Post on 28-Dec-2015
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Do Now
Look at the picture for 3 minutes. Then answer the questions
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AIM: How do we store memories?
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How does memory relate to learning?
1. Memory is an indication that learning has persisted over time.
2. Learning is acquisition, memory is retention
3. Memory is our ability to store and retrieve information.
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Flashbulb Memory-Results from unique or emotional moment -results in a clear, strong memory
Rut
ers/
Cor
bis
However, this memory is not free from errors.
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A G D F B ZT M Y
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Sensory Memory
• Split second storage for incoming stimuli– Iconic memory
• fleeting perfect photograph of a scene
• Lasts about 1/10th of a second
– Echoic memory- memory for sounds• Lasts about 3/10th of a second
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Stages of Memory
Keyboard(Encoding)
Disk(Storage)
Monitor(Retrieval)
Sequential Process
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Three-stage Model (Information Processing)
The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) short-
term memory, and c) long-term memory.
Bob
Dae
mm
rich
/ The
Im
age
Wor
ks
Bob
Dae
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rich
/ The
Im
age
Wor
ks
Fra
nk W
arte
nber
g/ P
ictu
re P
ress
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orbi
s
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Sensory Memory: only some sensory input is encoded into short-term
memory, most is lost….
Why do we encode certain sensory info into short-term?
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Short term memory lasts 10-30 seconds but can be expanded
Long term memory last minutes, days, hours, weeks, years
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FeatureSensoryMemory
Short-term
Working Memory
LTM
Capacity Unlimited 7 +/- 2Very very
large
Duration
Do Now: Fill in the table below
FeatureSensoryMemory
Working Memory
LTM
Capacity Unlimited7±2
ChunksVery Large
Duration 0.20 sec. 20 sec. Years
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Typewriter
VoidCigarette
Inherent
Fire
Process
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Working Memory
Alan Baddeley (2002) proposes that working memory contains auditory and
visual processing
AIM: How can we encode memories?
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Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode1. Automatic Processing: Some
information is automatically encoded a) Spaceb) Timec) Frequency (how often things
happen)
2. Effortful Processing: However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.
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Effortful Processing
Long lasting memories
Spencer G
rant/ Photo E
dit
© B
ananastock/ Alam
y
How can we effortfully process memories?
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1) Rehearsal
Effortful learning usually requires
rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus(1850-1909)
http://ww
w.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
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Rote or Maintenance Rehearsal (repeating to
commit to memory)
The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on
Day 1,the fewer repetitions
were required to remember them on
Day 2.
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What We Encode
1. Encoding by meaning (semantic coding)
2. Encoding by images3. Encoding by organization
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Levels of Processing Theory of Memory
Q: Did the word begin with a capital letter?
StructuralEncoding
Q: Did the word rhyme with the word “weight”?
Q: Would the word fit in the sentence? He met a __________ in the street.
PhonemicEncoding
SemanticEncoding
“Whale”
Craik and Lockhart (1972)
Intermediate
Deep
Shallow
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Semantic Encoding: Encoding using meaning
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Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially
when combined with semantic encoding.
Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.
Both photos: H
o/AP Photo
Do Now: Pass forward Psych SimWhat is MAINTENANCE
REHEARSAL? How does it differ from ELABORATIVE ENCODING?
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Whole Report
The exposure time for the stimulus is so smallthat items cannot be rehearsed.
R G TF M QL Z S
50 ms (1/20 second)
“Recall”R T M Z
(44% recall)
Sperling (1960)
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Partial Report
Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
“Recall”J R S
(100% recall)
Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally
thought.
50 ms (1/20 second)
S X TJ R SP K Y
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Time Delay
“Recall”N _ _
(33% recall)
TimeDelay
50 ms (1/20 second)
A D IN L VO G H
Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
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Sensory Memory
The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.
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40
60
80
Perc
en
t R
ecog
niz
ed
0.15 0.30 0.50 1.00
Time (Seconds)
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Sensory Memories
Iconic0.5 sec. long
Echoic3-4 sec. long
Hepatic< 1 sec. long
The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
AIM: Why do we remember some information….
And forget the rest?
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Memory Effects1. Next-in-line-Effect: When you are so
anxious about being next that you cannot remember what the person just before you in line says
2. Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time.
3. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.a. primacy effect- beginningb. recency effect- later info
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Spacing Effect
Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better than practicing all at once.
ACQUAINTED WITH THE NIGHTRobert Frost
I have been one acquainted with the night.I have walked out in rain — and back in
rain.I have outwalked the furthest city light.
