodynamic cycles Convective and radiant heat transfer

a The intention of this Table is solely to indicate general standards of achievement in some typical subjects, not to define curricula. It is essential for a thorough grounding to be given in the principles underlying these standards.

will depend critically on the calibre of the teaching staff employed. It is con-venient t o set up an advisory board on which industry is represented; this will also encourage the industrial sector t o co-operate in the training programme.

Many other examples of nuclear training centres can be found in the IAEA Technical Document 217 ' In ternat ional Inventory of Training Facilities in Nuclear Power and its Fuel Cycle' (see Ref. [2]), as well as in o ther relevant publications. In fo rmat ion on the scope, curricula, training facilities and material are usually available on request directly f rom the training centres.

3.4. MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT FOR THE ACTIVITIES OF A NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME

3.4.1. Introduction

This section presents the impor tant aspects of the manpower development required to qual ify personnel fo r the major activities in a nuclear power pro-gramme which were described, together with their respective manpower require-ments, in Chapter 1. For most effective cross-reference and utilization of this in format ion , the sections of this Chapter correspond to the ma jo r activities in Chapter 1. The references to Chapter 1 listed at the beginning of the sub-sections of Section 3 .4 refer to the sections in Chapter 1, the tables in Section 1.12 and the loading curves in Section 1.13 corresponding to the activities being discussed. Section 1.12 presents tables giving, for the activities in a nuclear power programme, the tasks and funct ions, the number of people needed, and the associated technical qualif ications (education, experience and specialized training) of the personnel who are t o perform these tasks and funct ions. Section 1.13 contains the respective manpower loading curves.

For each of the nuclear power programme activities discussed below, the general me thod of implementing manpower development has been given in Section 3.3 for professionals, technicians and craf tsmen, while Table 3.3—3 presents the composi t ion of the basic courses in nuclear power and Table 3.3—4 the specialized nuclear power technology courses involved in training these three categories of manpower . The detailed nature of the specialized training will depend on the manpower category (professional, technician or craf tsmen) , the tasks and func t ions to be per formed, as well as on the background of the person to be trained.

Within the scope of this Guidebook it is not possible to t reat in detail all the educat ion and training required for every task and funct ion of a nuclear power programme. Consequent ly , this section concentrates on those specific aspects which have a high degree of relevance for developing countr ies in particular.

3.4.2. Pre-project activities (see Section 1.2, Table 1.12—1 and Fig. 1.13 — 1)

The manpower requirements for these activities are for the professional level; practically no technicians or craf tsmen are involved. Both generalists and specialists are needed and previous experience is possibly the most impor tant single qualif icat ion. This, of course, cannot be provided by education and training. Consequent ly , possible candidates for receiving specialized training for these tasks and func t ions are professionals who have:

— Acquired experience in similar pre-project activities in conventional fields, bu t who do not have knowledge in nuclear areas.

— Acquired experience in some of the nuclear areas at a research and develop-ment inst i tute or nuclear energy commission, bu t who lack technical knowledge of pre-project activities and possibly also of the specific aspects of nuclear power.

The purpose of training such manpower for pre-project activities would be to :

— Fill the gaps in their technical knowledge.

— Provide t hem with an overview of nuclear power as far as pre-project activities are concerned.

— Update and broaden their knowledge in their relevant specialized fields.

As the number of professionals involved in these activities is relatively low (around 30) while the spectrum of disciplines to be covered is very broad, the training programmes necessary for each candidate can and should be developed separately, according to each individual's background and the funct ion he is t o perform.

Once a nuclear power programme is underway and the pre-project activities are performed on a routine basis, the training of new staff members can be best done through about one year of on-the-job training within the responsible organizational unit and a t tendance at some relevant short specialized courses and seminars. However, during the initial stages of nuclear power programmes, there are no specialized training oppor tuni t ies available within the country .

For pre-project activities, foreign on-the-job training is practically non-existent, and there are no regular courses offered in universities or other educa-tional inst i tut ions which could fill the requirements of specialized training. The IAEA initiated in 1975 a training programme which contains several relevant training courses, specially designed to cover such training needs of the developing countries (see Table 3 . 2 - 3 ) .

As an example, Table 3.4—1 contains the syllabus of the 14-week overview course on Nuclear Power Project Planning, Development and Construct ion, which includes several technical visits to nuclear power plants and industrial facilities. In such a course about 150 experts f rom different countr ies present the lectures t o a limited number of part icipants (30 to 4 0 people).

The training of qualified candidates for the pre-project activities at the initial stage may last one to two years. Besides the above-mentioned training courses, a t tendance at relevant meetings (conferences, symposia, seminars) and technical visits are recommended.

428 SECTION 3.2.

TABLE 3 . 4 - 1 . IAEA TRAINING COURSE ON NUCLEAR POWER PROJECT PLANNING, DEVELOPMENT AND CONSTRUCTION

SYLLABUS

1. General aspects

— Purpose, scope and con ten t of the course — The role of nuclear power in the world — Principles of nuclear physics and engineering — Principles of nuclear reactor technology — Economics and f inancing of nuclear power — Internat ional safeguards

2. Nuclear power plants and fuel cycle

— Technical descript ion of nuclear power systems: BWR, PWR, PHWR — The fue l cycle — Sources of supply of nuclear power plants and fuel — Planning and feasibility studies — Radioactive waste management — Operat ing exper ience of nuclear power plants ; Safety and availability

3. Nuclear safety and radiation protection

— Biological e f fec ts of radiat ion — Radiat ion p ro tec t ion s tandards and practices — General safe ty considerat ions and practices in nuclear power plants — Design basis accidents and con ta inment criteria — Legislative f r ameworks and regulatory activity — The safety analysis repor t — Licensing of nuclear power plants and opera tors

4. Nuclear power plant siting

— Site characteristics survey — Site selection process — Environmenta l radiological impact — Monitor ing envi ronmenta l radioactivi ty

5. Project preparation and organization

— Project approaches, t u rnkey and split-package — Conceptual and design engineering: Safety and economic requi rements — Organizational and s taf f ing requi rements — Aspects and ex ten t of domest ic par t ic ipat ion possibilities — Preparat ion of bid specif icat ions — Bid evaluation — Contract ing fo r p lan t and fuel ; Technical and commercial terms and condi t ions — The role of owner , con t rac tor , sub-contractors , architect-engineer, consul tants ,

regulatory body and authori t ies ; Lines of au thor i ty and division of responsibilities — Organizational and s ta f f ing requi rements of the owner

6. Project management

— Different approaches of project management ; Tasks and responsibilities — Project cont ro l ; Dealing with confl ic ts — Project scheduling; Interact ion be tween schedules; Schedule control — Codif icat ion and ident i f icat ion of componen t s and systems — Budget: Cost and product ivi ty cont ro l — Management of in fo rmat ion , records and archives — Procedures for sat isfying regulatory requi rements

— Principles of qual i ty assurance and qual i ty control ; Codes and s tandards; Division of responsibilities

— The IAEA codes of practice and qual i ty assurance; Other approaches — Quality assurance programmes — Documenta t ion and document s con t ro l — Quality assurance related t o nuclear safety — Quality assurance related to plant reliability — Design cont ro l — Testing, inspect ion and quality cont ro l of componen t s manufac tu re — Inspect ion and site qual i ty cont ro l ; Quality control during commissioning — Organization and s taff ing requi rement of qual i ty assurance; Qualif icat ions of personnel

8. Design and engineering review

— Conceptual and engineering review — Owner ' s role and responsibilities during the design phase — Requi rements of safe ty and reliability — Domest ic par t ic ipants aspects — Schedule of design and engineering — Organization and s taff ing requi rements of design and engineering

9. Construction, procurement and fabrication

— Organization of the cons t ruc t ion e f f o r t — Site survey and prepara t ion — On-site work organizat ion; On-site facilities; Requi rements of labour , materials,

const ruct ion equ ipmen t , electr ici ty and general services — Const ruct ion detai l and me thodo logy — Organization and regulation of t ranspor t — Industr ial safe ty , securi ty and fire prevent ion — Part icipat ion of domes t i c indus t ry — Procurement organizat ion; Specifications, bidding, warehousing — Procurement of fue l and special materials — Monitoring materials and c o m p o n e n t s

. - Organizational and staff ing requi rements during cons t ruc t ion and fabr icat ion of componen t s

430 SECTION 3.4

10. Commissioning and planning for operation and maintenance

— Pre-operat ional testing — System test ing — Division of responsibilities and co-ordination during commissioning — Owners ' organizat ional and staff ing requi rements — Safety review — Fuel loading — Trial run of the plant , compliance with warranties — Organization and staff ing requirements for plant opera t ion and maintenance — Takeover — Operat ing manuals — Provisions f o r emergencies, incidents and accidents — Plant workshops and laboratories; Test equ ipment , tools and spare parts

11. Manpower requirements and training

— Qualitative and quant i ta t ive manpower requirements fo r a nuclear power programme — Sources of manpower ; Training means and oppor tuni t ies — Recru i tment and personnel management ; Salaries and career policy — Training programmes and schedules — Systematic m a n p o w e r development p lanning

3.4.3. Project implementation (see Section 1.3)

The project implementa t ion areas described in Section 1.3 comprise a series of sof tware activities. Project implementat ion is manpower intensive (500 to 700 professionals and technicians) and requires a relatively large propor t ion (60%) of engineers in the technical staff .

3.4.3.1. Project management, engineering and procurement (see Sections 1.3.1; 1.3.2; 1.3.3; Tables 1 .12 -2 (a ) , (b); 1 . 1 2 - 3 ; 1 . 1 2 - 4 ; and Figs 1 . 1 3 - 2 to 1 . 1 3 - 4 )

The manpower development necessary to fill the requirements for these project implementa t ion activities will depend on the goals of the national part icipation programme. Assuming that the count ry intends t o achieve self-sufficiency in these activities, manpower will be needed to carry out the corresponding funct ions . Insofar as such manpower is unavailable, manpower development will be required. With more modest nat ional participation goals

the quan t i ty of people needed will be propor t ionate ly less, bu t the qualifications of those who will staff the national organizations must be essentially the same as those established by the foreign suppliers for their own personnel.

At the initial stage of the nuclear power programme, experienced professionals of the uti l i ty, major engineering firms and industry will be the principal manpower sources. These professionals will have knowledge and experience applicable only to conventional projects and will therefore need addit ional specialized nuclear training.

A basic course in nuclear power ( three t o six months) , or specialized courses in nuclear power technology (six mon ths to one year) fol lowed by additional (six mon ths t o one-year) on-the-job training on foreign nuclear power projects should in general be sufficient to produce well-qualified personnel. Care should be taken to adjust t he course curricula and standards to the level of the trainees, who are experienced professionals and not university s tudents or fresh graduates. There will probably be major differences between the trainees' backgrounds, so the training programme should generally be developed on an individual basis. This will require major effor ts , bu t it must be remembered that these people are intended to form the core of the project management , engineering and procurement teams and they will therefore bear the principal responsibility for implementa t ion of the nuclear power project .

The training of these professionals should begin when pre-project activities are s tar ted. Regarding key people in particular, it would benef i t bo th their training and the nuclear project if they were involved, at least partly, in pre-project activi-ties. A t t endance at some of the IAEA nuclear power project courses, in particular the Const ruct ion and Operat ions Management Course, could be a useful comple-ment to the overall training.

In an on-going nuclear power programme, nat ional nuclear power projects themselves const i tu te the best source of experienced professionals as well as the best oppor tun i ty for providing on-the-job training for new professional manpower .

For those func t ions where only little or no previous professional experience is required, specialized training such as described in Sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.3 is indicated. This would require on an average one to two years, a f te r which the trained personnel can be integrated into the project teams, where they can begin to acquire actual experience.

Not every professional involved in these activities needs a high level of nuclear specialization, bu t all of the technical professional staff require at least a sound engineering background, and all professionals must have a basic understanding of nuclear technology and of t he nuclear power project .

The main role of technicians and craf tsmen in these activities is to assist t he professionals who supervise them in the per formance of those tasks for which they are qualified. Good dra f t smen are especially impor tan t . Conventional experience is usually suff icient ; the training they will require is outlined in Section 3.3.2.

432 SECTION 3.2.

3.4.3.2. Quality assurance and quality control (see Section 1.3.4, Table 1 . 1 2 - 5 and Fig. 1 . 1 3 - 5 )

It has been repeatedly emphasized that every activity in a nuclear power programme is characterized by high quali ty requirements. Quality must therefore be provided, controlled and assured by specially trained personnel.

The qualif ications of the quality assurance (QA) and quali ty control (QC) personnel are discussed in Section 1.3.4.2 and Table 1 . 1 2 - 5 . Educat ion and experience are the dominant factors t o be considered. Formal education can be replaced to a large extent by satisfactory per formance in the corresponding inspection or test category, bu t related experience cannot be replaced completely by educat ion.

In general, training oriented to conventional industrial practices as well as experience acquired in conventional industries is insufficient to qualify personnel for the quali ty control and assurance activities of a nuclear power programme. Consequent ly , additional specialized training must be provided to all personnel at every level. The major topics which should be included in the training curricula for quality assurance personnel are:

(a) In t roduct ion to quali ty assurance

An in t roduc tory course in quali ty assurance including such topics as: history and purpose of quali ty assurance, t e rms and definit ions, codes and standards, publications, reports and quali ty assurance/quality cont ro l procedures.

(b) Quali ty assurance and reliability

A s tudy of the quality assurance (and reliability) of ins t rumenta t ion including: fundamenta ls of quali ty assurance, design control , quali-fication testing, p rocurement , product ion inspection and tests, test and inspection equipment , reliability tests and evaluation, and statistical analysis.

(c) NDE techniques

Theory and practice of non-destructive examinat ion techniques including visual, radiographic, dye and fluorescent liquid penetrants , dry and wet magnetic particles, eddy current , ultrasonic, leak and hydrostat ic testing.

(d) Destructive examinat ion techniques

Theory and practice of destructive examinat ion techniques including notch break, guided bend and tensile strength, hardness, impact and micro-sectioning.

(e) Document , design and material control

In t roduct ion to such varied topics as: preparat ion, handling and control of documents , storage and retrievability of documents , control of revisions and distr ibution, interface document traceabili ty, records retent ion, design interfaces, design input , design verification, control of design changes, vendor qualif icat ion, QA review of purchasing documents , shop inspection and receipt inspection.

( f ) Audit ing

A course in the system necessary to maintain good auditing methods , report ing discrepancies and exit interviews, correcting discrepancies and re-audit, audit documenta t ion .

(g) Metallurgy and properties of metals

An in t roduc tory course on basic metallurgical concepts and propert ies of metals. Basic physical propert ies developed and related t o the behaviour of metals and alloys. Preliminary s tudy of s t ructure of metals. Properties of stainless steel and carbon steel are emphasized.

(h) Metrology

A s tudy of the science of measurement and its applications. Emphasis is placed on precision, accuracy, calibration and dimensional measurements .

(i) Building materials inspection

Learning the diverse methods used in the testing and inspection of such building materials as: s tructural steel, s tructural concrete, pre-stressed concrete, protective coatings, and soil and rock.

Many formal training courses and seminars have been developed and are generally available in different countr ies and training insti tutions. There are also IAEA specialized courses (see Table 3.2—3). The durat ion of such courses is usually a few weeks to several months , bu t it must be emphasized that in this field in particular, hands-on experience and practice-oriented training is an essential requirement .

434 SECTION 3.2.

Foreign on-the-job training opportuni t ies are perhaps more readily available in this than in o the r nuclear fields, although the general condit ions and limitations discussed in Section 3.2.4.2 apply here as well.

During the initial phase of a nuclear power programme, the key people should be given specialized, foreign, formal academic training followed by on-the-job training lasting for about a year. Through them the domest ic training pro-grammes can then be organized. Such domest ic programmes are certainly justified for any country with a nuclear power programme, taking into account :

— The national responsibilities involved in the nuclear power and national part icipation programmes.

— The number of people required for quality assurance activities.

— The spin-off effects which would improve the quali ty and standards of the entire industrial infrastructure.

In some countries the achievement of certain qualif ications is marked by the issuance of a cert if icate of qualification. The cert if ication is normally the responsibility of the employer , but it may be done by governmental or pro-fessional organizations, or (preferably) by authorized inspection organizations. The basis used for cert if ication includes such factors as: education, experience and training; test results; and demonstra t ion of capability.

3.4.3.3. Plant safety, safeguards and physical protection (see Sections 1.3.5 and 1.3.6)

These activities, the impor tance of which need no t be fu r ther emphasized, are a fundamenta l national responsibility. The development of local manpower t o per form the tasks involved is thus not optional , b u t necessary.

Nuclear safety, safeguards and physical protect ion are also mat ters of inter-national concern and common interest: nuclear accidents, proliferation of nuclear weapons, and diversion or t h e f t of nuclear materials have effects which go far beyond national borders. Consequently, international co-operation and assistance for manpower development in these subjects is readily available.

It is the responsibility of the owner /opera tor of a nuclear power plant or facility to ensure its safety. Insofar as this is involved in project implementat ion, the tasks t o ensure safety are per formed by professionals. Though legal responsi-bility for the consequences of any nuclear incident or accident lies with the owner/ operator , suppliers of goods or services (national or foreign) would also be deeply affected and thus share the c o m m o n interest of ensuring nuclear safety through the quality of their equipment , materials and professional teams.