… …
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Serial Position Effect
1. TUV2. ZOF3. GEK4. WAV5. XOZ6. TIK7. FUT8. WIB9. SAR10. POZ11. REY12. GIJ
Better recall
Better recall
Poor recall
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Mnemonics
Mnemonic techniques are memory devices
1. Method of Loci
2. “Pegword System”
3. Chunking4. Hierarchy
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Method of Loci
List of Items
CharcoalPensBed SheetsHammer...Rug
Imagined Locations
BackyardStudyBedroomGarage...Living Room
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Link Method
Involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together.
List of Items
NewspaperShaving creamPenUmbrella...Lamp
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Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide
them
Organizing Information for Encoding
1. Chunking
2. Hierarchy
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GHA TUV SOW RRT
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MTV FBI WTF LOL
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Chunking
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below.
1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together
and see if you can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.
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Chunking
Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
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Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided
into categories and subcategories.
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Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy
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Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown
below:SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
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Sensory Memory
SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
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Working Memory
SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
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Working Memory Duration
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Long-Term Memory
SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
AIM: How do we store memories?
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmzU47i2xgw
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Long-Term Memory
Unlimited capacity store. Estimates on capacity range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits
of information (Landauer, 1986).
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches ofburied pine seeds during winter and spring.
R.J. E
rwin/ Photo R
esearchers
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Storing Memories in the Brain
1. Through electrical stimulation of the brain, Wilder Penfield concluded that old memories were etched into the brain.
2. Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze.
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Synaptic Changes
In Aplysia serotonin release from neurons increases after conditioning.
Photo: S
cientific Am
erican
Do Now: What is meant by the term “Long Term Potentiation?”
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Synaptic Changes
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)=
synaptic enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002). An increase in
neurotransmitter release or receptors
indicates strengthening of
synapses.
Both P
hotos: From
N. T
oni et al., Nature, 402, N
ov. 25 1999. Courtesy of D
ominique M
uller
AIM: How are memories stored in the brain?
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Stress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Continued stress may disrupt memory.
Scott Barbour/ G
etty Images
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Types of MemoryExplicit Memory refers to facts and
experiences that one can consciously know and declare.
Implicit (procedural) memory how to do something, a skill Example: Riding a bike
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Types of MemoryImplicit (procedural) memory how to do
something, a skill Example: Riding a bike
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Explicit= DeclarativeImplicit= Procedural
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Types of Explicit MemoryEpisodic- autobiographical events personally experiencedExample: When is your birthday?Semantic: Words, Ideas, ConceptsExample: What is the capital of France?
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Classify each as implicit or explicit memory.If it is explicit, indicate if it is semantic or episodic.• Knowing how to tie your shoe- • The history of your grandparent-• How to cook-• Typing-• Your last summer vacation- • The causes of World War Two-• What you ate during lunch-• The sound of the school bell causing you to
instinctively reach for your backpack:
Do Now: Quiz
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AIM: How do we retrieve memories from our long-term storage?
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Hippocampus
Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbicsystem that processes explicit memories.
Weidenfield &
Nicolson archives
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No New Memories
Anterograde Amnesia
AnterogradeAmnesia
(HM)Surgery
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) suffered from anterograde amnesia: he remembers
everything before the operation but cannot make new memories.
Retrograde amnesia: lose old memories, can still form new onesMemory Intact
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Implicit Memory
HM is unable to make new memories that aredeclarative (explicit), but he can form newmemories that are procedural (implicit).
CBA
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Cerebellum
Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories.
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Amygdala
Recent studies show the amygdala is involved in processing emotional memories
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmzU47i2xgw
Do Now: 1. What is long-term potentiation?2. How can stress have two different effects on memory?
AIM: Why do we forget?
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Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.
Spanky’s Yearbook A
rchive
Spanky’s Yearbook A
rchive
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Measures of Memory
In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A
multiple-choice test requires recognition.)Given prime: cue
1. Name the capital of France.
a. Brusselsb. Romec. Londond. Paris
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Measures of Memory
In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the
blank test requires recall.)
1. The capital of France is ______.
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Measures of Memory
In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when
learning material for the second time.
ListJetDaggerTreeKite…SilkFrogRing
It took 10 trialsto learn this list
ListJetDaggerTreeKite…SilkFrogRing
It took 5 trialsto learn the list
1 day laterSaving
OriginalTrials
RelearningTrials
OriginalTrials
10 510
50%
X 100
X 100
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Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a semantic web of associations.
Fire Truck
truck
red
fire
heatsmoke
smellwater
hose
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Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must prime it:
activate one of the strands that leads to it.
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: instance of
knowing something but being unable to place the word, due to a failure of retrieve
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Context Effects
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while
they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land
Fred McC
onnaughey/ Photo Researchers
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Moods and StatesMood-congruent memory: We recall experiences
that are consistent with our current mood. State-dependent Memory: We recall events while
in certain states of consciousnessJorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures
Both moods and states serve as retrieval cues.
Why do we forget?
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Forgetting
An inability to retrieve information due to:
1) Poor encoding- not semantically encoded (no meaning)
2) Poor storage3) Poor retrieval- unable to bring into
working memory
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Encoding Failure
We cannot remember what we do not encode.
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Which penny is real?
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Storage DecayPoor durability of stored memories
leads to their decay. (Level of Processing Model)- we tend to store deeply processed memories
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Retrieval Failure
Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed.
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins
with an H (hemoglobin).
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InterferenceLearning some new information may disrupt
retrieval of other information.Proactive Interference: earlier information will interfere with later learned information
Retroactive Interference: recently learned information interferes with earlier information
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Retroactive Interference
Sleep prevents retroactive interference. Therefore, itleads to better recall.
Do Now:
• Contrast retroactive and proactive interference
AIM: Can we intentionally forget?
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Motivated Forgetting
Motivated Forgetting: People unknowingly revise their memories.
Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
Sigmund Freud
Culver Pictures
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Why do we forget?
Forgetting can occur at any
memory stage
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Memory Construction
While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to
make our recall more coherent.
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's
memory of an event.
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Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event.
Misinformation and Imagination Effects
Depiction of the actual accident.
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Misinformation
Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
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Memory Construction
A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A
(hit).
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Source Amnesia
Source Amnesia: Attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced,
heard, read, or imagined (misattribution).
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Discerning True & False Memories
Just like true perception and illusion, real memories and memories that seem real
are difficult to discern.
When students formed a happy or angry memory ofmorphed (computer blended) faces, they made
the (computer assisted) faces (a), either happier or (b) angrier.
© Sim
on Niedsenthal
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Repressed or Constructed?Some adults actually do forget childhood episodes of abuse.
False Memory SyndromeA condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of a traumatic experience, which is sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists.
False Memories
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Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if leading questions are posed.
However, if cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the accuracy of their
recall increases.
Children’s Eyewitness Recall
Exam: Memory, Cognition, and Language
Chapter 9 and Chapter 10- FridayMidyear: Chapters 1- Chapter 12Self-shaping Project: January 14th
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Do Now: How would you define “Thinking?” Do animals think? Do men and women think differently?
AIM: How do we think?
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Thinking
Thinking, or cognition: a process that involves knowing, understanding,
remembering, and communicating.
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Concept
The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
•Schemas•Example: Chair
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Prototypes
We may base our concepts on prototypes – the most typical example of a concept
Triangle definition) Bird (mental image)
Daniel J. C
ox/ Getty Im
ages
J. Messerschm
idt/ The Picture C
ube
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Categories
Once we place an item in a category, our memory shifts toward the category
prototype.
Courtesy of O
liver Corneille
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Problem Solving
There are two ways to solve problems:
1)Algorithms: Methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantee solving a particular problem.2) Heuristics
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Algorithms
S P L O Y O C H Y G
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,208 possibilities.
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Heuristics
Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that
allow us to make judgments and solve problems
efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-
prone than algorithms.
B2M
Productions/D
igital Version/G
etty Images
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Heuristics
Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems.
S P L O Y O C H Y GS P L O Y O C H G YP S L O Y O C H G YP S Y C H O L O G Y
Put a Y at the end, and see if the wordbegins to make sense.
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Insight
Insight involves a sudden novel
realization of a solution to a
problem.
Grande using boxes toobtain food
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Insight
Insight activates the right temporal cortex
From M
ark Jung-Beekm
an, Northw
estern U
niversity and John Kounios, D
rexel University
Insight Problems
• What occurs once in every minute, twice in every moment, yet never in a thousand years?
• What is so unusual about the sentence below?
(Aside from the fact it does not make a lot of
sense.) “Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.”
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Obstacles in Solving Problems
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias.
Example: Multiple Choice
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Fixation
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. Two examples of fixation are mental set and functional
fixedness.
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Mental Set
A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if that way was
successful in the past.