All professionals responsible for or involved in the safety aspects of project implementa t ion require a high level of specialized nuclear training, i.e. one to two

years of formal academic training and at least one year of on-the-job training in addi t ion to professional experience according to the qualif ications for the d i f ferent funct ions .

Professionals no t only need the specialized training to qual ify them for their funct ions , they also require constant up-dating in their specialities. Much of tha t can be achieved through publications, but contac t with their counter-parts in other countries, a t tendance at meetings, seminars and courses is also highly advisable.

If a state is preparing to embark on a nuclear power programme and if it is planning to enter into a safeguards agreement with the Agency, it must have some system of account ing for and control of nuclear material. Courses are provided rout inely by the Agency to assist States ' personnel in designing and implementing a system of account ing for and control of nuclear materials. Al though these courses are s t ructured according to the requirements of INFCIRC/153 , they can be modi-fied to meet the needs of any count ry .

Only a few people are required for nuclear safeguards implementa t ion , bu t they must have specialized knowledge. Training in safeguards is a rout ine activity of the IAEA, which offers a two-week course to train the staff needed to administer the SSAC (State System of Account ing for and Control of Nuclear Materials). Training in safeguards is also per formed by o ther internat ional and national orga-nizations. Specialized courses of a few weeks' dura t ion are usually adequate t o qual ify this manpower .

Specialized courses for physical protec t ion are also available ( IAEA and others) for people with lead responsibilities in this activity. Basic nuclear instruc-t ion needed by security personnel is relatively easy to organize domestically and requires only a short t ime (1 to 2 weeks). Most of t he staff do not require specialized nuclear training, bu t all should receive basic training in radiation protec t ion.

3.4.4. Manufactur ing of equipment and componen t s (see Section 1.4 and Fig. 1 . 1 3 - 6 )

The amoun t of local manpower required for the manufac tu re of equipment and componen t s for t he nuclear power project depends almost entirely on the scope and schedule of the national part icipat ion programme.

The number of people required can be as high as several thousand professionals, technicians and craf tsmen. The overall number of people employed by the indus-tries involved in these activities would in fact be m u c h larger, and many of these people would be indirectly involved.

Training manpower for nuclear power plant equipment and componen t s manufac tur ing consists essentially in upgrading their qualif ications in conventional

436 SECTION 3.2.

engineering and technical areas, in order that they can per fo rm their tasks at the high s tandards of quali ty required by the nuclear power project .

For a developing count ry , at the outset of its nuclear power programme, nat ional part ic ipat ion in equipment manufac tur ing will generally not include the most advanced and sophisticated items in the nuclear s team supply system or the turbo-generator . Nevertheless, with the appropriate level or upgrading of the industrial inf ras t ructure and technical manpower , a significant amount of partici-pat ion is possible in such areas as electrical and mechanical equipment , and instru-menta t ion . The tasks and func t ions which would be per formed by local manpower and for which appropriate training is required include: design, planning, quality assurance and quali ty control , erection, procurement , maintenance, and research and development .

The specialized training involved would be to provide or upgrade qualifica-t ions in such areas as quality assurance and quality contro l ; codes and standards; inspection and testing techniques; electrical and mechanical systems and compo-nents ; metallurgy and properties of metals; welding; electrical and mechanical equipment and layout ; and ins t rumentat ion and cabling layout. Almost no specialized training in specifically nuclear subjects is required.

Table 3.4—2 presents an example of the experience and training required by mechanical craf tsmen for performing certain impor tan t tasks and func t ions in the manufac ture of equipment and components for a nuclear power programme.

3.4.5. Plant cons t ruct ion (see Section 1.5, Table 1.12—6 and Fig. 1.13—7)

Together with manufactur ing, construct ion is the most demanding activity in te rms of manpower and the one where technicians and especially craf tsmen play an essential role. The professional staff involved represents only a small f ract ion (about 3%) of the overall manpower requirements and is mainly associated with func t ions at t he managerial and supervisory levels. The remaining staff consists of technicians (12%) and craf tsmen (85%). The overall technical work force may n u m b e r 2300 to 3 2 0 0 with a peak of abou t 2000.

Professionals

From Table 1.12—6 one can see that the professional qualification which is most o f t en required is a degree in engineering (preferably civil, mechanical or electrical). It can also be seen that professionals in this activity do not necessarily need advanced academic degrees. However, a number of years of previous experience in major const ruct ion projects is mandatory for all manpower in this category. It must be borne in mind that no training can subst i tute for appropria te experience, particularly for const ruct ion activities.

For people in t op management and supervisory positions, previous experience in nuclear power plant const ruct ion is also essential. F o r the first nuclear project

in a count ry this experience is obviously unavailable domestically. Adequa te on-the-job training must therefore be sought abroad and can be organized through the main con t rac tor as a part of the contrac t package. Experience requirements also indicate the need and potent ia l of using the construct ion of a nuclear power project , especially the first one, to provide valuable training for developing the necessary management and technical capabilities in local professionals who will supervise fu tu re projects . Almost all professionals will need some specialized training consisting of basic courses in nuclear power and relevant on-the-job training. For management and part of the supervisory staff (chief engineers) specialized training in nuclear power technology is also required.

It should be emphasized, however, t ha t the const ruct ion activity requires mainly solid conventional engineering knowledge and skills f rom the professional staff . The specialized training in nuclear subjects is mean t to provide the necessary background so tha t the need for quali ty and for special me thods and procedures is thoroughly unders tood, and the interfacing with project management and engineering is done with a min imum of dif f icul ty .

Technicians

Only qualified technicians should be selected for const ruct ion of a nuclear power project , because its success depends on their ability to meet the necessarily high quali ty standards. Technicians have the role of interfacing between pro-fessionals and craf tsmen. This requires suff icient theoret ical knowledge to understand the problems and the language of the professionals, and practical training to master the skills required at the craf tsmen level. They have to know how a job is done to supervise craf tsmen and also why a job must be done to interpret adequately professionals ' instructions. Their training must there fore involve b o t h theoret ical instruct ion and practical training in laboratories and workshops and also relevant on-the-job training. Many of them are used as foremen, which requires extensive experience in an industrial environment and matur i ty t o comply with quali ty requirements .

For const ruct ion, the technicians ' qualif ications are fundamenta l ly in con-ventional disciplines. In these, they have to be well-trained. Any addit ional conventional training which might be needed will mainly depend on the level of the basic educat ion and training they have acquired in the national technician's training inst i tutes and on their experience.

Assuming this level to be in general sat isfactory, specialized training in the nuclear power field should be provided to possibly 30 to 50% of the technicians involved in the construct ion of the power plant. This training would consist of a basic technician 's course in nuclear power (see Table 3.3—3) and would enable them to fulf i l effectively their role of interfacing between professionals and crafts-men. Training in specific fields and techniques would also be needed for specialists.

TABLE 3 . 4 - 2 . FUNCTIONS, EXPERIENCE A N D TRAINING O F MECHANICAL CRAFTSMEN F O R A NUCLEAR INDUSTRY (Example: France)

Function/Tasks Experience/Training

Manual welder

Two possible levels after special training:

Level 1:

Performance of basic covered electrode arc welds on hot or cold nuclear components, of the following types:

— Stainless steel in flat ox horizontal position — Steel base metal in flat or horizontal position — Inconel welds in flat position.

The above operations conform to relevant production objectives and quality criteria (full volumetric examination).

Level 2:

Performance of basic covered electrode arc welding on ho t or cold nuclear components:

Standard welding proficiency, plus special training to obtain mandatory nuclear component qualifications; or welders with several years' manual basic electrode arc welding and the above-mentioned qualifications. Special additional training for Level 2.

— All work on base metal, stainless steel and Inconel in all positions — Semi-automatic welding in all positions — TIG welding with or without Inconel filler metal.

The above operations conform to relevant production objectives and quality criteria (full volumetric examination).

Automatic welder

After special training:

— Suitable operation of an automatic wire or strip welding

machine, with or without use of automatic guide process.

— Performance of all adjustments necessary to ensure suitable

operation of machines

— Conformity to production objectives and quality criteria applied

to nuclear components.

Lathe operator

— Operators assigned to heavy-duty vertical lathes

— Responsible for quality of the product to be machined, verification

of results and proper use of facilities provided

— Conformity to production objectives and quality criteria for

nuclear components.

Milling/boring machine operator

— Operators assigned to numerical control milling/boring machines

— Responsible for utilization of machines, quality of machined

products, verification of results and proper use of facilities and

equipment provided.

Broaching machine operator

— Operator assigned to special broaching machine

— Responsible for machine and tools provided

— Correct application of instructions for opt imum use of facilities

to ensure conformity to production and quality objectives.

Standard welding proficiency, plus special training to obtain

mandatory qualifications.

S > 2 *B O í

High-level practical/technical background for heavy-duty >n

machinery, specialized in lathe operation. Several years' O w

experience on vertical lathes. •< ffl r o •e £ ra Z H •n

High-level practical/technical background for heavy-duty O

machinery, specialized in boring/milling machine operation with

knowledge of numerical control (or special training). Several

years' experience on medium- or heavy-duty boring machines.

Standard mechanical background, plus on-the-job training with

machine.

Shotblaster

— Performance of surface cleaning by manual or automatic shotblasting — Responsible for machine and related facilities — Conformity to instructions: safety, quality objectives

No special qualifications. On-the-job training in factory. Related experience, if possible.

Fabricators and fitters

Several levels according to job assignments:

Level 1 :

— Performance of normal fitting work — Participation in fitting sub-assemblies or assemblies — Weld grinding.

Standard fabrication or pipe-fitter training. Knowledge of conventional fabrication work.

Level 2:

Above-mentioned tasks, plus:

- Performance of sub-assembly fitting or minor fabrication/fit t ing operations

— Capable of checking own or team-performed work.

Level 3:

Above-mentioned tasks, plus:

— Performance of major fabrication or fitting work in accordance with drawings and process sheets, including shop preparation of work station

— Performance of major package assembly operations — Capable of managing a work team and checking team-performed work.

(Equivalent level for fitters who work with fabricated or machined parts).

Higher-level practical technical training with several years' experience essentially in heavy fabrication.

Radiographic/ultrasonic/magnetic particle/liquid penetrant examiners

Several levels, depending on job assignments:

Level 1:

— Individual examination performance in accordance with normal examination specifications with no interpretation

— Performance of tandem examinations requiring two operators — No preparation of examination reports.

Level 2:

— Individual performance of examinations in relevant area(s), including preparation of examination reports and interpretations

— Stringent adherence to specifications without any individual decision-making.

Level 3:

Performance of all above-mentioned tasks, plus:

— Verify examination reports — Provide supervisory personnel with all necessary decision-making

information relative to non-conformances — Intervene in the event of examination discrepancy

Fabricator/welder crew manager

— Foreman level supervisory post — Responsible for work organization for a crew of 1 2 - 1 7 persons

specialized in fabrication or welding techniques — Performs job-related administrative tasks, work co-ordination

and verification of work performed by crew for compliance with schedule and quality requirements

— Works under the authority of a foreman.

For radiographic/magnetic particle/liquid penetrant examiners: Standard technical background, plus special training in relevant area. Level 1 qualification as per SNT-TC-1A (US regulations) mandatory.

For ultrasonic examination operator: S Technical background and higher general educational level. z Above-mentioned Level 1 classification mandatory. o

S As above with mandatory Level 2 qualification as per SNT-TC-1A. w

fo Ö tu < w r o "B

As above with mandatory Level 3 qualification as per SNT-TC-1 A. S ffl Z H tl O 73

High-level technical proficiency in relevant speciality, with 8 — 1 0 years' experience. Apti tude for supervisory responsibilities.

TABLE 3 . 4 - 2 (cont.)

Fabricator/welder foreman

— Supervisory post. Responsible for work organization for several crews (2, 3 or 4)

— Performs job-related administrative tasks, overall work co-ordination for several crews and verification of work performed for compliance with schedule and quality requirements in collaboration with the workshop manager

— Works under the authority of a workshop manager.

High-level technical proficiency in relevant speciality or several techniques, plus several years' experience as team supervisor. Aptitude for supervisory or organizational responsibilities.

The construct ion phase of a nuclear power project should be taken advantage of t o train technicians b o t h for fu ture projects and for the f u t u r e maintenance, overhaul, repairs and modif ica t ions of the power plant which is being const ructed. The technicians who were involved in the construct ion, erection, installation and testing of the structures, equipment , componen t s and systems will be in high demand and extremely useful later on. This t ype of training could be called ' in-the-job' training, since the personnel learn while performing a job .

Craftsmen

The largest amount of manpower required for const ruct ion are in the crafts-men category. Craf tsmen must undergo solid basic training in their specialities, which are the conventional crafts; only abou t 10 to 20% of them would need a basic course in nuclear power.

Specialized training for craf tsmen in construct ion may be limited to working procedures for clean condit ions, plant equipment layout, cabling layout, metrology, documenta t ion and some fundamenta l s of QA/QC.

All require working experience in heavy const ruct ion; some additional practical and theoretical training in conventional areas may be necessary to upgrade their manual dexter i ty to conform to higher quality standards. For craf tsmen training, hands-on practice is essential.

All welders must possess proficiency in their craft , and about one third of these should be licensed as class 1 welders. Similarly, some carpenters must be trained to achieve very close tolerances in form-work fabricat ion and installa-t ion. Special training courses and facilities might be required on-site.

While craf tsmen 's training should be primarily skill-oriented, basic theoretical training should also be imparted to assure the necessary awareness of why a certain job has to be performed in a prescribed manner in order t o achieve the required quality standards.

In general, the need for special training e f for t s to qual ify the construct ion personnel will fundamenta l ly depend on their basic educat ion and training. If the count ry has a high-level, experienced const ruct ion industry and a well-developed technician and craf tsmen training system, which is capable of producing an adequate number of skilled workers, the addit ional training effor ts for nuclear power plants should be relatively minor . Should this no t be the case, then major ef for ts would be required, in particular taking into account tha t construct ion is an essential activity for national part icipat ion. It would simply not be practical t o construct nuclear power plants with imported skilled manpower .

3.4.6. Plant commissioning (see Section 1.6, Table 1 . 1 2 - 7 and Fig. 1 . 1 3 - 8 )

Plant commissioning is carried out jo int ly by a team composed of special commissioning personnel of the uti l i ty, main contractor(s) , systems suppliers,

444 SECTION 3.2.

equipment manufacturers , architect-engineer (according to the type of cont rac t ) and the operat ions and maintenance staff, fo r whom this period const i tutes the last stage of their training. Altogether about 500 people will be involved, composed of abou t 25% professionals, 50% technicians and 25% craf tsmen. Mainly mechani-cal, electrical, nuclear, and ins t rumentat ion and control disciplines and skills are required, bu t chemistry, physics, metallurgy etc. are also needed.

A solid basis in conventional technical knowledge and experience is necessary but no t sufficient . The plant operat ions and maintenance personnel will receive special training for several years before commissioning starts; this is discussed in Section 3.4.7. The rest of the commissioning personnel will also need specialized training as well as experience. In fact , it could be said tha t the commissioning team is a team of specialists. This is also implied by the relatively high propor t ion of professionals and technicians.

All commissioning personnel should be given a basic course in nuclear power, and special instruct ion in the layout components , systems and processes of the nuclear power plant to be commissioned, as well as in basic radiation protect ion.

Professional and technician staff involved in the nuclear systems and opera-tional testing, and particularly the management and supervisory staff , all require specialized courses in nuclear technology. They must also have experience in nuclear power plant commissioning. Others will need addit ional specialized courses and on-the-job training depending on their level of knowledge and experience in their respective fields of specialization (courses on quality assurance, quality control , NDE, testing, inspection, ins t rumenta t ion are especially relevant).

It should be emphasized that the commissioning personnel of a nuclear power plant must possess an int imate knowledge of the plant ' s equipment , components , systems and processes.

Commissioning of a nuclear power plant , particularly if it is the first in a coun t ry , is an excellent oppor tun i ty for developing local manpower for fu tu re activities in the nuclear power programme.

3.4.7. Plant operation and maintenance (see Section 1.7, Table 1.12—8 and Fig. 1 . 1 3 - 9 )

Plant operat ion and maintenance is possibly the activity where more experience is available in training of personnel than in any other activity of a nuclear power programme. Training systems, methods , procedures and pro-grammes have been developed and are being applied all over the world. They d i f fer somewhat according to the count ry , util i ty or supplier, bu t they also show many similarities.

Training of nuclear power plant operat ions staff has been developed to a high level of expertise; nevertheless it is still undergoing cont inuous revision and modif ica t ions in order to achieve improvements . Accumulated experience

in the per formance of training and even more in the opera t ion of nuclear power plants (bo th rout ine operat ion and particularly incidents or accidents) serve as valuable feedback to the training programmes.

All professionals, technicians and craf tmen involved in plant operat ion and maintenance require specialized training according to the specific tasks and func-t ions they are to per form. Detailed informat ion on the training programmes and qualif icat ions is readily available f rom many di f ferent sources, mainly reactor suppliers and utilities with nuclear power plants. The IAEA has also developed and published a safety guide on 'Staff ing of Nuclear Power Plants and the Recruit-ment , Training and Author iza t ion of Operating Personnel ' [Ref .60] , which should be consulted. There are addit ional references contained in the References and Bibliography included in this Guidebook.

3.4. 7.1. Management and supervisory personnel

Selection and recrui tment of key personnel should occur about nine to ten years before the start of commercial operation, starting with the fu ture stat ion super intendent . It will be necessary for this key group to be in cont inuous contact with the project management and engineering divisions on technical mat te rs f r o m the beginning of the project implementa t ion . This group should contr ibute t o the engineering design review; in particular, since plant safe ty and maintenance are incorporated at this stage, they should assist engineering personnel through their operating experience while acquiring an int imate unders tanding of the project for which they will ult imately be responsible.

The selection of the key personnel is made on the basis of proven ability, relevant experience, matur i ty of judgement and safety-consciousness. For the first nuclear power plant in a count ry , previous experience in the operation of conventional (preferably thermal) power plants or nuclear research reactors is considered most desirable. For subsequent nuclear power plants, the key personnel would normally be selected f rom the experienced staff of earlier nuclear units.

The degree of training required by this key group is far more intensive and extensive than that required by others of the plant s taff . All key personnel require specialized courses in nuclear technology, on-the-job training and o ther specialized training according to their funct ions (see Table 1.12—8). By being involved in the project during its implementa t ion, they will acquire a thorough knowledge of the plant and all its systems and components . The last stage of their training programme will consist of their active part icipat ion in the com-missioning of the plant.

It is emphasized that the management and supervisory staff hold the main responsibility for the safe and reliable operat ion of the plant . Their training goal

TRAINING MODEL FOR LICENSED REACTOR OPERATORS

VI Pi n H O Z W

* USN = US Navy.

FIG.3.4-I. The training of nuclear power reactor operators in the United States of America.

is twofo ld . They mus t be qualified t o direct and supervise the rout ine operat ion and main tenance of t he plant, which will be their habi tual task, bu t they must also be fully qualified to act correctly in case of abnormal occurrences and emergencies. This last goal is t he main reason for t h e length and complexi ty of their training.

3.4.7.2. Plant operation personnel

Operat ion personnel do no t require advanced academic degrees but ra ther an extensive and solid working experience, part of which should be at an operat ing power plant , preferably nuclear.

If there are any operat ing nuclear power plants in the count ry , they must be regarded as a most valuable manpower development tool . If there are none, thermal power plants can be used to provide practical experience and training. For training in a power plant , a special uni t should be established to ensure the effectiveness of this training, while no t disrupting normal commercial operat ion.

For the first project in the count ry , training in a nuclear power plant is unavailable domestically, and obtaining it abroad may prove to be a most diff icul t problem. Reactor suppliers generally do not own nuclear power plants and usually can only provide simulator training. Hands-on experience with research reactors and /or p ro to types and demons t ra t ion plants, generally under the ownership of a nuclear energy commission or equivalent, can be made available through a bilateral governmental agreement between the export ing and t h e recipient count ry . If a reactor supplier has a close connect ion with a util i ty owning a nuclear power plant , it may be able t o convince the utility t o o f fe r a few oppor tuni t ies for on-the-job training at its nuclear power plant for the benefi t of t he buyer ' s trainees. It must be recognized, however, tha t such on-the-job training cannot go beyond being a t tached t o an operat ional shift as an observer. In no case would a trainee be allowed to operate a plant nor has he the legal right t o do so, if not duly author ized.

Selection and recrui tment of the operat ion personnel should start soon af te r const ruct ion of the plant has begun. First the professional staff are recrui ted, then technicians of the operat ion division, and finally the rest of the personnel. Recruit-ment should be scheduled in accordance with the training schedule and programme for the d i f ferent levels and categories of personnel. A year before start of commercial operat ion at the latest, s taff ing should be completed , and all personnel should already be on-site participating in the commissioning phase.

The training of plant operat ion personnel is directed to the safe and reliable opera t ion of the nuclear power plant , and includes a detailed understanding of the plant , its systems, equipment , control and ins t rumenta t ion . An example of opera tor training in the United States of America is given in Fig.3.4— 1.

448 SECTION 3.2.

Training to qual i fy as a nuclear power plant opera tor normally takes about four years. Operators ' training is usually divided into four phases:

— The first phase covers basic technical knowledge, including practical manipulat ion of a research reactor as well as operational training at a conventional thermal power station, for those having no previous experience in this area. This phase can usually be carried out domestically even for a first nuclear power project .

— The second phase deals with specific knowledge of the components , systems and processes of the nuclear power plant , and covers bo th the theory of their per formance and familiarity with the hardware installed in the plant .

— The third phase — operat ional practice — covers simulator training, practical experience in a nuclear power plant by a t tachment t o the operating team, training in operating procedures, and manipulat ion of the nuclear power plant controls.

These two phases (second and thi rd) can be effectively combined by alter-nating theoretical classroom training wi th practical experience and on-the-job training. F o r a first nuclear power projec t , these phases will require foreign assistance and training abroad, usually provided by the main cont rac tor or NSSS supplier.

— The four th phase takes place on-site and consists of part icipation in the commissioning of the power plant . During this last phase the personnel acquire an int imate knowledge of the plant they are going to operate.

The term operator has different meanings. The head of a shift is sometimes called an operator , the person who manipulates controls is called an operator , and persons who work on specific systems or componen t s may also be called operators. In this Guidebook, opera tors are defined in Table 1 . 1 2 - 8 according to their funct ions / tasks and qualifications.

All persons controlling or supervising changes in the operational status of the plant , or with duties having an immediate bearing on safety, must be specially authorized (or licensed) before they are allowed to perform these duties. This includes the:

— Plant super in tendent and his deputy — Operat ion super intendent — Shift supervisors and their deputies — Control r oom senior operators and operators

In addit ion, special author izat ion (or licensing) might be required for personnel in o ther positions, in particular in the safety division.

Specially authorized staff are usually required t o undergo periodic retraining and requalif icat ion, t o maintain their competence and upda te their skills, particu-larly with regard to response to abnormal occurrences and emergency condit ions.

A generous approach should be adopted b o t h in the defini t ion of the number of trainees t o be recruited for opera tor training, and in the determinat ion of the training programme (schedule, dura t ion and content ) . The extra expense and ef for t involved is entirely justified by :

— The consequence of any abnormal occurrence or accident that may be caused or cont r ibuted to by human error.

— The critical role of operating personnel in keeping the plant operating safely and reliably.

— The length and complexi ty of the training process.

— The strictness of the assessment of the operators ' qualif ications in order t o issue the necessary authorizat ions.

— The relatively high at t r i t ion rate that can be expected during and af te r training.

— The diff icul ty in replacing trained individuals if they leave.

— The need to provide experienced staff for fu tu re power plants of the nuclear power programme.

3.4. 7.3. Training on a simulator

A nuclear power plant is an extremely valuable training tool and should in general be utilized to the max imum extent . However, for opera tor training it has certain l imitations which should be taken into account .

— A trainee cannot have the direct responsibility of operating the plant unti l he is duly authorized t o do so.

— Training on a power plant entails a certain risk of incorrect operat ional actions which could produce in ter rupt ions in the electricity supply, incidents or even accidents and damage.

— A power plant cannot be t aken out of service to practice shutdowns or startups.

— Practical training for conceivable abnormal situations, accidents and emergencies is no t possible.

Because of these l imitations, nuclear power plant simulators are increasingly being used for training and testing the practical ability of operators as well as for retraining.

450 SECTION 3.2.

Considering the training of new operators and the need for retraining for renewal of authorizat ion, a nuclear power programme involving about four to five reactors would make ful l use of the available training t ime of a simulator. Therefore , two opt ions have to be considered :

— Using the services of a foreign simulator facility, or — Building a local simulator.

Apart f rom the economic considerations that compare the costs of training abroad (training services, daily allowances, travel costs etc.) with the capital, operat ions and maintenance costs of a simulator training centre in the count ry itself, the advantages of installing a local simulator are the following:

— Not all available simulators around the world are useful for training operators of a given plant. The simulator must represent at least the same type of power plant , if it is to have a reasonable value for t raining, i.e. provide a thorough knowledge of operat ing principles and practices.

— There is no guarantee that appropriate training facilities abroad will be available at the t ime training is required.

— Retraining of personnel is required th roughout the lifetime of the power plant . This means tha t the dependence of the uti l i ty on foreign training will no t cease with the complet ion of the initial training of the operators. Training will be, for the utility, a cont inuing commi tment .

— The fact that there are no identical power plants, even if they have the same reactor concept f rom the same supplier, penalizes those training on simulators designed for 'universal' use. The control room that is simulated can be quite d i f ferent f r o m the one the trainees will find back home. This will require extra training af terwards on the power plant which they will operate.

— Foreign training involves special condi t ions and limitations which might reduce its effectivness, in particular for technicians. These are discussed in Section 3.2.4.2.

A simulator of a nuclear power plant will cost, with its building, on the order of several million US dollars. Abou t five years are required f rom the developing of t h e technical specifications, through commercial negotiations, design, construc-t ion and testing, u p to the start of training opera tors on the customer 's premises.

The installation and operat ion of a simulator facility will require a specific manpower development programme for bo th the design and the instructors ' teams.

A design team of abou t three to six people should be responsible for the simulator specifications and the follow-up of t h e design and manufac ture of the simulator. This team should be made up of engineers with knowledge of thermal

or nuclear power plant systems and control and ins t rumenta t ion . The dura t ion of their assignment should be about three to four years.

The instructors ' team should consist preferably of fo rmer thermal or nuclear power plant operating engineers as well as engineers with good teaching abilities. This team has to undergo a training process lasting about 18 months , t o get a comple te understanding of the simulated power plant systems and operat ion, and the plant behaviour under normal , abnormal and accidental condit ions. For a simulator util ization of eight hours per day, this team will consist of five to six people.

3.4. 7.4. Maintenance and other plant personnel

Of the overall number of technical operat ion and maintenance personnel , abou t 30% are in the operat ion division. The rest (70%) corresponds to main-tenance, plant safety, various technical support ing services and training. The requirements of plant maintenance personnel, in particular, depend very much on the extent of centrally organized maintenance done by the utility.

Professionals in maintenance and o ther in-plant activities in general do not need advanced academic educat ion but ra ther sound and extensive industrial experience. Expertise is mainly required in mechanical, electrical, chemical and electronic engineering. Sources of recrui tment are utilities (power plants), refineries and o ther large process plants in the count ry . All these personnel must receive specialized training in nuclear power and mus t have experience in maintenance and /or o ther operat ions tasks at operating power plants. Experience in nuclear power plants for at least one year is highly desirable. They must become thoroughly familiar with the power plant , its systems, components , equipment and processes, in order to be able to carry ou t their duties. On an average, they will receive two to three years of specialized training and then participate in the commissioning of the plant.

For technicians and craf tsmen, specialized training in nuclear power is manda tory . As a min imum, they require basic courses in nuclear power and in radiation protec t ion , on the appropria te levels. In t imate knowledge of the plant layout is essential to locate the physical plant equipment and controls. Training of this personnel must be imparted through extensive workshop experience; drills on mock-ups are very useful . Qualification of these technicians and crafts-men is essential, since their work directly af fec ts plant operat ions and safety. Their manual dexter i ty in maintenance and repairs must be developed to a high degree. Ability t o disassemble and re-assemble equipment , and to replace spares in strict conformance with maintenance manuals is required for all technicians and craf tsmen.

In addit ion to being trained for their specific funct ions , all plant operat ion and maintenance personnel have to receive special ins t ruct ion in emergency proce-dures. Drills are t o be held periodically to ensure the effectiveness of the emergency plans and to ascertain the plant personnel 's correct reactions.

452 SECTION 3.2.

3.4.8. Fue l cycle (see Section 1.8 and Table 1 . 1 2 - 9 ( a ) - ( c ) ) ,

The nuclear fue l cycle includes dif ferent types of activities. Each of them presents special requirements for manpower development which have to be considered separately.

Procurement of fue l cycle materials and services requires a relatively small team of professionals with expertise in the technical, economic, commercial and legal aspects of the fuel cycle. These people need to have basic training in nuclear power and specialized knowledge of the fundamenta l aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle. They need t o be generalists with a wide scope of knowledge, which is usually acquired th rough years of experience in posit ions of responsibility. Early and continuing involvement with the nuclear power programme and the nuclear power project planning activities would be desirable.

The principal qualif ication of the professional s taff for uranium explorat ion is relevant experience in this specific field. Specialized training courses can be useful fo r up-dating and broadening their knowledge; bu t such courses cannot replace professional experience. Specialized training in uranium explorat ion tech-niques is r ecommended for experienced technicians as well as for professionals starting in the activity.

Mining and milling of uranium are activities which also require previous experience, bu t n o t necessarily related t o uranium. Specialized training in uranium mining and milling and in radiation protect ion would only be needed for the management and professional staff as well as for a few technicians, but it would no t require major ef for ts .

Most of the o the r activities of the nuclear fuel cycle are either chemical or mechanical processes or a combinat ion of bo th . These are:

— Conversion — Enr ichment — Fuel element fabrication — Reprocessing — Waste management

A c o m m o n requirement for the personnel involved in these activities is a solid conventional background and industrial experience. But, in addit ion, specialized training is also required.

Owing t o the fac t t ha t radioactive materials are handled, basic training in radiat ion pro tec t ion should be given to all personnel. There are also professionals and technicians whose specific func t ion is safety and radiation protect ion. These will have t o receive in-depth specialized training in this area, including formal as well as on-the-job training. Foreign training oppor tuni t ies are readily available in safety and radiat ion protect ion, and the implementa t ion of domestic training does no t present ma jo r diff icult ies once a qualified group of key personnel and instructors is available.

Addit ional specialized training of personnel for these nuclear fuel cycle areas would also be needed, depending on which activities were to be implemented. Such training could best be provided by six mon ths t o a year on-the-job training in operat ing facilities. This is diff icul t to accomplish th rough foreign training owing mainly t o political and commercial restrictions (non-prol iferat ion concerns, proprietary nature of t he informat ion) . In some cases, however, solutions have been f o u n d through bilateral and commercial agreements which usually include acquisit ion of plants or equipment , t ransfer of technology and the training of personnel.

Basic courses in nuclear power and specialized training in subjects such as nuclear materials properties, radiat ion effects , nuclear metallurgy, quali ty assurance and quali ty control , nuclear waste t rea tment procedures , radioactive materials handling and radiochemistry can be very useful in providing the technical staff with an appropr ia te background and the understanding of the specific processes, the technology and the quality requirements .

3.4.9. Nuclear licensing and regulation (see Section 1.9, Table 1 . 1 2 - 1 0 and Fig. 1 . 1 3 - 1 0 )

The success in achieving the goals of the licensing and regulatory activities depends on the availability of fully qualified staff . I t is to be emphasized that the regulatory body staff must have at least as m u c h experience and training as those who per form the activities which are regulated, and preferably more .

Experience is a fundamenta l requirement to qual i fy the regulatory personnel. Consequent ly , manpower development for staffing the regulatory body must begin at the earliest stages of a nuclear power programme. As the programme progresses, the staff and the tasks and func t ions will increase, and the availability of experienced personnel will improve.

Since the legislative process required to enact appropr ia te regulatory authori-zation is usually lengthy, this t ime should be utilized to implement the manpower development for the regulatory body . This lead t ime can be utilized to develop the nucleus of the regulatory body staff at the start of t he planning phase of the nuclear power programme and of t he first nuclear power project . At the earliest stages, some use can be made of outs ide experts to assist t he regulatory body in the per formance of its funct ions , b u t it is essential t o aim at developing national competence in as many technical areas as possible.

Developing countries, in particular, must be aware of their special needs regarding the fo rmat ion and func t ions of a regulatory body and of the demands these make on the manpower development plan and schedule.

An IAEA Safety Guide, 'Qualif icat ions and Training of Staff of the Regulatory Body for Nuclear Power Plants ' (50-SG-G1), has been prepared and published within the NUSS (Nuclear Safety Standards) programme Ref. [ 2 6 ] . The purpose

454 SECTION 3.2.

of this Guide, which should be consulted with regard to the subject of this section, is t o provide recommendat ions and guidance for:

— Establishing the qualification requirements for the staff of the regulatory body.

— Establishing the initial and refresher training programmes and training activities necessary for personnel within the regulatory body.

Regulatory staff are mostly professionals; the requirements for technicians are not significant. Both generalists and specialists are needed. The main engineer-ing disciplines are: mechanical, chemical, civil, nuclear and electrical engineering. In addit ion, there is a wide range of specialities required such as ecology, fluid mechanics, geology, health physics, heat transfer, metallurgy, quality assurance, reactor physics, nuclear safety. Academic qualifications should preferably be on the M.S. level or equivalent. To qualify as an expert , 15 to 2 0 years of experience in the specific field might be needed.

Specialized training for regulatory staff is fundamenta l ly similar to what is considered necessary for those who perform the activities to be regulated, bu t always with an or ientat ion and emphasis towards nuclear safety aspects. In general, one to two years of specialized training should be adequate to provide the background needed. On-the-job training in regulatory activities is highly desirable. Short specialized courses and seminars are very useful even for experienced staff , to upda te and broaden their knowledge.

No special restrictions apply t o foreign training, which is relatively easy to obtain. It is only limited by the available training opportuni t ies . Regulatory bodies are governmental agencies and access to on-the-job training can usually be obtained under bilateral agreements. There are also international courses organized by the IAEA on several relevant subjects.