The Matchstick Problem: How
would you arrange six matches to form
four equilateral triangles?
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The Matchstick Problem: Solution
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Functional Fixedness
A tendency to think only of the familiar functions of an object.
Problem: Tie the two ropes together. Use a screw driver, cotton balls and a matchbox.
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Functional Fixedness
Use the screwdriver as a weight, and tie it to the end of one rope. Swing it toward
the other rope to tie the knot.
The inability to think of the screwdriver as a weight isfunctional fixedness.
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Heuristics
1) representative heuristics 2) availability heuristics
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Probability that that person is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just because there are more truck drivers than
such professors.
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent a particular prototype.
If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think his profession would be?
An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?
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Availability HeuristicAvailability Heuristic: judging a situation
based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially
How is retrieval facilitated?1. How recently we have heard about the
event.2. How distinct it is.3. How correct it is.
Do Now: Distinguish between AVAILIABILITY HEURISTIC and REPRESENTATIVE HEURISTIC
The easier it is for people to remember an instance in which they were betrayed by a friend, the more they expect such an event to recur. This best illustrates the impact of: a. framing. b. the representativeness heuristic. c. functional fixedness. d. the availability heuristic.
A defense attorney emphasizes to a jury that her client works full-time, supports his family, and enjoys leisure-time hobbies. Although none of this information is relevant to the trial, it is designed to make the defendant appear to be a typical member of the local community. The lawyer is most clearly seeking to take advantage of: a. confirmation bias. b. functional fixedness. c. belief perseverance. d. the representativeness heuristic.
What are some impediments to problem solving?
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Overconfidence
Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs
and judgments.
Example: stock market
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Exaggerated Fear
Exaggerated fearirrationalparanoia
AP
/ Wide W
orld Photos
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Framing Decisions
Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon
how an issue is framed or worded.
Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?
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Belief Bias
Making illogical conclusions in order to confirm our preexisting beliefs
Example: Democrats support free speech
Dictators are not democratsTherefore, Dictators do not support
free speech
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Belief Perseverance
Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary
evidence.
Example: Creationism vs Evolutionists
1. Brutus believes that men enjoy watching professional football and that women are categorically distinct from men. His gender stereotypes are so strong, however, that he mistakenly reasons from these premises the illogical conclusion that women do not enjoy watching professional football. His reasoning difficulty best illustrates: a. the framing effect. b. the availability heuristic. c. belief bias.d. functional fixedness.
2. When her professor failed to recognize that Judy had her hand raised for a question, Judy began to think her professor was unfriendly. Although she subsequently learned that the professor’s limited vision kept him from seeing her raised hand, she continued thinking the professor was unfriendly. Judy’s reaction best illustrates: a. the framing effect. b. belief perseverance. c. functional fixedness.d. category hierarchies.
Convergent and Divergent Thinking
• Convergent Thinking- thinking pointed towards one solution– Left hemisphere
Example: 4x+2= 8
• Divergent Thinking
-more than one solution
- creative thinkingExample: Literary analysis
How does cognition relate to language?
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Language
Language is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves and others.
Language transmits culture.
M. &
E. B
ernheim/ W
oodfin Cam
p & A
ssociates
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Language Structure
Phonemes: The smallest distinct sound unit in a spoken language. For example:
bat, has three phonemes b · a · t
chat, has three phonemes ch · a · t
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Language Structure
Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries a meaning. For example:
Milk = milkPumpkin = pumpkin
Unforgettable = un · for · get · tableUn
ForgetAble
How many morpheme and phonemes are in the following
words:• Screwdriver
• Chimps
• Psychology (ooo tricky!!!)
Do Now: Review homework
AIM: How do humans develop language?
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Structuring Language
Phrase
Sentence
Meaningful units (290,500) … meat, pumpkin.Words
Smallest meaningful units (100,000) … un, for.
Morphemes
Basic sounds (about 40) … ea, sh.Phonemes
Composed of two or more words (326,000) … meat eater.
Composed of many words (infinite) … She opened the jewelry box.
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Grammar
Grammar is the system of rules in a language
Grammar
SyntaxSemantics
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Semantics
Semantics is the set of rules by which we derive meaning from sentences.
Example: Semantic rule tells us that adding –ed to the word laugh means that
it happened in the past.Adding an “S” makes a word plural
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Syntax
Syntax consists of the rules for ordering words into grammatical sentences.
In English we say white house. In Spanish, it is reversed; casa blanca.