In the development of domest ic training activities for regulatory staff outside experts (local or foreign) can play a substantial role. Normally, a regulatory body is no t expected to be entirely self-sufficient in all technical areas, and the assistance of outside experts is required. It is impor tant that such experts have also a man-power development role. They should always be assigned suitable counterpar ts f rom the regulatory staff and should also provide training in general, in the form of conferences, seminars or courses.

3.4.10. Manpower development programme

The personnel who are to staff the manpower development programme will be essentially of two types:

— The manpower which will be responsible for planning, co-ordinating and controll ing the national manpower development programme (see Section 3.1.3).

— The manpower which will effectively implement this programme, i.e. the 'manpower developers' , educators or trainers.

Manpower in the first group should be generalists with considerable experience and extensive general knowledge. As previous high-level experience in overall planning and management would be perhaps the most impor tan t qualif ication, and as the activities of this group would not require specialists having experience and knowledge in any defini te area of expertise, this personnel would be recruited primarily on the basis of the qualif ications they already possess rather than with the objective of providing them with specialized training for performing their tasks and funct ions . Nevertheless, specialized training to acquaint them with the overall aspects of nuclear power should be given to those who do no t have this background. This would consist primarily of a basic course in nuclear power.

For the manpower in the second group — the trainers — manpower develop-ment will consist of ensuring tha t they are not only thoroughly qualified t o per form the tasks and func t ions of the area in which they will be providing training, bu t also tha t they have the necessary skills for training. This means that training the trainers will require a somewhat larger e f for t than training the personnel who are t o pe r fo rm the activities of the nuclear power programme.

The trainers fo r the professionals would themselves be professionals. The theoretical training of technicians and craf tsmen would generally be provided by professionals, while their practical training would be given by technicians.

For educat ion and training in non-nuclear subjects, the national educat ion and training infras t ructures should in general be relied u p o n to provide the trainers. If t he technician training infras t ructure level (educational and industrial) is no t ade-qua te in certain areas, it must be upgraded in order to provide the trainers with the level of knowledge and practical experience needed.

The initial group of professionals and technicians trained abroad in specialized nuclear subjects would provide the core which would then in turn impart their specialized knowledge to others, in domest ic training inst i tutes and centres.

Domestic training is the key to national manpower development , bu t this can only start when trainers are available. Foreign assistance, bo th in providing training oppor tuni t ies and trainers, can have a limited bu t impor tant e f fec t in helping the nat ional manpower development programme to ' take o f f .

In addit ion to the basic and specialized training which the country can pro-vide through its existing resources or through the upgrading of its educat ion and training infrastructures, it is advisable for it t o develop its potent ia l to provide o ther kinds of specialized nuclear training within the coun t ry itself, initially through bilateral arrangements or the assistance of internat ional organizations such as the IAEA. One possibility would be to develop courses and workshops on specialized nuclear topics, in which the practical aspects are emphasized and the trainees are taught how to do the tasks and func t ions they will have to pe r fo rm

456 SECTION 3.2.

the goal being to produce manpower ready to begin on-the-job training or to per-f o r m the actual job under supervision. The local instructors for this kind of training would also be ' trained-by-doing' , i.e. they would learn f rom and with the foreign experts who would initially provide the training in the courses and work-shops. If the local counterpar ts and trainees do no t understand the foreign language, in terpreta t ion and translation of all materials will be necessary. This is advisable in all cases because of the language l imitat ions usually encountered, especially at the technicians and craf tsmen level bu t also among professionals.

Such an approach would provide within the count ry practical training simultaneously to b o t h the trainers of local manpower and to the manpower itself for the specific tasks and funct ions of the nuclear power programme. The ability t o provide such training, which would no t normally be available or would take a long t ime to develop within the count ry , would also be more cost-effective and serve directly to raise the level no t only of manpower qualifications bu t also of t he educat ion and training infrastructures.

3.5. PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

Sound personnel management ensures that the manpower required for the nuclear power programme is correctly and effectively developed and utilized. It determines that the right a m o u n t and kinds of qualified people are recruited and trained to fill the tasks and func t ions when needed for the nuclear power programme, tha t this personnel is retained and tha t good and efficient working condi t ions prevail.

Within each count ry ' s administrative inf ras t ruc ture there exists usually a number of d i f ferent personnel management systems, which depend on the needs and condi t ions of the country . Thus, it is n o t possible or desirable to develop a detailed model of personnel management tha t can be transferred to all countries as an integral part of their manpower development programme for nuclear power .

The in t roduct ion of modern personnel management systems should be the result of carefully planned policies and strategies and should no t merely be an ad hoc response t o crisis. The application of these approaches is no t conf ined to nuclear power programmes bu t could also be extended to any other industrializa-t ion projects. For fu r ther in format ion on the topics discussed in Section 3.5, reference is made to the large body of l i terature on the personnel management topics discussed here (see Refs [ 1 0 9 - 1 1 2 ] ) .

3.5.1. Organization goals and tasks

Personnel management requires tha t clear goals and tasks be established for all organizations involved in the activities of the nuclear power programme, and that these goals be co-ordinated to ensure tha t all essential funct ions are covered and unnecessary duplicat ion is avoided.

3.5.1.1. Personnel policies

Personnel policies need t o be established which cont r ibute t o the goals of the organization by ensuring a high level of per formance and motivat ion of the staff . They should take in to account the existing laws, ethics and tradit ions of the count ry in which the organization operates.

In many countries nuclear power programme activities are within the govern-mental or public sector, which is very o f t en characterized by highly standardized personnel policies. Fur thermore , public personnel management systems are generally highly s t ructured and basically legalistic in or ientat ion. The administra-tive generalist is usually the cornerstone of such a system.

458 SECTION 3.2.

However, personnel policies for a nuclear power programme should be based on principles successfully applied in industry ra ther than in the public sector because nuclear power programmes:

— Involve the electric util i ty as well as o ther industrial sectors

— Involve advanced technologies requiring highly specialized manpower , for which they compete with o ther industrial activities

Co-ordination of the personnel policies of all organizations in the nuclear power programme is necessary:

— To avoid unjust i f ied differences of condit ions of emp loymen t and over-bidding in recrui tment

— To facilitate the exchange of personnel within the programme

— To enhance cost-effectiveness

3.5.1.2. Personnel services

Personnel management should not be confined to advising top management on the formula t ion of sound personnel policies and implementing these policies as a service t o line management . It should also help employees fulfi l their own individual needs and aspirations within the organization to the ex ten t possible wi thout det r iment t o the programme. In trying to reconcile the requirements of personnel management wi th individual needs, t he former must take precedence over the latter in case of confl ict . Close co-operation between personnel services and line management should be insti tutionalized, because most technical or economic decisions have a decisive impact on personnel.

The following typical personnel funct ions are usually carried out by personnel services:

— Personnel policy formula t ion — Personnel planning — Recru i tment — Placement — Training — Career development — Personnel administrat ion — Salary administrat ion — Social security and staff welfare

Personnel management , in addition to personnel administrat ion, increasingly involves and emphasizes organizational and personnel planning, solving complex socio-technical problems and securing high per formance and high motivat ion

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT 459

f r o m the staff . This kind of personnel management is no t passive b u t is rather a driving force for improved eff iciency.

Personnel services should be s taf fed with properly trained, ta lented and motivated persons and not considered as the final career stage for people who have been somewhat less than successful in o ther areas. Since there are few specific courses of s tudy for personnel managers, they should be selected f r o m among highly qualified economists , psychologists, sociologists, jurists, engineers, scientists, etc. who have substantial professional working experience and the required personality t o deal effectively with people. Personnel managers should have a good unders tanding of the operat ions and tasks carried out within the organization. The manpower required to staff adequately such personnel services is usually between 1 t o 2% of the organization's to ta l number of employees, depending on the scope of func t ions t o be per formed and the quali ty of the organization's line management .

3.5.1.3. Personnel planning

Personnel planning plays a crucial role in the proper util ization of manpower in tha t it co-ordinates and interrelates the numbers and qualifications of staff with the objectives and schedules of the various activities and organizations in the nuclear power programme. It ensures that the correct numbers of qualified personnel are available where and when they are needed.

Initially and for smaller organizations a pragmatic approach to personnel planning is usually suff icient , and the educated judgement of the persons directly involved in the activity to be per formed is a good basis for making a short- term forecast .

Scheduling is a particularly impor tan t element of personnel planning. The personnel plan should indicate when the various posts have to be filled in accordance wi th the progress of the nuclear power programme and project schedules.

3.5.2. Recruitment and selection

3.5.2.1. Recruitment planning

Personnel planning will provide the quant i ta t ive and qualitative data necessary for proper recru i tment planning. Short- term and long-term recrui tment plans should be prepared. The short- term plan would show, usually for one year, how many posts requiring what qualifications have t o be filled, where and when. To utilize the manpower potent ia l available in the organization and facilitate career development , the recrui tment plan can be supplemented by a replacement chart which indicates who of the existing staff would be ready to move into vacated posit ions as vacancies occur.

460 SECTION 3.2.

3.5.2.2. Post descriptions and profiles

Before recrui tment act ion is taken, t he requirements of the post must be clearly established. The post description will give most of these requirements , including the tasks for which the post has been established. The post description should show the place of the post within the s t ructure of the organization in which the incumbent would be working, indicate to whom the incumbent reports and who repor ts to him, list the major responsibilities and duties, and state the qualif ications required.

The post description is the basis fo r a number of di f ferent personnel management activities such as recrui tment , post classification, per formance appraisal, personnel planning and training.

Clear post descriptions have the advantage of defining the boundaries of posts and the incumbents ' accountabil i ty for actions and decisions falling within their competence . This is particularly impor tan t for the many safety-oriented tasks and func t ions in a nuclear power programme. In case of organizational or o ther changes, post descriptions need to be updated to reflect accurately the post.

For most effective recrui tment , the personal abilities and apt i tudes required of t he candidates should additionally be def ined in the form of a profile, which states the knowledge, professional experience and personality factors (such as suitability for team work) required in the post . The personality fac tors should be based on common relevant characteristics found empirically in persons who have successfully per formed similar funct ions. For example, communica t ion skills, managerial and supervisory capabilities would be required for performing some of the impor t an t tasks and func t ions of senior management and technical personnel such as plant superintendents , site managers, etc.

Both the post description and the profi le would be used for the advertisement and selection of candidates.

3.5.2.3. Advertisement of vacancies

The success of recru i tment largely depends on the attractiveness of the organization as a fair employer offering not only competit ive condit ions of employ-ment bu t also challenging work and reasonable career opportuni t ies . The attractiveness is influenced by the general image of an organization, i.e. whether or n o t it is reputed to be a modern , future-oriented organization which contri-butes t o the coun t ry ' s economy and wealth. Generally, the activities of a nuclear power programme, which utilize advanced technologies and of fe r many highly specialized and interdisciplinary jobs, are attractive to qualified s taff . However, as the public debate on nuclear energy may have an effect on this attractiveness, the effectiveness of the organization's public in format ion programme has an influence on recrui tment . I t is therefore highly desirable that co-ordination

exists be tween the recru i tment and public informat ion activities of the organization.

The expected scarcity of highly qualified personnel makes active and imaginative recru i tment necessary. It is no t suff icient t o distr ibute vacancy notices and wait fo r applicants. As wide a distr ibution as possible of vacancy notices and, even be t te r , the advert isement of openings in newspapers or technical journals is necessary to reach all possible sources of applicants. However, a direct approach to universities, training inst i tut ions and professional societies has of ten proved more successful.

3.5.2.4. General aspects of selection

Successful selection is the objective of the whole recrui tment process. As a general rule, the more senior the posi t ion (higher responsibility, salary and training costs) t he more t ime should be spent in selecting the candidate. A sufficiently long probat ionary period will enable the organization to verify the selection.

Particular care should be taken in selecting managers and supervisors, since they a f fec t decisively the per formance of any organization. In m a n y organizations the posts involving managerial or supervisory funct ions are o f t en filled by p romot -ing individuals who in their limited field of work have had a good record of successful accomplishments . In a nuclear power programme such persons will probably be specialists, and it cannot be taken for granted tha t they can per fo rm their managerial func t ions as eff icient ly as their technical duties.

Good personnel morale would dic ta te p romot ing within the organization whenever possible. If managers and supervisors are sought f r o m within the organization, they are usually well-known, which makes the task of assessing their potent ia l much easier. However, the selection should no t be based only on the impression which the immediate superior has of the prospective candidates or only on previous per formance appraisals.

There is very o f t e n a tendency to recruit candidates with the highest level of educat ion, al though the post could be per formed by someone with lower qualifi-cations. The 'best man with the highest level of educat ion ' is no t necessarily the best man to do a certain job . Overqualified persons, al though they might initially accept lower duties, will eventually expect t o advance to a post commensura te with their qualif ications. They will, therefore , consider their post as only a transit ional step in their career and, if their expectat ions are no t met , f rustra t ion will be the inevitable result . Fur the rmore , their interact ion with colleagues who are adequately qualified and performing the same duties bu t who have a lower level of educat ion is a potent ia l source of fr ict ion.

Whatever the me thods of selection chosen, it is impor tan t that they reflect a high degree of objectivity and fairness. This me thod of recrui tment at t racts the best qualified candidates, and improves personnel morale, eff iciency and job satisfaction.

462 SECTION 3.2.

3.5.2.5. Methods of selection

(a) Documenta t ion

The evaluation of wri t ten documenta t ion such as curricula vitae, certificates and degrees should be used for the pre-selection of candidates who seem to be suitable, or conversely for the exclusion of persons who obviously do no t meet the requirements . References, while useful, are usually not objective.

(b) Interviews

Interviews are widely used as a second step in the selection process. They usually yield sat isfactory results, if they are conducted by experienced persons and are properly prepared for in advance. Questions related to the candidate 's motives for applying or t o his technical competence should be standardized so as t o ensure tha t all candidates are subject to the same condit ions and that results are comparable. However, this should no t result in a mechanical reading of a list of quest ions and not ing the answers. The whole interview should be a dialogue in which mainly the candidate talks and the interviewer listens. Candidates should be interviewed by at least two persons to enable cross-checking and minimize bias and error. Interviewing skills of persons involved in the selection process can be improved through training, which should include inter-viewing techniques and preparat ion and evaluation of interviews.

Interviews could be complemented by group discussions, particularly for professional or managerial posts. A small group of candidates would be requested to agree on a relevant topic and discuss it in the presence of the interviewers. The interviewers would only interfere if the group could not reach agreement on the topic or if t he discussion took an undesirable direction. The interact ion of candidates in the group would allow experienced interviewers t o draw conclusions as t o the individual 's suitability for leadership, team work , oral expression, persuasiveness, ability to communica te effectively and the like. Such group dis-cussions have, however, inherent problems and may be counter-productive, if no t carefully prepared, controlled and evaluated.

(c) Examinat ions

University graduates wi thout working experience or others whose general level of educat ion is impor tan t for performing the tasks and funct ions of the posts t o be filled (for instance, if extensive training is required) could be given compe-titive examinat ions t o make selections more objective. Competi t ive examinat ions are particularly useful in countries where standards of educat ion differ widely f r o m university t o university, a l though the same degrees are awarded.

The examinat ions should n o t be t oo general or abstract , and must be related to the specific j o b requirements . Universities or other training inst i tut ions in many countries o f t en concent ra te on abstract mat ters in relative isolation f rom actual problems and realities; consequent ly practical tests should also be given. There is o f t en a tendency to count any practical work as secondary and to over-est imate theoret ical knowledge.

It is impor tan t tha t the candidate be able t o demonst ra te that he has the ability to apply his theoretical knowledge to solving practical problems. Prospec-tive supervisors should also demonst ra te their ability to show their potent ia l co-workers how to pe r fo rm certain practical and/or manual operations.

(d) Psychological tests

Under proper testing condit ions, psychological tests might be an effective means of personnel selection. Such tests could provide an addit ional basis fo r effective evaluation and comparison of candidates for certain posts or training programmes. Psychological tests require substantial e f for t , because the reliability of wha t they measure must be verified, which can only be done through extensive testing. The administrat ion of the tests and interpreta t ion of the test results must be made by trained psychologists.

It should be noted, however, tha t there is widespread concern about the use of psychological tests such as personali ty tests and psycho-physiological measure-ments , because they may invade privacy and may give distorted or meaningless results. Their reliability and predictive value for personnel selection may be ra ther doub t fu l , since most were originally designed for o ther purposes, such as medical diagnosis. Other shortcomings are tha t the personality theories on which the tests are based are of ten no t relevant t o the work situation and tha t the criteria cnosen might no t be correct .

The UN Commission on Human Rights has, therefore , emphasized that in psychological examinat ions carried out in relation to employment or educat ion, only such informat ion shall be sought which has a direct bearing on employment or capacity t o under take a course of s tudy 1 . This requirement is most ly met by so-called si tuational tests of individual differences (e.g. styles of personal inter-act ion, management effectiveness) and ap t i tude tests (e.g. apt i tude to per form certain tasks). Such tests cannot simply be in t roduced by borrowing models f r o m other countries, because they are very much affected by cultural and social differences. It is therefore necessary for such tests to take in to account the condit ions prevailing within the count ry itself, by having these tests prepared in co-operation wi th local specialists in the field.

UN ECOSOC documen t E /CN.4 /1116 , 23 January 1973, paragraphs 1 7 4 - 2 7 7 .

464 SECTION 3.5

3.5.3. Compensation

3.5.3.1. Salary system

In order t o be competi t ive, salaries must be equitable, related to work per formance and comparable t o the nat ional pay rates for similar work and qualifications. In most countries, the organizations involved in a nuclear power programme will compete with o ther industrialization projects for highly qualified personnel , and salaries should consequently be oriented towards the private sector and, in particular, towards industry.

In countries where the government service dominates the labour market , salaries would tend t o be established by reference to the rates of pay in the civil service. However, civil service pay is o f t en inadequate t o retain professionals who are specialists, because typical civil service structures under-classify them in relation to posts of generalists. As"a consequence, such staff will tend to leave the civil service for nat ional or foreign private organizations, which are in a bet ter posi t ion to o f fe r more attractive salaries. An example of this is the case of qualified regulatory body staff , who are extremely impor tan t fo r the entire nuclear power programme and typically belong to the civil service. To ensure re tent ion of this personnel, governments should be prepared to pay higher salaries and o f fe r o ther competi t ive condit ions of employment .

If there exists an ext reme manpower shortage, any a t t empt to improve recrui tment by out-bidding o ther employers usually increases the costs wi thout solving the problem. In such a si tuation, long-term improvement can only be achieved through a long-range and thorough manpower development programme, which includes the training and career development of more personnel. If, for reasons of recru i tment and re tent ion, it is necessary to pay a higher rate than fo r o ther comparable work , this should be motivated by the higher qualifications required for a nuclear power programme. It would be dangerous to jus t i fy higher pay with the part icular hazards to which persons engaged in a nuclear power programme might be exposed since this may seem to imply the existence of insufficient safety measures, which could be compensated by higher salaries.

The salary range for a group of posts comprising the same type of work and requiring basically the same qualifications should be wide enough to recognize d i f ferent levels of responsibility and duties (grade levels) and provide for reasonable p romot ion oppor tuni t ies (e.g. assistant operator , operator , and senior control room operator) . There should not be too wide a gap between the salary ranges for the d i f ferent grade levels and, in fact , some overlapping is desirable. The overlapping takes account of the fact that in many jobs it is difficult to draw a clear line between dif ferent levels of responsibility and duties and that there is a desirable evolution to the next highest level as working experience and capabilities increase.

The spread of t he salary ranges should be about 20 to 40% for the various levels of responsibility and duties in a group of posts, so that those remaining in a single grade can have a modest advancement over a period of years and recognit ion can be given for better-than-average work performance.

What is said above in respect of t he relationship between the d i f ferent grade levels wi thin one group of posit ions also applies to the relationship be tween d i f ferent groups requiring di f ferent qualif ications (be tween, fo r instance, technicians and engineers).

Even if the salaries for the group with lower educat ional qualifications are favourable in absolute terms, any significant gap be tween this group (e.g. tech-nicians) and the nex t highest group (e.g. engineers) will be considered as an indicat ion of a limited recognit ion of the work per formed by the technicians ' group. As a consequence, they will strive t o obtain the educational and o ther qualif ications to advance to the higher group. The resulting fluctuation might be to the de t r iment of b o t h groups, as it would probably be the less qualified who remained in the group with lower educat ional qualifications, while the advancing staff would not necessarily improve the quality of t he next higher group. In o ther words, a well-qualified technician would not necessarily make an equally quali-fied engineer.

3.5.3.2. Post classification and salary administration

Post classification should ensure tha t positions carrying the same level of responsibilities and duties have basically the same pay.

If the post classification system is no t complemented by a performance-related element and is no t linked with a career development system, it might be counter-product ive t o motivating s ta f f ; and unless the career development system is interrelated with per formance appraisal and training it will be of d o u b t f u l value t o b o t h the organization and its employees (see Sections 3.5.3 and 3.5.4).

Various me thods of post classification have been developed; some methods evaluate positions as a whole and rank them, or compare them with pre-determined classification series or with benchmark post descriptions. Some of these me thods are discussed below.

(a) Fac tor evaluation

Fac tor evaluation is an analytical me thod which breaks down the conten t of tne posi t ion and analyses it in terms of classification factors considered to be c o m m o n to all posit ions. Such a me thod can be combined wi th a point-rating m e t h o d under which each fac tor is assigned a certain number of points arranged logically on a graduated scale. A point- factor evaluation method is particularly well suited for posts consisting of a varied combinat ion of tasks extending over

466 SECTION 3.2.

dif ferent fields of work. Such positions are usually the case in a nuclear power programme, where interdisciplinary work is a p redominant feature.

Which factors are t o be chosen under such an analytical system depends on the requirements of the posts to be classified. The most common factors are those usually referred to as the Geneva scheme, which includes (1) knowledge and skills required, (2) responsibility, (3) e f fo r t and (4) working condit ions. However, this scheme is generally considered to be less suitable for supervisory and managerial posts, unless the four main factors are broken down in to more sub-factors. For example , in t he case of post classifications for higher-level positions, the 'knowledge ' fac tor is o f ten divided in to sub-factors such as educat ional requirements and professional experience, problem-solving, super-visory responsibility and decision-making. It is advisable to apply d i f ferent factors for managerial and supervisory posts on the one hand and specialists wi thout managerial responsibility on the other (research staff , advisors, scientists, etc.) in order t o avoid a built-in bias in favour of one or the other group.

To select the appropr ia te factors and allocate the right number of points requires a great deal of testing as well as good judgement . Not all factors need have the same weight. Because the in t roduct ion of an analytical me thod of j o b classification such as the point-factor evaluation method is a complex and costly project , such me thods have not yet been widely int roduced, even in the developed countries.

(b) Other classification schemes

In addi t ion to the analytical method , o ther task-related bases of post classifi-cation can be used, fo r example:

— Ranking of all posts in accordance with their relative value t o the organization

— Using hierarchical levels, as defined in the organizational chart

These methods take in to account only the requirements of the post on the basis of normal work per formance by an employee with the required minimum of qualif icat ions and experience. That is, in using these methods of post classifica-t ion t o determine the p roper salary (or grade) level of a certain post it does not mat te r how well or poorly the incumbent per forms the assigned tasks. It is obvious tha t , if post classification were to end wi th the determinat ion of the proper salary (or grade) level, it would defeat one of the requirements of a fair and equitable salary system, according to which salaries must be related to work per formance . A task-related post classification system, therefore, needs to be supplemented by an individual-related factor which takes into account di f ferent levels of per formance in terms of quality and quant i ty of work results (merit system).

Under such a combined task/individual-related system, post classification would def ine the base pay for a certain posit ion. To this base pay addi t ions would be made corresponding to the level of work per formance as determined by a per formance appraisal system (Section 3.5.4.1).

3.5.3.3. Social security system

An effective social security system is an essential part of the condi t ions of employmen t . It should include heal th, pension and duty-related accident insurance plans.

It is essential, fo r personnel management purposes, t o establish an efficient medical service for carrying out medical examinat ions on entry, during regular intervals while employed, and on separation f rom service. Ent ry examinat ions are necessary to ensure that all employees recruited mee t the prescribed medical s tandards for work in the organization. In addit ion t o providing the organization with impor tan t data and statistics, separation examinat ions can aid in limiting the organization's liability for meeting retroactive claims of fo rmer employees for injury and illness allegedly contracted during their period of service. The medical service should also carry out regular medical checkups on all employees and medical surveillance for radiation workers.

The duty-related accident insurance should not only cover in jury , illness and death caused by duty-related accidents but should also extend to occupat ional diseases a t t r ibutable t o the special hazards which might exist fo r staff performing certain tasks and func t ions in a nuclear power programme.

The practices of countries with respect t o recognit ion of occupat ional diseases a t t r ibutable t o the per formance of official duties di f fer widely. Some have minimized the burden of proof fo r the claimant by establishing in his favour a legal presumpt ion tha t an occupat ional disease will be recognized as service-incurred, if it manifests itself within a certain t ime limit and if the claimant can prove tha t he has been exposed to the specific hazards which in accordance with scientific knowledge are considered t o cause such a disease. Others apply a balance-of-probabili ty test , and some subject occupat ional diseases t o the same strict condi t ions as accidents requiring a clear causal link between exposure t o a certain hazard and manifes ta t ion of the disease.

3.5.3.4. Awards and incentives

A salary system which results in real periodic salary increases regardless of the employee 's work per formance and contr ibut ion to the organization's objec-tives does no t encourage motivat ion and is in fact counter-productive.

Incentives should be carefully designed for motivat ion effectiveness, and moni tored to ensure they retain their motivating capacity.

468 SECTION 3.2.

Incentives do n o t always have to be mone ta ry . Others may be equally effective, such as a rise in status or in the hierarchy, citation and /or be t te r working condit ions. Training can be used as an incentive particularly when the programme itself is very attractive (e.g. training abroad) or when it serves as pre-parat ion fo r a higher position. Granting s tudy leave or fellowships for training abroad is an incentive usually valued highly by scientific and technical s taff . It can play a decisive role in at t ract ing and retaining highly qualified staff .

The assignment of addit ional responsibilities ( job enr ichment) and j o b ro ta t ion , particularly in the case of mono tonous or repetit ive work, very of ten cons t i tu te a s t rong incentive.

3.5.4. Career development

The objective of career development is to reconcile, to the extent possible, the needs of the organization with the aspirations of the staff member .

If the organization is large enough, the identif icat ion of typical career paths is an effective means of facilitating career development . A system of per formance appraisal is a prerequisi te for career development . It enables the organization to develop systematically talents and capabilities of staff members , in order to pre-pare t hem for more responsible positions. It will also indicate the type of training which is required fo r taking on higher responsibilities and duties as part of a planned career.

The higher t he qualifications of staff members , the greater the expectat ions tha t their individual needs and aspirations should be met within the organization. Organizations should encourage mobil i ty Ooh ro ta t ion) particularly for those specialists who in their own fields have very limited career prospects.

Mobility is n o t only in the interest of the staff bu t also of the organization, because the interchange of posts can be a challenge which improves motivat ion, allows full uti l ization of available talents and brings addit ional depth and /or b read th of knowledge to the per formance of tasks and funct ions in new posit ions.

During the initial phase of a nuclear power programme and while the pro-gramme is expanding, j o b rota t ion will be relatively easy, provided it is well organized and assisted by appropria te training and retraining schemes.

Under a duty/individual-related system of post classification, a system of career development is essential, since advancement in the same post is usually limited to performance-related salary increases u p to a certain max imum. Conse-quent ly , upward mobil i ty of staff members is possible only through transfer to higher posts, keeping in mind the benef i ts of a good combinat ion between inside and outside recrui tment .

3.5.4.1. Performance appraisal

A number of per formance appraisal systems have been developed to keep the bias and error in subjective judgement to a min imum and t o achieve a be t te r comparabil i ty of results. They usually apply, and rate in terms of , fac tors defining certain characteristics of work , or abilities of incumbents . Such factors include: technical competence, organization of work, qual i ty and quan t i ty of work , reliability, creativity, integrity, impart ial i ty and interpersonal relationships.

A me thod increasingly used to avoid the inherent problems of subjective judgements consists of result-oriented dialogues between employee and super-visor. Such dialogues should be periodic. They should include: an analysis of problems encountered by the individual; an assessment of whether he has accomplished the established work programme and by what means; or the reasons why the work has n o t been accomplished satisfactorily or at all. Such dialogues, if done seriously, will significantly improve staff communica t ion , per formance , motivat ion, and career possibilities.

3.5.4.2. Promotions

The overriding criteria for p romot ion are usually the availability of a post classified at a higher level and work per formance . Subsidiary criteria, widely used, are age, length of service and working experience. Age and length of service are o f t en combined in to a single fac tor , seniority. Promot ion by seniority is based on the assumption tha t long and efficient service is a guarantee for handling work of increasing responsibility. However, ' ten years of experience ' can o f t e n mean merely ' ten t imes one year of experience ' . Modern concepts of p romot ion there-fore shif t the emphasis f r o m seniori ty to work performance.

In case of appo in tmen t or t ransfer to a higher post it may be desirable to have a probat ionary period to assess the individual's abilities and work per-formance more eff iciently, particularly when he does no t meet all the requirements of the new post and has t o undergo fur ther training.

3.5.4.3. Training

For organizations in the nuclear power programme, involved as they are with advanced and still developing technologies, training and retraining as a cont inuous process is essential. Staff training must be considered as an investment in the fu tu re viability of the organization. In many countries, private organizations spend about 1 t o 3% of their payroll fo r training and retraining.

Training should bridge any existing gap between the requirements of the post and the qualifications of the incumbent . Further , in a number of disciplines and fo r many tasks and func t ions involved in a nuclear power programme, retraining will be necessary.

470 SECTION 3.2.

A second, equally impor tan t , purpose of training and retraining is t o develop the abilities of employees and prepare them for more responsible positions. In o ther words, training should also be used as a means of career development . Other-wise, such training could cause job dissatisfaction and in some cases lead to migration (brain drain) of qualified personnel.

Training courses must no t be considered a benef i t or s tatus symbol reserved for supervisors in the hope tha t they will pass on the necessary informat ion to their co-workers who actually need the knowledge and skills taught directly to them, in order t o carry out their work. In situations where training is used to in t roduce new concepts in to the organization, it is impor tan t tha t this training be given to b o t h the supervisor and his staff .

Training of candidates selected for supervisory or managerial posit ions is essential fo r the efficiency of any organization. This is particularly t rue in a scientific/technological environment where supervisors and managers may o f t en be selected f rom among the best-qualified specialists. For them, supervisory or managerial posit ions usually mean a transfer f r o m scientific or technical work to administrative work for which they have not been trained. Formal courses of instruct ion should be complemented by on-the-job training with an experienced supervisor or manager.

There is generally a tendency to concentra te on formal training (courses, seminars, etc.) t o the exclusion of o ther types of training, e.g. on-the-job training. This is sometimes due to the fact that in many cultures the theoretical knowledge acquired th rough formal educat ion is considered to be 'superior ' to the knowledge and skills acquired through practical experience. It is no t the way a person has acquired knowledge or skill tha t counts, bu t how successfully he can apply it t o pe r fo rm efficiently the assigned duties and responsibilities. In this respect on-the-job training has o f t en proved more effective than formal training courses. In many cases, a combina t ion of formal training courses with practical training has o f t en proved to be most successful.

A workable system for evaluating training programmes should be an indispensable part of any training scheme. It is essential to have objective means of evaluating the ex ten t to which a person has transferred successfully to his work the knowledge or skills acquired through training.

3.5.4.4. Professional advancement opportunities

Particularly for staff working in a nuclear power programme, s tudy leave is impor tan t because of the fast pace of developments in the relevant disciplines, owing to cont inuous technological advances.

A programme of leave for s tudy or research purposes needs t o be planned in advance. As a general rule, if the s tudy or research programme is directly related t o the employee 's work and will enhance his j ob eff iciency (i.e. if the

interests of t he organization are predominant ) , the whole cost might be borne by the organization. By the same token , if the s tudy or research work is entirely unrelated to the individual's work and if it is primarily in his own interest , leave wi thout pay might be appropriate . Between these two extremes is the possibility for covering par t of the costs, depending on the benef i t s the organization may derive f r o m the s tudy or research programme, and on the condit ion that reimburse-ment would have to be made if the employee resigns within a period propor t ional to his s tudy leave.

3.5.5. Employer-employee relationships

Organizations in the nuclear power programme, employing highly trained and qualified manpower , cannot opera te eff iciently if management is authori tar ian or autocrat ic ra ther than consultative or participative. If the nat ional management philosophy and practice do not include bilateral (i.e. participative) management , consultative and advisory machinery should be established for quest ions affect ing condit ions of employment .

The recommended part icipat ion of employees in developing the objectives of work and tne dialogue suggested to appraise work per formance (Section 3.5.4.1) should also serve the purpose of improving communica t ion . In addit ion, employees should be kept in formed of all changes in policies, objectives, pro-grammes, etc. which may have an impact on their work or condit ions of employment (e.g. new projects, organizational changes, budgetary restrictions).

Experience has shown tha t a well-informed employee will be able and want t o per form his func t ions more eff icient ly than an u n i n f o r m e d one and that , very o f t en , s t a f f /management problems are due to a lack of in format ion and communica t ion . Fur ther , it is also equally impor tan t t o have a flow of in format ion f rom the b o t t o m to the t op of t he organization's hierarchy.

3.5.6. Specific personnel problems

There are certain personnel problems which are associated specifically wi th high-tecnnology industrialization projects , such as those in a nuclear power programme.

3.5.6.1. Work attitude

Working with nuclear technologies requires an a t t i tude which can be characterized by: willingness t o assume responsibility and accept accountabil i ty for one 's own actions and results, reliability, steadiness and perseverance, accuracy, problem-solving or ientat ion, systematic and analytical approach to work , methodical thinking, adaptabil i ty to changes in the working environment ,

472 SECTION 3.2.

willingness t o work constructively in interdisciplinary teams and, of u tmos t impor tance for activities in the nuclear power programme, safety consciousness.

3.5.6.2. Fluctuation

Because of the demand for highly qualified manpower in countries launching projects of industrialization, there will probably be a high rate of personnel fluctuation which normally should not exceed 10 — 15% per year because of the costs involved in recruiting and training new staff members and the disruption caused by f r equen t changes. The expected rate of f luc tuat ion must also be an input to the personnel planning system and must be taken into account in estab-lishing training schemes. It will be necessary to recruit more people than existing vacancies, to take care of the rate of training drop-outs , as well as at tr i t ion and migration of personnel.