“You are welcome to visit the cemetery where famous composers, artists, and
writers are buried daily except Thursday”
Syntax FAIL
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How many new words do we learn a day?
We learn, on average (after age 1), 3,500
words a year, amassing 60,000
words by the time we graduate from high
school.
Tim
e Life Pictures/ G
etty Images
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When do we learn language?
Babbling Stage:-Beginning at 4 months-spontaneously uttering of sounds (ah-goo.)-not imitation of adult speech.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RuMdIxKnqz8
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When do we learn language?
One-Word Stage: Beginning around his/her first birthday, a child starts to speak one word at a time
157
When do we learn language?
Two-Word Stage: -Starts Before Year Two-Telegraphic speech (the child speaks like a telegram)
“Go car,” means I would like to go for a ride in the car.
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When do we learn language?
2 years: Longer phrases with syntactical sense, and by early elementary school they are employing humor.
You never starve in the desert because of all the sand-which-is there.
Overgeneralization
After 2 years of age, children may incorrectly follow the rules of grammar:
Overgeneralization or overregularization
Examples: “I goed to the store”
“I runned outside”
“There were lots of mouses”
160
When do we learn language?
What is the critical period for language?
Up to 7 years
Two Theories for Language Development
• Behaviorists– We develop language by imitating sounds
• Nativists– Biological Predisposition for Language
163
Explaining Language Development: Behaviorism
1. Operant Learning: Skinner (1957, 1985) -language development may be explained on the basis of learning principles
A. ImitationB. Reward/Punishment
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Explaining Language Development: Nativist
2. Language Acquisition Device: A. Linguist Noam ChomskyB. Children born with innate ability to gather rules of languageC. Contrary to “blank slate”D. Critical Period
Proof for Language Acquisition
• All languages have grammar rules
• Children overgeneralize use morphemes in predictable orders: “go-ed,”
• Genes in twin studies
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Explaining Language Development
Statistical Learning and Critical Periods: -- brains statistically analyze which syllables in go together. Example: hap-py-ba-by-Statistical analyses are learned during critical periods.
167
Language & AgeLearning new languages gets harder with age.
Language & Thinking
Language and thinking intricately intertwine.
Rubber B
all/ Alm
ay
Language Influences Thinking
Linguistic Determinism: Whorf (1956) suggested that language determines the way we think.
Language Influences Thinking
When a language provides words for objects or events, we can think about
these objects more clearly and remember them
Balanced Bilinguals are superior to monolinguals in terms of:
• Cognitive flexibility
• Concept formation
• Creativity
• Better ability to learn more languages
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Problem Solving
Apes are famous, much like us, for solving problems.
Chimpanzee fishing for ants.
Courtesy of Jennifer B
yrne, c/o Richard B
yrne, D
epartment of P
sychology, University of S
t. Andrew
s, Scotland
173
Animal Culture
Animals display customs and culture that are learned and transmitted over generations.
Dolphins using sponges asforging tools.
Chimpanzee mother using andteaching a young how to use
a stone hammer.
Copyright A
manda K
Coakes
Michael N
ichols/ National G
eographic Society
174
Mental States
Can animals infer mental states in themselves and others?
To some extent. Chimps and orangutans (and dolphins) used mirrors to inspect
themselves when a researcher put paint spots on their faces or bodies.
175
Do Animals Exhibit Language?
There is no doubt that animals
communicate.
Vervet monkeys, whales and even
honey bees communicate with members of their species and other
species.Rico (collie) has a
200-word vocabulary
Copyright B
aus/ Kreslow
ski
176
The Case of Apes
Chimps do not have a vocal apparatus for human-like speech (Hayes & Hayes,1951).
Therefore, Gardner and Gardner (1969) used American Sign Language (ASL) to train Washoe, a chimp, who learned 182
signs by the age of 32.
177
Gestured Communication
Animals, like humans, exhibit communication through gestures. It is
possible that vocal speech developed from gestures during the course of evolution.
178
Sign Language
American Sign Language (ASL) is instrumental in teaching chimpanzees
a form of communication.
When asked, this chimpanzee usesa sign to say it is a baby.
Paul Fusco/ Magnum
Photos
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Computer Assisted Language
Others have shown that bonobo pygmy chimpanzees can develop even greater
vocabularies and perhaps semantic nuances in learning a language (Savage-Rumbaugh, 1991). Kanzi and Panbanish developed vocabulary for
hundreds of words and phrases.
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reat Ape T
rust of Iowa