A controlled fluctuation could have a heal thy ef fec t on the organizat ion, if it helps reduce the n u m b e r of staff with poor per formance ratings or if it generally increases career prospects, part icularly under a system where labour law or social policy do no t permit the terminat ion of contracts. However, as a ma t t e r of experience it is usually the best qualified who resign. In order to know more about their motives, a debriefing or exit interview for persons voluntarily leaving the organization should be introduced. The real reasons for the employee 's decision to resign should be found ou t in order to help eliminate existing causes. An employee leaving the organization is o f t en inclined to speak u p and give his f r ank opinion. If it is the condit ions of employment tha t mainly cont r ibute to fluctuation, remedy can relatively easily be found . However, in many cases it is a combinat ion of fr ict ions at the working place and expectat ions of improving career prospects as well as private reasons that result in resignation.

3.5.6.3. Migration

Migration of skilled manpower is a problem which is common to most developing countr ies and for which no satisfactory solution has yet been found . This is o f t e n referred to as the 'brain drain ' or 'reverse t ransfer of technology ' .

Surveys have shown that specialists such as engineers, chemists, physicists and biological scientists are more o f t en lost by developing countries than persons with more general training. While one cause of migration is the insufficient capacity of t he economy to absorb specialist professional manpower , another is educat ion policies which overemphasize higher educat ion in comparison wi th pr imary educat ion and vocational training, leading to an excess of professionals. Income differences, and the economic, social and political enviroment also significantly a f fec t t h e brain drain.

O f t e n it is no t t he person's percept ion of adequate income and living s tandards alone that governs the decision to migrate, bu t usually a combinat ion of many diverse factors . Considerations such as where a person feels he can cont r ibute most t o his profession and best fulf i l his professional aspirations o f t en play a more p redominan t role than mere income differences. Al though in individual si tuations an increase in pay may be just if ied t o a t t ract or retain trained personnel, o ther factors will inf luence a person's decision to migrate or t o stay at home, such as the quali ty of available jobs , the availability of proper equ ipment and adequate facilities, isolation f r o m internat ional developments in the person 's scientific discipline, the possibility to refresh knowledge and skills periodically through a t tending internat ional conferences and obtaining foreign periodicals, limited oppor tuni t ies for research at home , rigid hierarchies and sub-ordination to senior people whose knowledge is ou t of date, long waiting periods before young professionals can rise t o positions of responsibili ty, and the like.

In many of the above-mentioned cases, remedial action may n o t even cost much bu t might only require organizational changes, career development planning or improved management practices.

To reduce migration of skilled manpower , there are many possible measures which could be taken at the internat ional , regional and nat ional levels.

At t he internat ional and especially the regional level, the p romot ion of collective self-reliance among developing countries wi th a view to using their own resources could lead to positive results. For instance, the setting up of regional training centres in developing countries, instead of sending trainees to developed countries, is one possible measure. Another possible measure would be t o develop d i f ferent post-graduate specializations in universities of neighbouring developing countr ies as an effective alternative t o studies in foreign countries outs ide the region.

However, most of the effective measures tha t could be taken are at the nat ional level. The brain drain can probably be inf luenced most effectively if policies are in t roduced to provide incentives which encourage highly qualified persons t o stay in their home count ry or t o re turn f r o m abroad.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

This list includes information relevant to the subjects treated in this Guidebook. Some items are referred to in the text

(as References) and the rest are considered as a general Bibliography.

IAEA PUBLICATIONS - GENERAL

[ 1 ] International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation (see especially: Report of Working Group 3), (1980).

[2] International Inventory of Training Facilities in Nuclear Power and Its Fuel Cycle, IAEA Technical Document 217 (1979).

[3] Manpower Requirements and Development for Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. Symp. Saclay, 2 - 6 April, 1979), (1980) .

[4] Problems Associated with the Export of Nuclear Power Plants (Proc. Symp. Vienna, 6 - 1 0 March, 1978), (1978).

[5] Nuclear Power and Its-Fuel Cycle (Proc. Int. Conf. Salzburg, 2 - 1 3 May 1977), (1977) Vols 1 - 7 .

[6] Regional Nuclear Fuel Cycle Centres (1977). [7] IAEA Interregional Training Courses and Seminars, Lectures. (Available through IAEA,

Vienna, or f rom institutions at which courses and seminars are given, cf. Table 3.4.-1.) See especially: Interregional Training Course on Manpower Development for Nuclear Power Programmes, Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Dec. 1977; Seminar on Economic and Technical Aspects of Nuclear Power with Emphasis on Manpower Development, Seoul, Republic of Korea, Dec. 1977 ; Training Seminar on National Participation in Nuclear Power Programmes, Manila, Philippines, Nov. 1978.

[8] Handling of Radiation Accidents 1977 (Proc.Symp.Vienna, 28 F e b r u a r y - 4 March 1977),(1977). [9] Economic Evaluation of Bids for Nuclear Power Plants, TRS No.175 (1976).

[10] Management of Radioactive Wastes f rom the Nuclear Fuel Cycle (Proc. Symp. Vienna, 2 2 - 2 6 March, 1976), (1976) 2 vols.

[11] Measurement, Detection and Control of Environmental Pollutants (Proc. Symp. Vienna, 1 5 - 1 9 March, 1976), (1976).

[12] Exploration for Uranium Ore Deposits (Proc. Symp. Vienna, 29 March—2 April 1976), (1976) . [13] Nuclear Fuel Quality Assurance (Proc. IAEA Seminar, Oslo, 2 4 - 2 7 May 1976), (1976). [14] Siting of Nuclear Facilities (Proc. Symp. Vienna, 9 - 1 3 December 1974), (1975). [15] Steps to Nuclear Power: A Guidebook, TRS No. 164 ( 1975). [16] Nuclear Science Teaching III, TRS No. 162 (1975). [17] Organization of Regulatory Activities for Nuclear Reactors, TRS No.153 (1974). [18] Experience from Operating; and Fuelling Nuclear Power Plants (Proc. Symp. Vienna,

8 - 1 2 October, 1973), (1974). [19] Nuclear Science Teaching II, TRS No.132 (1972) . [20] The Structure and Content of Agreements between the Agency and States required in

Connection with the Treaty on Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, IAEA INFCIRC/153 (corrected), (1972) .

[21 ] Economic Integration of Nuclear Power Stations in Electric Power Systems (Proc. Symp. Vienna, 5 - 9 October 1970), (1971) .

478 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

[22] Small and Medium Power Reactors - 1970 (Proc. Symp. Vienna, 1 2 - 1 6 Oc tobe r 1970), (1971) . [23] Nuclear Energy Costs and Economic Development (Proc. Symp. Is tanbul , 2 0 - 2 4 October

1969), (1970) . [24] Nuclear Science Teaching, T R S No .94 (1968) .

IAEA SAFETY SERIES

Safety Codes of Practice and Safety Guides*

1. Governmental organization

Code of Practice

[25 ] 50-C-G Governmenta l Organization for the Regulat ion of Nuclear Power Plants ( 1978).

Safety Guides

[26] 50-SG-G1 Qualif icat ions and Training of Staff of the Regulatory Body for Nuclear Power Plants (1979) .

[27] 50-SG-G2 In fo rma t ion t o be Submit ted in Suppor t of Licensing Applicat ions for Nuclear Power Plants (1979) .

[28] 50-SG-G3 Conduc t of Regulatory Review and Assessment during the Licensing Process for Nuclear Power Plants.

[29] 50-SG-G4 Inspect ion and Enforcement by t he Regulatory Body for Nuclear Power Plants (1980) .

[30] 50-SG-G6 Preparedness of Public Author i t ies for Emergencies at Nuclear Power Plants. [31 ] 50-SG-G8 Licences for Nuclear Power Plants: Con ten t , Fo rma t and Legal Considerat ions. [32] 50-SG-G9 Establ ishment of Regulations and Guides by the Regulatory Body and their

Purpose.

2. Siting

Code of Practice

[33] 50-C-S Safe ty in Nuclear Power Plant Siting (1978) .

Safety Guides

[34] 50-SG-S1 Ea r thquakes and Associated Topics in Relat ion t o Nuclear Power Plant Siting (1979) .

[35] 50-SG-S2 Seismic Analysis and Testing of Nuclear Power Plants (1979) . [36] 50-SG-S3 Atmospher ic Dispersion in Nuclear Power Plant Siting. [37] 50-SG-S4 Site Select ion and Evaluation for Nuclear Power Plants wi th Respect to

Popula t ion Distr ibut ion (1980) . [38] 50-SG-S5 Exte rna l Man-induced Events in Rela t ion to Nuclear Power Plant Siting. [39] 50-SG-S6 Hydrological Dispersion of Radioactive Material in Relat ion t o Nuclear

Power Plant Siting.

* Dates given fo r those which have been publ ished. The o thers will be published by the IAEA in due course.

[40] 50-SG-S7 [41] 50-SG-S9 [42] 50-SG-S10A [43] 50-SG-S10B [44] 50-SG-S11A

[45] 50-SG-S1 IB

Nuclear Power Plant Siting — Hydrogeological Aspects. Site Survey for Nuclear Power Plants. Design Basis F lood for Nuclear Power Plants on River Sites. Design Basis F lood fo r Nuclear Power Plants on Coastal Sites. Ex t r eme Meteorological Events in Nuclear Power Plant Siting, Excluding Tropical Cyclones. Design Basis Tropical Cyclone for Nuclear Power Plants.

3. Design

Code of Practice

[46] 50-C-D

Safety Guides

Design for Safe ty of Nuclear Power Plants ( 1 9 7 8 ) .

[47] 50-SG-Dl [48] 50-SG-D2 [49] 50-SG-D3 [50] 50-SG-D4

[51] 50-SG-D5 [52] 50-SG-D6

[53] 50-SG-D7 [54] 50-SG-D8 [55] 50-SG-D9 [56] 50-SG-D10 [57] 50-SG-Dl 1 [58] 50-SG-Dl 2

[ - ] 50-SG-Dl 3

[ - ] 50-SG-D14

Safe ty Func t i ons and C o m p o n e n t Classification for BWR, PWR and PTR ( 1979). Fire Pro tec t ion in Nuclear Power Plants (1979) . Pro tec t ion Systems and Related Fea tures in Nuclear Power Plants (1980) . Pro tec t ion against Internally Genera ted Missiles and their Secondary E f f ec t s in Nuclear Power Plants (1980) . Man-induced Events in Relat ion t o Nuclear Power Plant Design. Ul t imate Heat Sink and Directly Associated Heat Transport Systems fo r Nuclear Power Plants. Emergency Power Systems at Nuclear Power Plants. Ins t rumen ta t ion and Cont ro l of Nuclear Power Plants. Design Aspects of Radiological Protec t ion of Nuclear Power Plants . Fue l Handling and Storage Sys tems in Nuclear Power Plants. General Design Safe ty Principles for Nuclear Power Plants. Design of the Reac to r Con ta inmen t System in Nuclear Power Plants. Reac to r Cooling Systems in Nuclear Power Plants . Design for Reac tor Core Safe ty in Nuclear Power Plants.

4. Operation

Code of Practice

[59] 50-C-0

Safety Guides

Safe ty in Nuclear Power Plant Opera t ion , including Commissioning and Decommissioning (1978) .

[ 60] 50-SG-01 Staff ing of Nuclear Power Plants and the Rec ru i tmen t , Training and Author iza t ion of Operat ing Personnel (1979) .

[61] 50-SG-02 In-Service Inspect ion fo r Nuclear Power Plants (1980) . [62] 50-SG-03 Opera t ional Limits and Condi t ions for Nuclear Power Plants ( 1979). [63] 50-SG-04 Commissioning Procedures for Nuclear Power Plants (1980) .

[64] 50-SG-05 [65] 50-SG-06

[66] 50-SG-07 [67] 50-SG-08 [68] 50-SG-09 [69] 50-SG-010

M 50-SG-011

Radiological Protec t ion during Opera t ion of Nuclear Power Plants. Preparedness of the Operating Organization for Emergencies at Nuclear Power Plants. Maintenance of Nuclear Power Plants . Surveillance of I tems Impor t an t to Safety in Nuclear Power Plants. Management of Nuclear Power Plants for Safe Opera t ion . Core Management , Fue l Handling and Associated Services for Nuclear Power Plants. Operat ional Management of Radioactive E f f luen t s and Wastes Arising in Nuclear Power Plants.

Code of Pract ice

[70] 50-C-QA Quali ty Assurance for Safety in Nuclear Power Plants (1978) .

Safety Guides

[71 ] 50-SG-QAl Preparat ion of the Quali ty Assurance Programme fo r Nuclear Power Plants. [72] 50-SG-QA2 Qual i ty Assurance Records System for Nuclear Power Plants (1979) . [73] 50-SG-QA3 Quali ty Assurance in the Procurement of I tems and Services for Nuclear

Power Plants (1979) . [74] 50-SG-QA4 Quali ty Assurance during Site Const ruct ion of Nuclear Power Plants. [75] 50-SG-QA5 Quali ty Assurance during Opera t ion of Nuclear Power Plants. [76] 50-SG-QA6 Quali ty Assurance in the Design of Nuclear Power Plants. [77] 50-SG-QA7 Quali ty Assurance Organization for Nuclear Power Plants. [78] 50-SG-QA8 Quali ty Assurance in the Manufac ture of I tems for Nuclear Power Plants. [79] 50-SG-QA10 Qual i ty Assurance Auditing for Nuclear Power Plants (1980) . [80] 50-SG-QAl 1 Qual i ty Assurance in the P rocuremen t , Design and Manufac ture of Nuclear

Fue l Assemblies.

Other Safety Series

[81 ] Regulat ions for the Safe Transpor t of Radioact ive Materials, 1973 Revised Edi t ion , No.6 (1973) .

[82] The Use of Film Badges for Personnel Monitoring, No. 8 (1962) . [83] The Basic Requ i r emen t s for Personnel Monitoring, No. 14 (1965) . [84] Manual on Envi ronmenta l Moni tor ing in Normal Operat ion, No. 1 6 ( 1 9 6 6 ) . [85] Techniques fo r Controll ing Air Pollut ion f rom the Operat ion of Nuclear Facilities, No.17

(1966) . [86] Env i ronmenta l Monitoring in Emergency Situat ions, No . 18 (1966) . [87] Basic Fac to r s for the Trea tmen t and Disposal of Radioactive Wastes, No . 24 (1967) . [88] Medical Supervision of Radia t ion Workers, N o . 2 5 (1968) . [89] Radiat ion Pro tec t ion in the Mining and Milling of Radioactive Ores, No . 26 (1968) . [90] Management of Radioactive Wastes at Nuclear Power Plants, N o . 28 ( 1968). [91] Safe Opera t ion of Nuclear Power Plants, No . 31 (1969) .

[92] Planning for t he Handling of Radia t ion Accidents , No . 32 ( 1 9 6 9 ) . [93 ] Guidelines for the Layou t and Con ten t s of Sa fe ty Repor t s f o r Sta t ionary Nuclear Power

Plants, No . 3 4 ( 1 9 7 0 ) . [94 ] Radia t ion Pro tec t ion Procedures , No . 38 (1973) . [95 ] Manual on Radiological Safe ty in Uranium and Thor ium Mines and Mills, N o . 43 (1976) . [96] Management of Wastes f rom the Mining and Milling of Uran ium and Thor ium Ores:

A Code of Practice and Guide to the Code , N o . 44 (1976) . [97 ] Principles for Establishing Limits for the Release of Radioact ive Materials in to the

Env i ronment , No. 45 (1978) .

OTHER REFERENCES

2nd Pacif ic Basin Conf . on Nuclear Power Plant Cons t ruc t ion , Opera t ion and Development , 2 5 - 2 9 Sep. 1979, T o k y o ( F A R M A K E S , R. Ed.) , American Nuclear Society, A t o m i c Energy Society of Japan , Canadian Nuclear Association, A m . Nucl . Soc. 2 9 ( 1 9 7 9 ) 291 . Transact ions of the Iran Conference on the Transfer of Nuclear Technology , 1 0 - 1 3 Apr .1977 , American Nuclear Society and Atomic Energy Organizat ion, I ran, 25 Suppl . 1, ANS Transact ions ( 1 9 7 7 ) . Science and Technology in Developing Countr ies , ESCAP, Bangkok ( 1 9 7 6 ) . BOGOMOVOV, A.J. , Comparabi l i ty of Engineering Courses and Degrees — A Methodological S tudy , the UNESCO Press, Paris (1974) . World Guide to Higher Educa t ion - A Comparat ive Survey of Systems, Degrees and Qualif icat ions, U n i p u b / t h e UNESCO Press, Paris (1976) . Comparabi l i ty of Degrees and Diplomas in In terna t ional Law, t he UNESCO Press, Paris ( 1973). Educa t ion in OECD Countr ies — Trends and Perspectives, OECD, Paris. Methods of Establishing Equivalence be tween Degrees and Diplomas, UNESCO (1970) . Pan American Nuclear Technology Exchange, Execut ive Conference , Ho l lywood , 8 - 1 1 Apr . 1979, ANS (1979) . Nuclear Technology Curr iculum Development Guide, Nuclear Technology Series, Technical Educat ion Research Center-SW, 4 2 0 1 Lake Shore Drive, Waco, Texas. Uran ium Resources, P roduc t ion and Demand : A Joint Repo r t by O E C D / N E A and IAEA, OECD, Paris (1980) . NOVIT, M.S., Essentials of Personnel Management , Prentice-Hall (1979) . MINER, J .B. , MINER, Mary Green , Personnel and Industr ia l Relat ions, Macmillan (3rd Edi t ion) (1977) . SAYLES, L.E.S. , STRAUSS, G „ Managing H u m a n Resources, Prentice-Hall (1977) . INBUCON Consul tants , Managing H u m a n Resources, Macmillan (1976) .

NATIONAL REFERENCES

Argentina

[113 ] CASTRO M A D E R O , C., Argent ina si tuación nuclear actual , Rev. Est ra t . 51 (Mar. 1978). [ 114 ] CASTRO MADERO, C., La pac í f ica pol í t ica nuclear Argent ina , logros y objet ivos de la

CNEA, Integración Prensa In ternacional 2 13 ( Jun . 1978) 1. [ 115 ] COSENTINO, J .O. , "Experiencia adquir ida en los d i ferentes e tapas del p royec to

'Central Nuclear en Atucha ' Nuclear Power and its Fue l Cycle (Proc. In t . Conf . Salzburg, 1977) Vol .6 , IAEA, Vienna ( 1 9 7 7 ) 17.

[100] [101]

[103] [104 ] [105] [106]

[109] [110]

[111] [112]

[116] de LIBANATI , N.H.A., B R U G O , M.A., LOBATO, A.J. , "Training personnel for nuclear

power s tat ions in Argent ina", Transfer of Nuclear Technology (Proc. Conf . Persepolis,

1977) Vol .1 , Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (1978 ) 178. (See also [75].)

[117] COSENTINO, J .O. , DIAZ, E. , de LIBANATI, N.H.A., "Planeamiento y desarollo técnico

profes ional del personal para centrales nucleares en Argent ina" , Manpower Requi rements

and Development for Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. Symp . Saclay, 1979), IAEA,

Vienna ( 1 9 8 0 ) 225 .

[118] GRASSO, H.O., Aspectos de la Participación Nacional en Argentina, IAEA Interregional

Course o n Nuclear Power Project Planning, Development and Const ruc t ion , J u n t a de

Energía Nuclear , Madrid (1978) .

Brazil

[119] Execut ive Summary — Capabil i ty of Brazilian Industr ies t o Manufac ture Nuclear Power

Plant Componen t s , Bechtel Corp . (1973) .

[120] SPITALNIK, J . , "Planning the preparat ion and availability of m a n p o w e r for t he nuclear

indus t ry" , Nuclear Power and Nuclear Appl icat ions in Lat in America (ANS Conf .

Mexico Ci ty , Oct . 1975).

[121] COSTA, M., Planning and Organization fo r Opera t ion : Staff ing for Operat ion — Recruit-

men t and Training of Opera t ions Staf f , IAEA Interregional Training Course on Nuclear

Power Plant Cons t ruc t ion and Operat ions Management , Argonne Nat ional Labora to ry ,

Argonne, Illinois, USA (1977) .

[122] PINTO, C.S.M., de SOUZA, J.A.M., GRINBERG, M., ALVES, R.N. , da COSTA, H.M.,

GRIMBERG, M., "Organizat ion and development of the Brazilian nuclear p rogramme" ,

Nuclear Power and its Fuel Cycle (Proc. Int . Conf . Salzburg, 1977) Vol .6 , IAEA, Vienna

(1977) 85 .

[123] ALVES, R .N. , PINTO, C.S.M., DALE, C.M.M., de SOUZA, J .A.M., SPITALNIK, J. ,

de A R A U J O , R. , "Requ i rements for and development of t rained manpower resources",

Nuclear Power and its Fue l Cycle (Proc. In t . Conf . Salzburg, 1977) Vol .6 , IAEA, Vienna

( 1 9 7 7 ) 4 5 .

[ 124 ] MARTINS PINTO, C.S., SPITALNIK, J. , "The selection, qual i fy ing and training of

personnel for the Brazilian nuclear programme", Manpower Requi rements and Development

for Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. Symp. Saclay, 1979), IAEA, Vienna ( 1 9 8 0 ) 181.

[125] SPITALNIK, J . , MARTINS PINTO, C.S., FONSECA, G „ H U R L E Y , I. , "NUCLEBRAS

simulator pro jec t" , Manpower Requi rements and Development for Nuclear Power

Programmes (Proc. Symp . Saclay, 1979), IAEA, Vienna (1980 ) 483 .

[126] MARTINS PINTO, C.S., SPITALNIK, J. , MEAKINS, E.J . , H U R L E Y , I. , "Technicians for

the Brazilian nuclear power programme", Manpower Requ i rement s and Development

for Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. Symp. Saclay, 1979), IAEA, Vienna ( 1 9 8 0 ) 527 .

[127] MAURICIO, A., ALVES, R.N. , de MELLO, W.M.B., "Problèmes liés à la fo rmat ion de la

main-d 'œuvre pou r le secteur nucléo-électrique", Manpower Requi rements and Develop-

men t f o r Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. S y m p . Saclay, 1979) , IAEA, Vienna (1980 ) 209 .

[ 128 ] SYLLUS, C., FABRICIO, R. , H E R Z O G , G., Brazilian Nuclear Programme - Strategy

Adopted f o r Technology Transfer , F O R A T O M / E N S Congress, Hamburg , May 1979.

France

[129] Revue Générale Nucléaire, 7 5 7 2 4 Paris CEDEX 15 (bi -monthly publ icat ion) .

See especially:

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 483

[130] OLIVIER, J.P., Di f fe ren t aspects of radioactive waste t r anspor t , s torage and disposal: fu tu re perspectives, Rev. Gen. Nucl . 3 (1978) .

[131] French nuclear indus t ry , Rev. Gen. Nucl . 4 ( 1978). [132] C H A R D O N N E T , E. , S ta tus report on the p rogramme of const ruct ion of the 900-MW(e)

pressurized water reactors , Rev. Gen . Nucl . 6 (1978) . [133] LEPINE, J . , Light water reactor fuel cycle e c o n o m y , Rev. Gen . Nucl . 2 (1979) . [ 1 3 4 ] HAVET, J .P. , French energy policy in the in ternat ional world, Rev. Gen . Nucl . 4 (1979) . [135] BAUER, E t . "The place of nuclear m a n p o w e r policy in an overall technical training

scheme", Manpower Requi rements and Development for Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. Symp . Saclay, 1979) , IAEA, V i e n n a ( 1 9 8 0 ) 3. ( In French . )

[136] COMBE, J . , "Organizat ion of training and teaching m e t h o d s at E D F " , Manpower Require-ments and Development for Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. Symp . Saclay, 1979) , IAEA, Vienna (1980 ) 123. ( In French . )

[137] F A U R E , J . , "The F rench nuclear power p rogramme and its impact on the e m p l o y m e n t and training of personnel in France" , Manpower Requi rements and Development fo r Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. S y m p . Saclay, 1979) , IAEA, Vienna ( 1 9 8 0 ) 271 . ( In F rench . )

[138] JAIS, B., "Integrat ion of manpower in French nuclear engineering", Manpower Require-ments and Development for Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. S y m p . Saclay, 1979) , IAEA, Vienna (1980) 569 .

[ 1 3 9 ] MARTIN, J .J . , "Teaching resources used by E D F " , Manpower Requi rements and Develop-men t for Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. Symp. Saclay, 1979) , IAEA, Vienna (1980 ) 131. (In French . )

[ 140 ] PONS, R. , "Facilities o f fe red by the CEA group for the training of foreign specialists", Manpower Requi rements and Development for Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. Symp. Saclay, 1979) , IAEA, Vienna (1980) 439 . (In French . )

[141] LE C O R F F , B., SIMON, H. , NICOLET, J.L., "Preparatory training of foreign personnel in the opera t ion of a 900-MW nuclear power plant s imulator" , Manpower Requi rements and Development fo r Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. Symp. Saclay, 1979) , IAEA, Vienna ( 1 9 8 0 ) 503 . (In French. )

[ 142 ] KOECHLIN, J.C., T A N G U Y , P., "The role of staff training in t he safety of nuclear facilities", Manpower Requi rements and Development for Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. Symp. Saclay, 1979) , IAEA, Vienna (1980) 4 7 3 . ( In French . )

Germany, Federal Republic of

[143] F R E W E R , H. , Aufgaben und Probleme beim nuklearen Technologiet ransfer , Atomwir t sch . (Jul.—Aug. 1977).

[144] REMBSER, J . , STEININGER, H. , "Manpower" in de r deutschen Kernforschung und Kern technik , Atomwir t sch . 19 ( 1 9 7 4 ) 114.

[145 ] LÖHLE, H. , The utilities training programmes f o r nuclear p o w e r p lant personnel , including the use of a s imulator , VGB Kraf twerks technik 56 (Dec . 1976).

[ 146 ] LAUE, H.-J. , NENTWICH, D., "Exper ience wi th educa t ion and training on the j ob" , Transfer of Nuclear Technology (Proc. Conf . Persepolis, 1977) Vol .1 , Atomic Energy Organizat ion of Iran ( 1978) 164. (See also [75].)

[147] K E L L E R , C., R O T T L E R , A., Nuclear Educa t ion and Training in the Federal Republ ic of Germany , IAEA Interregional Training Course on Nuclear Power Project Planning and Implemetna t ion , Kernforschungszent rum Karlsruhe, Federa l Republ ic of Germany (1976) .

484 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 484

[148] SCHÖLTEN, V.W., "Manpower development planning and implementa t ion" , Problems Associated wi th the Expor t of Nuclear Power Plants (Proc. Symp . Vienna, 1978) , IAEA, Vienna ( 1 9 7 8 ) 379.

[149] MIESSNER, H., "Manpower sources for nuclear power programmes" , Manpower Require-men t s and Development for Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. Symp. Saclay, 1979) , IAEA, Vienna (1980) 29 .

[150] W AG AD A R I K AR, V.K. , Descript ion of the Nuclear Training Cent re , Rajasthan Atomic Power Pro jec t , Kota , Rajas than .

[151 ] Syllabi of Courses fo r Engineers, Metallurgists and Scientists in the BARC Training School, Bhabha A t o m i c Research Centre , T rombay , Bombay .

[152] PARDIWALA, T.F. , Training and Staff ing in Developing Countr ies , IAEA Interregional Training Course on Nuclear Power Project Planning and Implementa t ion , Argonne Nat ional Labora to ry , Argonne, Illinois, USA (1976) .

[153] R A M A M O O R T H Y , N., Init ial and Continuing Training of Opera t ions S ta f f , IAEA Inter-regional Training Course o n Nuclear Power Project Cons t ruc t ion and Operat ions Management , Argonne Nat iona l Labora to ry , Argonne, Illinois, USA ( 1976).

Korea, Republic of

[154] Nuclear Manpower Training Programme, 1 9 7 7 - 8 6 , KAERI , Internal Repor t (1978) . [155] Scientific and Technical Manpower Development Plan, 1 9 7 5 - 9 1 , Ministry of Science

and Technology (1978) . [156] F o u r t h 5-year Science and Technology Development Plan, 1 9 7 7 - 8 1 , Ministry of Science

and Technology (1977) . [157] A tomic Energy Law, Ministry of Science and Technology (1958) . [158] Nat ional Technical Qualif icat ion Law, Ministry of Science and Technology (1975) . [159] Establ ishment Law of the Korea Atomic Energy Research Ins t i tu te (KAERI) , Ministry

of Science and Technology (1959) . [160] Func t ion and Organization of the Korea Nuclear Engineering Services Inc. (KNE) ,

In ternal Repor t (1978) .

Philippines

[161] PALABRICA, R.J . , Meeting the human resources needs for the Philippine nuclear power plant p ro jec t , ATOMEDIA Philippines, 4 (1978) .

[162] PALABRICA, R J . , Training of Engineers fo r a Nuclear Power Projec t , IAEA Interregional Training Course on Manpower Development for Nuclear Power Programmes, Kernforschungs-zen t rum Karlsruhe, Federa l Republic of Germany (1978) .

[163] PALABRICA, R.J . , Training Programmes, Methods and Curricula of Opera t ions Personnel, IAEA Interregional Training Course on Manpower Development for Nuclear Power Programmes , Kernforschungszent rum Karlsruhe, Federal Republ ic of Germany ( 1 9 7 8 ) .

[164] PALABRICA, R.J . , Rec ru i tmen t , Training and Licensing of Operat ing Personnel for Nuclear Power Plants, IAEA Regional Training Seminar on Opera t ion and Maintenance of Nuclear Power Plants in Developing Countr ies , Kalpakkam, India (Nov. 1979) .

1165] PALABRICA, R.J . , EUGENIO, M.R. , "Manpower development p rogramme for t he first

nuclear power project in a developing count ry : the Phil ippine exper ience" , Manpower

Requ i rement s and Development for Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. Symp. Saclay, 1979) ,

IAEA, Vienna (1980 ) 317 .

[ 166] IBE, L.D., PALABRICA, R.J . , "Phil ippine experience in nuclear research" , Transfer of

Nuclear Technology (Proc. Conf . Persepolis, 1977) , ANS Transact ions 25 Suppl . 1 (1977) .

[167] PASCUAL, F. , Programa nuclear español: par t ic ipación nacional, Energ. Nucl . 21 105

( 1 9 7 7 ) 5 .

[ 168] T A N A R R O , A., I Z Q U I E R D O , L., "Programas de capaci tación en mater ia de energía

nucleoeléctr ica en España", Nuclear Power and its Fue l Cycle (Proc. In t . Conf . Salzburg,

1977) Vol .6 , IAEA, Vienna (1977 ) 315 .

[ 169] De Los SANTOS, A. , C O R R E T J E R , L „ "Marco ju r íd i co a un programa nuclear en

España" , Nuclear Power and its F u e l Cycle (Proc. In t . Conf . Salzburg, 1977) Vol .6 , IAEA,

Vienna (1977 ) 67.

[ 170] ALONSO, A., "Reac tores te rmonucleares en España" (Simposio in ternacional sobre

fuen te s de energía y desarrollo), Ins t i tu to de Estudios Catalanes, Universidad Politécnica

de Barcelona, Universidad de H o u s t o n , Barcelona, (Oc t . 1977).

[171] P E R E Z de PRAT, L., C E R R O LAZA, J .A. , "Si tuación del desarrollo de proyec tos de

centrales nucleares en España" , Problems Associated wi th t he Expor t of Nuclear Power

Plants (Proc. Symp . Vienna, 1978) , IAEA, Vienna ( 1 9 7 8 ) 291.

[172] C A N T A R E L L , I., C E R R O LAZA, J .A. , LLADO, J.M., "Requer imientos de personal para

los programas nucleoeléctr icos en naciones de capacidad in termedia" , Manpower Require-

men t s and Development for Nuclear Power Programmes (Proc. Symp. Saclay, 1979), IAEA,

Vienna (1980 ) 73 .

United States of America

[173] Regula tory Guide 1.8 ( former ly Safe ty Guide 1.8): Personnel Selection and Training

(Endorses ANSI N18 .1 1971).

[174] Regula tory Guide 1.58: Qual i f icat ion of Nuclear Power Plant Inspect ion , Examinat ion

and Testing Personnel (Endorses ANSI N45.2 .6) .

[175] Regula tory Guide 5 .20: Training, Equipping and Qualifying of Guards and Watchmen.

[176] NuReg-0219** : Nuclear Security Personnel for Power Plants: Con ten t and Review

Procedures fo r a Securi ty Training and Qualif icat ions Programme (Jul . 1978).

[177] NuReg-0464: Site Security Personnel Training Manual (Nov. 1978).

[178] NuReg-0465: Transpor ta t ion Securi ty Personnel Training Manual (Nov. 1978).

[179] Regula tory Guide 5 .52, Chapter 18: Securi ty Personnel (Jul . 1978).

[180] Regula tory S tandard Review Plan 13.2: Training (Nov. 1974).

[181] U N I T E D STATES ATOMIC E N E R G Y COMMISSION (now USNRC) , Rules and Regulat ions,

Title 10, Code of Federa l Regulat ions, Par ts 19, 50 and 55 and their Appendices

( 1 0 C F R 1 9 , 1 0 C F R 5 0 and 10CFR55) .

[182] 2 9 C F R Part 1607 : Employee Selection Guide-lines, Code of Federal Regulat ions

(Nov. 1976).

** NuRegs Regula tory Guides, and Regula tory S tandard Review Plans are available f rom

The Uni ted States Nuclear Regula tory Commission, Washington, D.C. 20555 .

[183] UNITED STATES ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION (USAEC), Division of Reac tor Licensing, Opera tors Licenses: A Guide for the Licensing of Facil i ty Operators , Including Senior Opera tors , WASH 1094 (Nov. 1965).

[184] UNITED STATES ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION (USAEC), Util i ty Staff ing and Training for Nuclear Power , Revised, WASH 1 1 3 0 ( J u n . 1973).

[ 185 ] American Nuclear Standard 1 (ANS) N18 .1 -1971 : Selection and Training of Nuclear Power Plant Personnel (see Regulatory Guide 1.8).

[186] ANSI N45 .2 .6 : Qual if icat ions fo r Inspect ion, Examina t ion and Testing Personnel for the Cons t ruc t ion Phase of Nuclear Power Plants (see Regulatory Guide 1.58).

[187] Nuclear Power Plant Cons t ruc t ion , Licensing, and Start-up, Proceedings and Topical Meeting, 1 3 - 1 7 Sep. 1976, American Nuclear Society, 555 Kensington Avenue, LaGrange Park, Illinois 60525 .

[188] OAK RIDGE N A T I O N A L LABORATORY (ORNL) , Symposium on Training of Nuclear Facil i ty Personnel , Gat l inburg, 1 9 - 2 1 Apr . 1971 .

[189] OAK RIDGE N A T I O N A L LABORATORY (ORNL) , Second Symposium on Training of Nuclear Facil i ty Personnel , Gatl inburg, 11 — 14 May 1975.

[190 ] OAK RIDGE N A T I O N A L LABORATORY (ORNL) , Third Symposium on Training of Nuclear Facil i ty Personnel , CONF-790404 29 A p r . - 2 May 1979. (Available f rom National Technical In fo rmat ion Service, US Depar tment of Commerce , 5285 Port Royal Road , Springfield, Va. 22161 . )

[191 ] Const ruct ion Labor Demand S tudy , US Depar tmen t of Labor , Sep. 1979. [192] COX, J.A., et al., Gu ide fo r Training Nuclear Power Plant Operators , ORNL/TM-5304 ,

O R N L (1977) . [193] Guide for Training Nuclear Power Plant Opera tors (Available f rom: Nat iona l Technical

I n fo rma t ion Service, US Depar tment of Commerce , 5285 Port Royal Road , Springfield, Va .22161) .

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

A D V I S O R Y G R O U P O N T H E G U I D E B O O K O N M A N P O W E R D E V E L O P M E N T F O R N U C L E A R P O W E R

M e m b e r s o f t h e A d v i s o r y G r o u p a n d P a r t i c i p a n t s a t t h e A d v i s o r y G r o u p

M e e t i n g s 3 h e l d i n :

I. K u a l a L u m p u r , M a l a y s i a , 9 — 1 2 O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8 ;

I I . V i e n n a , 2 1 M a y - 1 J u n e 1 9 7 9 ;

I I I . V i e n n a , 1 9 - 3 0 N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 9 .

A R G E N T I N A

de Libanati, N.H.A. (I l l ) Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica, Buenos Aires

B R A Z I L

Savi, H. (II)

Spitalnik, J . b ' c ( I I , III)

CNEN, Rio de Janeiro

NUCLEBRÁS, Fuel Cycle Planning, Rio de Janeiro

a I, II, III af ter name denotes participation in the first, second and third Advisory Group Meetings, respectively.

b Denotes coord ina to r for national input . c Also served as consultants to the IAEA for preparing the Guidebook. In addition

to serving as consultants many of these experts and their organizations also provided active on-going support and participated in meetings held on the Guidebook in Vienna.

488 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

FRANCE

Delesalle, A. c (II, III)

Faure , J > c (I, II, III)

Marcaillou, J . c ( III)

Vitry, P.c (II, III)

Electricité de France, Service d 'Equ ipemen t Nucléaire Extér ieur , Paris

Electricité de France, Service d 'Equ ipement Nucléaire Extérieur, Paris

Electricité de France, Service d 'Equ ipemen t Nucléaire Extérieur, Paris

FRAMATOME, Paris

GERMANY, FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF

Miessner, H. c (II, III)

Nentwich, D . b ' c (I, II, III)

Quetsch, D. c (II, III)

Reuter , H. ( I )

Schmidt , R. (I)

Kernforschungszent rum Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe

Kernforschungsanlage Jülich GmbH, Jülich

Kraf twerk Union AG, Conventional and Nuclear Power Plants, Frankfur t /Main

Kernforschungszent rum Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe

Babcock Brown-Boveri Reak to r GmbH, Mannheim

Wagadarikar, V.K.° (I, II) Rajasthan Atomic Power Project , Nuclear Training Centre, Rajasthan

Santanagobalan, S. (III) Depar tment of Atomic Energy, Power Projects Engineering Division, Bombay

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 489

KOREA, REPUBLIC OF

Chun, S.K. (I , II, III) Korea Atomic Energy Research Inst i tu te , Seoul

MALAYSIA

R a m a n a t h , A. (I) National Electricity Board, Kuala Lumpur

MEXICO

Medina, M. c ( I ) Ins t i tu to de Investigaciones Eléctricas, Mexico

PHILIPPINES

Ibe, L.D.C (I)

Palabrica, R.J. (II, III)

Philippine Atomic Energy Commission, Diliman, Quezon City

Philippine Atomic Energy Commission, Depar tment of Nuclear Training, Diliman, Quezon City

Cerrolaza, J . A . b ' c ( II) Empresa Nacional de Ingeniería y Tecnología S.A., Depar tamento Nuclear, Madrid

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

Yakimov, S. ( I I I ) State Commit tee on t he Utilization of Atomic Energy of the USSR,

Moscow

Chewning, J. ( I l l )

Rogers, L.° (I)

Roman , R.° ( I I )

Depar tment of Energy, Washington, D.C.

Private Consul tant

Argonne National Labora to ry , Center for Educat ional Affairs, Argonne, Illinois

4 9 0 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

I N T E R N A T I O N A L A T O M I C E N E R G Y A G E N C Y

Csik, B. (Chairman, II, III) >

Mautner-Markhof, F.

(Scientif ic Secretary, I, II, III)

Calori, F. (II, III)

Schmidt , R. (II)

Woite, G. (II, III)

Goswami, U. (Chairman, I)

> Division of Nuclear Power and Reactors

Consultant t o IAEA

SUBJECT INDEX

Bid evaluation: 1 2 , 4 2 , 1 3 1 , 1 8 5 , 4 3 0 Bid specifications: 12 ,131

Career development: 468 Commissioning: 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 2 , 9 3 , 1 3 1 , 185,

443 Compensation of personnel: 464 Construction management: 80, 87, 131,

185, 436 Contracting: 42, 131, 185, 430 Conversion: 1 0 8 , 1 1 4 , 4 5 2

Emergency planning: 70, 71, 74, 126, 444 Enrichment: 1 0 8 , 1 1 4 , 4 5 2 Erection of plant buildings and structures:

84, 87, 131, 185, 436 Essential activities of national participation:

Feasibility studies: 12, 38, 41, 131, 185, 426 Fuel fabrication: 108, 114, 131, 452 Fuel management and storage at the power

plant: 1 0 9 , 1 1 4 , 4 5 2 Fuel procurement: 1 0 4 , 1 1 4 , 4 5 2 Fuel transport and off-site storage: 111,

114, 452

Governmental infrastructure: 205, 351

Industrial infrastructure: 206, 355

Licensing and regulation: 1 18, 131, 1 8 5 , 4 5 3

M Manpower and education/training

infrastructures: 209, 355, 360, 368, 3 6 9 , 3 8 9 , 3 9 3 , 4 0 6 , 4 5 4

Manpower development planning and implementation: 130, 368, 372, 3 8 0 , 3 8 3 , 3 8 4 , 4 5 4 , 4 5 7

Manufacturing of equipment and components: 76, 185, 435

Materials, equipment and components: National participation: 214

National experience in national participation and manpower development: 2 1 8 , 2 3 7

National participation planning and co-ordination: 197

Personnel management: 457 Planning nuclear power programmes: 12,

3 6 , 4 1 , 131, 185 ,426 Plant equipment and systems installation: 85,

87, 131, 185, 436 Plant operation and maintenance: 94, 101,

131, 185, 444 Power system expansion planning: 12, 36,

41, 131, 185, 426 Procurement of equipment and materials:

61, 74, 131, 185 Project engineering: 56, 74, 131, 185, 430 Project management (main contractor): 46,

74, 131, 185, 430 Project management (utility): 42, 60, 74,

131, 185, 430 Public information and public relations: 73,

492 SUBJECT INDEX

Q Quality assurance/quality control: 63, 74,

131, 185, 432

Radiological protection and environmental surveillance: 9 9 , 1 0 1 , 4 4 4

Recruitment and selection of manpower: 459 Reprocessing of spent fuel: 112, 114, 4 5 2 Research and development in nuclear power:

1 2 8 , 3 6 7

Safeguards and physical protection: 72, 434 Safety analysis reporting: 67, 74, 4 3 4

Science/technology infrastructure: 207, 355, 367, 409

Site evaluation: 12, 39 , 41 , 131, 185, 4 2 6 Site preparation: 83, 87, 131, 185, 436

Training: foreign: 3 7 2 Training: on-the-job: 365 , 376 Training: specialized: 397, 409

u Uranium exploration, mining and milling:

105, 114, 1 3 1 , 4 5 2

w Waste management: 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 3 1 , 4 5 2

The following conversion table is provided for the convenience of readers and to encourage the use of SI units.

FACTORS FOR CONVERTING SOME OT THE MORE COMMON UNITS TO INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) EQUIVALENTS

NOTES: (1 ) SI base units are the metre (m), kilogram {kg), second (s). ampere (A), kelvin (K), candela (cd) and mole (mol). (2) ^ indicates SI derived units and those accepted for use with SI ;

£> indicates additional units accepted for use with St for a limited time. (For further information see The International System of Units (SI), 1977 ed.. published in English by HMSO, London, and National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC. and International Standards ISO-WOO and the several parts of ISO-31 published by ISO, Geneva. |

(3) The correct abbreviation for the unit in column 1 is given in column 2. (4) -k indicates conversion factors given exactly; other factors are given rounded, mostly to 4 significant figures.

= indicates a definition of an SI derived unit: I j in column 3+4 enclose factors given for the sake of completeness.

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4

Multiply data given in: by: to obtain data in:

Radiation units

• becquerel 1 Bq (has dimensions of s 1 ) disintegrations per second dis/s) 1 s"1 = 1 .00 X 1 0 ° Bq *

> curie 1 Ci = 3 . 7 0 X 1 0 ' ° Bq * > roentgen 1 R = 2 . 5 8 X 10"" C /kg ] *

• gray 1 G y = 1 .00 X 10° J / k g | *

> rad 1 rad = 1 .00 X 10" 2 G y * sievert (radiation protection only1 1 Sv = 1 .00 X 1 0 ° J / k g ] * rem fradiation protection ontyj 1 rem = 1 .00 X 10" 2 J / k g ] *

• un i f ied a tomic mass uni t (T^ of the mass of 1 2 C) 1 u = 1 . 6 6 0 57 X 10" 2 7 kg, approx

• tonne (= metr ic ton) 1 t = 1 .00 X 10 3 kg] *

p o u n d mass (avoirdupois) 1 I b m = 4 . 5 3 6 X 10" 1 kg ounce mass (avoirdupois) 1 o z m = 2 . 8 3 5 X 10 ' 9 ton ( long) (= 2 2 4 0 Ibm) 1 ton = 1 . 0 1 6 X 10 3 kg

ton (short) (= 2 0 0 0 Ibm) 1 short ton = 9 . 0 7 2 X 10 2 kg

Length

statute mite 1 mi le = 1 . 6 0 9 X 1 0 ° k m nautical mi le ( in ternat ional ) 1 n mile = 1 . 8 5 2 X 10° k m *

yard 1 yd = 9 . 1 4 4 X 1 0 " ' m *

foo t 1 f t = 3 . 0 4 8 X 1 0 " ' m * inch 1 in = 2 . 5 4 X 101 m m * mil (= 1 0 " 3 in) 1 mil = 2 .54 X 10" 2 m m *

> hectare 1 ha 1 .00 X 10 4 m 2 ] *

> barn (effective cross-section, nuclear physics) 1 b = 1 .00 X 1 0 " 2 ' m 2 ] *

square mile, (statute m i l e ) 2 1 mi le 2 = 2 . 5 9 0 X 10° k m 2

acre 1 acre = 4 . 0 4 7 X 10 3 m 2

square yard 1 y d ' = 8 . 3 6 1 X 1 0 " ' m 2

square f o o t 1 f t 2 = 9 . 2 9 0 X 10" 2 m 2

square inch 1 in2 = 6 . 4 5 2 X 10 2 m m 2

Volume

• l i tre 1 I or 1 Itr 1 . 00 X 10" 3 m 3 ] *

cubic yard 1 y d 3 = 7 . 6 4 6 X 1 0 " ' m 3

cubic foot 1 f t 3 = 2 . 8 3 2 X 10" 2 m 3

cubic inch 1 in3 = 1 . 6 3 9 X 10" m m 3

gal lon ( imperial ) 1 gal ( U K ) = 4 . 5 4 6 X 1 0 " 3 m 3

gal lon ( U S l iquid) 1 gal ( U S ) 3 . 7 8 5 X 10" 3 m 3

Velocity, acceleration

f o o t per second {= fps) 1 f t / s = 3 . 0 4 8 X 1 0 " ' m/s *

f o o t per m i n u t e 1 f t / m i n = 5 . 0 8 X 10" 3 m/s *

i m i le /h ( 4 . 4 7 0 X 10" ' m/s

mi le per hour ( - m p h ) i m i le /h \ l . 6 0 9 X 10° k m / h

> k n o t ( in ternat ional ) 1 k n o t = 1 . 8 5 2 X 10° k m / h *

f ree fal l , standard, g = 9 . 8 0 7 X 10° m /s 2

f o o t per second squared 1 f t /s 2 = 3 . 0 4 8 X 1 0 " ' m/s 2 *

This table has been prepared by E.R.A. Beck for use by the Division of Publications of the IAEA. While every ef for t has been made to ensure accuracy, the Agency cannot be held responsible for errors arising f rom the use of this table.

C o l u m n 1

Multiply data given in: C o l u m n 2 C o l u m n 3 C o l u m n 4

by: to obtain data in:

Density, volumetric rate

pound mass per cubic inch 1 lbm/in3 = 2.768 X 104 kg/m3

pound mass per cubic foot 1 lbm/f t 3 = 1.602 X 10' kg/m3

cubic feet per second 1 f t 3 /s = 2.832 X 10"2 m3 /s cubic feet per minute 1 f t 3 /min = 4.719 X 10"4 m3 /s

^ newton 1 M 1.00 X 10° m-kg-s dyne 1 dyn = 1.00 X 1 0 ' ! N * kilogram force (= kilopond (kp)) 1 kgf = 9.807 X 10° IM poundal 1 pdl = 1.383 X 10"' N pound force (avoirdupois! 1 Ibf = 4.448 X 10° N ounce force (avoirdupois) 1 ozf = 2.780 X 10"' N

Pressure, stress

^ pascal 1 Pa [ = 1.00 X 10° N /m 2 1 * > atmosphere a, standard 1 atm = 1.013 25 X 10s Pa * > bar 1 bar = 1.00 X 10s Pa *

centimetres of mercury (0°C) 1 cmHg = 1.333 X 103 Pa dyne per square centimetre 1 dyn/cm2 = 1.00 X 10"' Pa * feet of water (4°C) 1 f t H j O = 2.989 X 103 Pa inches of mercury (0°C) 1 inHg = 3.386 X 103 Pa inches of water (4°C) 1 i n H j O = 2.491 X 102 Pa kilogram force per square centimetre 1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 X 104 Pa pound force per square foot 1 lbf / f t 2 4.788 X 10' Pa pound force per square inch (= psi) ^ 1 Ibf/ in2 = 6.895 X 103 Pa torr tO°C) mmHg) 1 torr = 1.333 X 1 0 1 Pa

Energy, work, quantity of heat

^ joule ( = W-s) 1 J I= 1.00 X 10° N m ] * ^ electronvolt 1 eV l = 1.602 19 X 1 0 " " J, approx.]

British thermal unit (International Table) 1 Btu = 1.055 X 103 J calorie (thermochemical) 1 cal = 4.184 X 10° J * calorie (International Table) 1 cal IT = 4.187 X 10° J erg 1 erg = 1.00 X 10" ' J #

foot-pound force 1 f t - Ib f = 1.356 X 10° J kilowatt-hour 1 k W ' h = 3.60 X 106 J -X-kiloton explosive yield (PNE) ( = 10' 2 g-cal) 1 kt yield — 4.2 X 10' 2 J

Power, radiant flux

^ watt 1 W [ = 1.00 X 10° J/s] *

British thermal unit (International Table) per second 1 Btu/s = 1.055 X 103 W calorie (International Table) per second 1 cal|T /s = 4.187 X 10° W foot-pound force/second 1 f t l b f / s = 1.356 X 10° W horsepower (electric) 1 hp = 7.46 X 102 W * horsepower (metric) (= ps) 1 ps = 7.355 X 102 W horsepower (550 ft ' Ibf/s) 1 hp = 7.457 X 102 W

Temperature

• temperature in degrees Celsius, t where T is the thermodynamic temperature in kelvin and T 0 is defined as 273.15 K

degree Fahrenheit degree Rankine degrees of temperature difference^

Thermal conductivity c

1 B t u i n / ( f t 2 - s - ° F )

1 B tu / ( f rs - °F>

1 cal ( T / (cnvs-°C)

(International Table Btu) (International Table Btu)

t o F - 3 2

A T , f i (= Ato,

t (in degrees Celsius) * T (in kelvin) * AT {= At) *

= 5.192 X 102

= 6.231 X 103

= 4.187 X 102

W m • K" W r t T ' K " W m"' K"

atm abs, ata: atmospheres absolute; lbf/ in2 (g) (= psig): gauge pressure; atm (g), atü: atmospheres gauge. Ibf/in2 abs (= psia): absolute pressure. The abbreviation for temperature difference, deg (= degK = degC), is no longer acceptable as an SI unit.

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